Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1, June 2014
KDN PP5476/10/2012 (030203) ISSN 0126-513X
Z., Zahrizan1; Nasly, Mohamed Ali1; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron1; Amanda Marshall-Ponting2; and Zuhairi, Abd. Hamid3
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Gambang, Kuantan
2
School of Build Environment, University of Salford Manchester, Salford, United Kingdom
3
Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM),
Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), Cheras, Kuala Lumpur
ABSTRACT
In Malaysia, Building Information Modelling (BIM) has recently gained attraction from construction players and
some of them have applied it to several projects. By utilising the BIM process, the construction players have the
opportunity to plan, coordinate and design in an integrated approach. This is one of the many benefits that they could
gain and resulting in increased productivity. Despite these benefits, the implementation of BIM in the Malaysian
construction industry is still lagging behind Singapore, for instance. Thus, it warrants a study such as the present to
determine what are the actual barriers that hamper its implementation and what are the driving factors that could
enhance its pace of implementation in the Malaysian construction industry. In this study, a questionnaire survey
based on Convenience Sampling Method was carried out to gather the possible barriers and driving factors for
BIM implementation among the Malaysian construction players. Additionally, Relative Importance Indices (RII)
were used to analyse the data obtained and to identify those barriers and driving factors for the implementation of
BIM in this country. Consequently, results of this study revealed that the main barriers for implementing the BIM
are: 1) Lack of knowledge about BIM, 2) Reluctance and/or no insistence shown by the Malaysian construction
industry players (Clients, Contractors and Consultants alike) on the use or implementation of BIM. The driving
factors, on the other hand, that could lead to the speeding up of the implementation of BIM are: 1) Support and
enforcing the implementation of BIM by the Government, 2) promote BIM training program and 3) Initiatives of
senior management of the related industry players. In conclusion, for successful wide spread application of BIM
in Malaysia, a good push from the government alone is far from enough. All other construction industry players
mentioned must assume their roles well in promoting the use of BIM in their construction projects.
Keywords: Building Information Modelling, BIM, Malaysian Construction Industry, Barriers, Driving Factors
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 1
Z., Zahrizan; Nasly, Mohamed Ali; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron;
Amanda Marshall-Ponting; and Zuhairi, Abd Hamid
In order to improve the traditional approach in construction projects. In general, BIM can be viewed as
the construction industry, Information Technology/ a single respiratory system that supplies and receives any
Information System (IT/IS) can be utilised to increase the information in digital form related to construction projects.
productivities and transforms the Malaysian construction
industry. Researchers [3, 4 and 5] have discussed the
benefits of IT/IS applications. The benefits that could 3.0 The Challenges in implementing
be gained by implementing IT/IS are enhancing the Building Information Modelling
communication between parties, assisting in the decision (BIM)
making process, sharing updated information and There are many benefits that BIM can offer to the
accessing the information with ease [3, 4 and 5]. Realising Malaysian construction industry, especially in enhancing
these benefits, the government of Malaysia has been the communication between different parties in
promoting and pushing the industry to adopt and utilise IT/ construction projects. BIM is able to streamline and
IS in order to achieve the developed country status by the aids clear communication between client, consultant and
year 2020 [6]. Despite the numerous benefits that could be contractor in construction projects by providing a single
gained by the construction industry, Stewart & Mohamed respiratory system for exchanging digital information in
[7] found that the construction industry in Malaysia still one or more agreed format. Khanzode & Fisher [13] and
lags behind other industries in terms of implementing IT/ Azhar et al. [14] believe that, this approach can reduce
IS. This happens because the return in IT investments errors associated with inconsistent and uncoordinated
does not seem to be attractive. There are numerous factors project documents because BIM is capable of carrying
to this and the objective of this paper is to explore the information which are related to the building either
barriers and the driving factors that could contribute to its physical or functional characteristics. Furthermore,
implementing the new information technology especially Kymmell [12] and Taylor & Bernstein [11] believed
Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian that visualisation is one of the benefits gained when
construction industry. implementing BIM. The visualisation could help parties
that are involved in the construction projects to gain better
understanding of what they construct by creating detailed
2.0 Building Information Modelling 3D view. Kymmell [12] added that one of the critical tasks
(BIM): An Overview in Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing (MEP) design
BIM can be viewed as a combination of advanced process is clash detection and without having good visualisation
and technology that offers a platform for collaboration tools, this task will consume time. Traditionally, in 2D
between different parties in the construction project by drawing, clash detection process is done by overlaying
exploiting the uses of Information Technology (IT). In 2D plan drawings to visualize the location of the system
the Malaysian construction industry, many construction components in 3D space. However, by the exploitations of
players regard BIM as a new technology because it is 3D parametric modelling between architect and structural
not widely used. Traditionally, a 2D design that has been engineer, this task can be done within a short time and
approved for construction will be checked manually. This is more accurate compared to traditional method. Other
method will consume time especially for complex designs. benefits that are gained by the utilisation of BIM are in
This traditional method involves manually checking for terms of cost estimating and planning and scheduling
discrepancies in designs depending on the complexity when the information on BIM incorporated time and cost.
of the designs. BIM can be referred as the process of In terms of cost estimating, BIM can facilitate quantity
creating and using 3D parametric computer-aided-design surveyor quantifying the cost and the material of the
(CAD) technologies for design that allows the exchanges projects in shorter time which can be reduced up to 80%
of information within a construction project team in a compared to traditional methods [14].
digital format [8, 9, 10 and 11]. This model can be passed Despite the numerous benefits from the utilisation of
digitally between consultants in the construction projects BIM, review of literature also has identified the factors
and the more important thing is that the model that is impeded the pace in implementing BIM in construction
created using BIM has a pool of information and is enabled industry. Griffith et al. [15], OBrien [16] and Whyte &
with clash detection software to ensure coordination Bouchlaghem [17] believe that, the failure to implement
[12]. This approach is not only faster, but can reduce the new information technology (IT) in construction industry
chance of human error to a minimum. This model can be happens because of technical issues rather than social
passed to the contractor for estimating and planning the issues such as lack of technical expertise, the complexity
2 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Exploring the Barriers and Driving Factors in Implementing Building Information
Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry: A Preliminary Study
of the system and lack of support system. However, guarantee that each person participating in the organisation
Ruikar et al. [18] and Rojas & Locsin [19] have a different has the required technology and skill, therefore, the
view where they believe that people also play a part as the organisation could establish a technical support group
major barrier to implementing new IT in the construction to cater these problems and to solve any problems that
industry. Martinko et al. [20] added that, the failure in arise. This technical support group could disseminate their
changing people behaviour to handle new tools is the knowledge among the staff within an organisation and
most prominent factor of why people are reluctant to this activity could spread the spirit of knowledge sharing
adopt new technology. A survey done by Khemlani [21] among them. Support from the authority also plays a
revealed that the primary obstacles in implementing BIM significant role to promote the implementation of new IT.
is the resistance from employees who are reluctant to learn The authority could come out with an interactive package
something new and challenges because of their beliefs and to any construction players who are willing to implement
complacency with current status. new IT [26; 21 and 27].
Meanwhile, Stephenson, P. & Blaza, S. [22] and Love On top of cost, compatibility and complexity of the
et al. [23] added, besides the factors of technology and technology are also the factors that influence the adoption
people, the failure in implementing new technology is of new technology. Cost is a more subjective issue because
because of organisational problems. Some organisations it requires external factors such as regulations imposed by
are reluctant to change their business process because the government or clients. To increase the pace of adoption
they are afraid that by changing their business process, of new IT, higher compatibility and more user-friendly
it involves cost and jeopardises their established process technology are the characteristics that the technology
because they cannot accept the uncertainty. Some people must have [28] because, it is easy for people to accept and
in that organisation feel that the technology will take over use new technology if they are familiar with it. Besides,
their roles and feel anxiety towards changes especially the time required for training can be reduced.
when new technology is involved and this happens
because not many managers understand how to manage
technological change. Many organisations believe that 4.0 Methodology
implementing BIM will affect their established business In this study, an exploratory survey was used to discover
processes because implementing new technology will and identify the relative importance of the barriers and
reshape their business processes and during this process, the driven factors in implementing Building Information
productivity will suffer because the transition process from Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry
fragmented to collaborative in nature will put the project from the perception of clients, consultants and contractors.
outcomes and clients expectations at risk [24]. The survey questionnaire consists of three sections. The
To reduce the resistance from people to change, first section was to identify the respondents profile.
support from top management is very crucial [25] because The second section of the questionnaire focused on the
during the migration to a new technology, the role of barriers factors in implementing BIM and the last section
top management is very important to formulate the of the questionnaire was designed to identify the relative
strategies and direction of the organisation in adopting importance of the driving factors in implementing BIM.
new technology. This action shows the commitment of In order to identify the relative importance of the
the organisation in adopting new technology and it will barriers in implementing BIM, there was a total of 15
motivate their workers to implement new technology. variables used while to identify the relative importance
Motivation of the organisation is one of the approaches of the driving factors in implementing BIM, there was a
to reduce the resistance from people. Motivation by the total of 19 variables used and these variables were grouped
organisation could be one of the factors to build up self- into two categories: External Push and Internal Push. All
confidence to motivate individuals to use IT applications these variables were selected from the literature. The
[16]. According to Stewart & Mohamed [7] lack of respondents were asked to select their choices through
knowledge and skill in using the new technology could open-ended questions by ticking a column of the relative
lead to a hindrance of implementing new technology importance of each of the question. A five-point Likert
besides contributing to low self-confidence, therefore, a scale ranging from 1 which represented the least important
proper training provided by the organisation could reduce to 5 which represented the most important was being used
the resistance from people in the implementation. Training to capture the importance of the barriers and the driving
is one of the factors that could increase the pace in adopting factors in implementing Building Information Modelling
new IT, but according to Eastman et al. [9], it is hard to (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 3
Z., Zahrizan; Nasly, Mohamed Ali; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron;
Amanda Marshall-Ponting; and Zuhairi, Abd Hamid
Convenience sampling method was used although 5.0 Findings and Discussion
this approach has its potential for bias. However, after 5.1 Barriers in Implementing Building
considering that this is a preliminary study, convenience Information Modelling (BIM)
sampling was considered appropriate [29]. The samples
Table 2 illustrates the relative importance indices and the
addresses were obtained from the company which
rank for factors that hinder the implementation of BIM in
registered with Construction Industry and Development
the Malaysian construction industry by all respondents.
Board (CIDB), a board of architects and engineers. The
From Table 2, the top five most important factors that
questionnaire was distributed via email to the 150 potential
hinder the implementation of BIM are (1) Lack of
respondents at all levels in their organisations. Out of
knowledge about BIM (RII = 0.950), (2) Clients do not
the 150 potential respondents, 50 sets of questionnaire
request/enforce BIM (RII = 0.950), (3) Reluctance from
were sent to clients, 50 sets to contractors and 50 set to
clients, contractors or consultants to implement BIM (RII
consultants.
= 0.875), (4) BIM is not required by other team members
As shown in Table 1, out of the 150 questionnaires that
(RII = 0.838) and (5) Lack of data of Return on Investment
were sent, 48 firms responded, thus, giving a response rate
of BIM (RII = 0.833).
of 32%. The response rate was considered average and
Lack of knowledge about BIM could contribute
acceptable because according to Frohlich [30], the normal
to the resistance in implementing BIM because in the
average response rates for an organisational survey are
construction industry it involves various parties. Without
about 30 to 40 percent since the middle of 1990. Therefore,
significant knowledge about BIM, each party is reluctant
considering that this is a preliminary study, the response
to use BIM because they believe that new technology such
rate gathered from the clients, contractors and consultants
as BIM technology is difficult to learn and could increase
which was 32% was considered appropriate.
the operating cost. The lack of knowledge about BIM in
The low response from the respondents happened due
terms of benefit to the operation and maintenance phase
to their unawareness or they did not know of the existence
in the projects life cycle has a significant role on why
or the term, BIM, especially for clients (response rate of
clients, consultants, contractors and others parties that
8%) and contractors (response rate of 14%).
are involved in construction projects are reluctant to use
Table 1: Respondents Profile and Response Rate BIM in their construction projects. In addition, lack of
measurable data to measure the benefits and return from
Respondents Questionnaire Responses Percentage the investments in information technologies also plays a
distributed returned of
major role to their reluctance.
responses
On the other hand, the three least important factors
Clients 50 4 8%
that could hinder the implementation of BIM are (1) BIM
Consultants 50 37 74%
is too expensive (RII = 0.592), (2) Lack of training of
Contractors 50 7 14%
BIM software (RII = 0.608) and (3) BIM lacks features
TOTAL 150 48 32% or flexibility to create a building model/drawing (RII
= 0.650). For the weakest factors, the respondents
4.1 Method of Data Analysis believe that the cost to purchase the BIM technology is
not so expensive compared to the benefits that can be
The RII was calculated using the following formula:
gained by utilising the BIM technology. On top of that,
Pi Ui the respondents do not believe that BIM technology is
RII = (1)
N(n) lacking the flexibility to create a building model/drawing
compared to the traditional 3 dimensional modelling
Where:
(3D) such as AutoCAD. They found out that creating a
RII = Relative Importance Indices
3D model is easier using BIM technology compared to
Pi = Respondents rating
the traditional 3D [8]. The respondents also believed that
Ui = Number of respondents placing an identical
in the Malaysian construction industry, organisations are
weighting/rating
willing to send their staff to undergo related training in
N = Sample size
order to enhance their knowledge and skills, therefore,
n = The highest attainable score (in this study n is 5)
lacking in BIM training is not a factor that could hinder
The value for RII ranges from 0 to 1 and the factors which the implementation of BIM in the Malaysian construction
scored the highest value of RII are the most important industry.
factors.
4 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Exploring the Barriers and Driving Factors in Implementing Building Information
Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry: A Preliminary Study
5.2 Driving Factors in Implementing Building 10) Clients demand the application of BIM in their
Information Modelling (BIM) project (RII = 0.792)
Table 3 shows a summary of the relative importance From the different categories of the factors that could
indices and the rank of the variables that could increase the increase the pace of implementation of BIM in the
pace of implementing BIM identified by the respondents. Malaysian construction industry, the respondents generally
Table 3 also shows the relative importance indices of the agreed that External Push (RII = 0.805) has a more
categories that could increase the pace of implementing significant role to speed up the pace of implementation of
BIM. From Table 3, it can be found that the top ten BIM compared to the Internal Push (RII = 0.755).
most important factors that could increase the pace of The most important factors that could be the
implementing BIM are: driving factors in implementing BIM in the Malaysian
1) Support and enforcement in the implementation of construction industry are 1) Support and enforcement
BIM by the government (RII = 0.950) in the implementation of BIM by the Government
2) BIM training program (RII = 0.950) and 2) BIM training program where both scored RII =
3) Leadership of senior management (RII = 0.925) 0.950. This indicates that in the Malaysian construction
industry, government push is a must to implementing new
4) Provide a grant scheme for training BIM
approaches. Having a strong support from the government
(RII = 0.905)
is vital and without the enforcement from the government
5) Promotion and awareness road show about BIM in the implementation of BIM in the Malaysian
(RII = 0.892) construction industry, it will be slow or stagnant. Other
6) Collaboration with universities (Research countries like the United Kingdom (UK), Australia, Hong
collaboration and curriculum design for students) Kong and Singapore have implemented the use of BIM in
(RII = 0.879) their construction industry through their governments. In
7) Incentive given by client such as tax reduction the UK for instance, the government is mandating BIM;
(RII = 0.842) Australia is supporting BIM, Singapore enforces the use of
8) Outsourcing BIM specialist (RII = 0.842) BIM as part of their policy and terms of contract and Hong
Kong is assisting BIM [26, 21 and 27].
9) Technical support (RII = 0.800)
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 5
Z., Zahrizan; Nasly, Mohamed Ali; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron;
Amanda Marshall-Ponting; and Zuhairi, Abd Hamid
Other roles that the government should do according players. By having a series of awareness programme to
to the respondents are providing a grant scheme for BIM disseminate the knowledge of BIM, it can convey the
training (the fourth most important factor with RII = 0.905), benefits that can be gained by implementing BIM to the
conducting promotion and awareness road show about construction players. The private sector could take part
BIM (the fifth most important factor with RII = 0.892) and in this promotion roadshow because involvements from
giving tax reduction (the seventh most important factor private sector also play a significant role in speeding up
with RII = 0.842). The respondents believe that by having a the process of adoption and implementation of BIM in the
grant scheme for training and by giving tax reduction, they Malaysian construction industry.
can increase the pace of implementing BIM. Previously, Besides the push from the government and BIM training
the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) has program, leadership of senior management (the third
implemented this approach for contractors who implement most important factor with RII = 0.925) has a significant
Industrial Building System (IBS) in their construction impact to accelerate the pace of BIM implementation in
projects [1] and this approach can also be used for those the Malaysian construction industry. Gilligan & Kunz
who are implementing BIM in their construction projects. [25] found that the resistance to change from the senior
This approach could attract the attention of construction management is one of the factors why some organisations
players. are reluctant to utilise information technologies. Among
The government through its representative bodies their excuses are, to implement new technology they need
such as CIDB could conduct awareness roadshow about to change their current organisational structure and process
BIM and promote the benefits of BIM. This promotion and it could jeopardise their productivities. This happens
could spark the curiosity about BIM among construction because the senior management do not really understand
6 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Exploring the Barriers and Driving Factors in Implementing Building Information
Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry: A Preliminary Study
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 7
Z., Zahrizan; Nasly, Mohamed Ali; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron;
Amanda Marshall-Ponting; and Zuhairi, Abd Hamid
[5] Froese, T., Rankin, J. and Yu, K., Project management [18] Ruikar, K., Anumba, C.J. and Carrillo, P.M., End-user
applications, models and computer assisted construction perspectives on use of project extranets in construction
planning in total project systems, Journal of Construction organisations, Engineering, Construction and
Information Technology, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 39-62, 1997. Architectural Management, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 222-35,
2005.
[6] Mastura Jaafar, T. Ramayah and Abdul-Rashid Abdul-
Aziz and Basri Saad, Technology readiness among [19] Rojas, E.M. and Locsin, S., Integrated practice: the road
managers of Malaysian construction rms. Engineerin, ahead, Proceedings of the 2007 ASCE Construction
Construction and Architectural Management, Vol. 14 No. Research Congress, pp. 771-8, 2007.
2,pp. 180-191, 2007.
[20] Martinko, M. J., Henry, J. W. and Zmud, R. W., An
[7] Steward, R.A. and Mohamed, S., Integrated Information attributional explanation of individual resistance to the
Resources: Impediments and Coping Strategies in introduction of information technologies in the workplace,
Construction, Australian Centre for Construction Behaviour & Information Technology, Vol. 15, No. 5, pp.
Innovation, University of New South Wales, 2003. 313-330, 1996.
[8] Revit, White Paper: The Five Fallacies of BIM, REVIT [21] Khemlani, L. (2005), CORENET e-plan check:
INC., 2008. Singapores automated code checking system, AECbytes,
available at: http://www.aecbytes.com/
[9] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R., and Liston, K., 2nd
buildingthefuture/2005/CORENETePlanCheck.html
Edition BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information
Modelling for Owner, Managers, Designers, Engineers, [22] Stephenson, P. and Blaza, S., Implementing technological
and Contractors, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New Jersey, change in construction organisations, Proceedings of the
2011. IT in Construction in Africa conference, Mpumalunga,
South Africa, 2001.
[10] McGraw-Hill Construction, Building Information
Modeling Trends Smart Market Report, McGraw-Hill, [23] Love, P. E. D., Irahi, Z., Li, H., Cheng, E. W. L. and
New York, 2008 Tse, R. Y. C., An empirical analysis of the barriers
to implementing e-commerce in small-medium sized
[11] Taylor, J.E., & Bernstein, P.G., Paradigm trajectories
construction contractors in the state of Victoria, Australia,
of building information modelling practice in project
Construction Innovation, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 31-41, 2001.
networks. ASCE Journal of Management in Engineering,
Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 69-76, 2008. [24] Taylor, J.E., & Levitt, R., Innovation alignment and
project network dynamics: An integrative model for
[12] Kymmell, W., Building information modeling: Planning
change, Project Management Journal, Vol. 38, No3, pp.
and managing construction projects with 4D CAD and
22-35, 2007.
simulations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008.
[25] Giligan, B., & Kunz, J., VDC Use in 2007: Significant
[13] Khanzode, A., and Fisher, M. (2000). Potential savings
value, dramatic growth, and apparent business opportunity,
from standardized electronic information exchange: A case
CIFE Technical Rep. No TR171. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
study for the steel structure of a medical office building.
University, 2007.
CIFE Technical Report, No 121. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
University. [26] Succar, B., Building information modelling framework:
A research and delivery foundation for industry
[14] Azhar, S., Hein, M., and Sketo, B., Building Information
stakeholders, Automation in Construction, Vol. 18, No.
Modeling (BIM): Benefits, Risks and Challenges,
3, pp. 357-375, 2010.
Proceedings of the 44th ASC Annual Conference, Auburn,
Alabama, April 2-5, 2008. [27] Teo Ai Lin, Evelyn and Cheng Tai Fatt, Building Smart
A Strategy for Implementing BIM Solution in Singapore;
[15] Griffith, T. L., Zammuto, R. F. and Aiman-Smith, L.,
Synthesis Journal Singapore, 2006 available at: http://
Why New Technologies Fail: Overcoming the Invisibility
www.itsc.org.sg/pdf/5_BIM.pdf.
of Implementation, Industrial Management, Vol. 41, No.
3, pp. 29-34, 1999. [28] Lederer, A. L., Maupin, D. J., Sena, M. P. and Zhuang, Y.,
The technology acceptance model and the World Wide
[16] OBrien, W. J., Implementation Issues In Project Web
Web, Decision Support Systems, Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 269-
Sites: A Practitioners Viewpoint, Journal of Management
282, 2000.
in Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 34-39, 2000.
[29] Frey, L.R., Botan, C.H., Friedman, P.G., and Kreps,
[17] Whyte, J., Bouchlaghem, D. and Thorpe, T., IT
G.L., Investigating Communication: An introduction to
implementation in the construction organization,
Research Methods, Prentice Hall, 1991.
Engineering Construction and Architectural Management,
Vol. 9 (5-6), pp. 371-377, 2002.
8 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Exploring the Barriers and Driving Factors in Implementing Building Information
Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry: A Preliminary Study
[30] Frohlich, T. M., Techniques for improving response rates [31] Fox, S., & Hietanen, J., Inter-organizational use of
in Operations Management Survey Research, Journal of building information models: Potential for automation,
Operations Management, Vol. 20, pp. 53-62, 2002. informational and transformational effects, Construction
Management and Economics, Vol. 25, pp. 289-296, 2007.
profiles
Zahrizan Zakaria started his career as an Engineer for a contractor company for 5 years after obtaining his
BEng (Hons) in Civil Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) in 1999. He gained his Master Degree
in Civil from Universiti Malaysia Pahang in 2007 and appointed as a lecturer at Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth
Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) since then. Currently he was continuing his study at UMP at PhD level
in the field of IT in construction focusing on Building Information Modelling. His research interest is within the area
of Strategic Management of IT in Construction; Culture and organisational issues related to construction companies;
Managing change and IT implementation; Social aspects of urban regeneration and sustainability.
Nasly Mohamed Ali was appointed as a Professor at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources,
Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) since 2003. Before she joins UMP, she was a professor at Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). She obtained her Diploma in Civil Engineering from UTM in
1977. After graduated she appointed as Assistant Lecturer UTM. In 1980, she gained her first class BSc (Hons) Civil
Engineering from University of Strathclyde. She was being offered to continue her study in PhD majoring in structural
at University of Strathclyde and obtain her PhD in 1986. Because of her passion in information system, she enrols as a
Master Degree student majoring in Information Technology Management at UTM and obtained her master degree in
2002. Her research interest and expertise are within the area of application of information systems for the construction
application; managing change and IT implementation; Finite Elements; Structural dynamic (wind engineering and
earthquake engineering) and prefabricated building construction.
Ahmad Tarmizi Haron currently attached at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, Universiti
Malaysia Pahang (UMP) as a senior lecturer. He obtained her first degree in BEng (Hons) in Civil Engineering
majoring in Construction Management from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2003. After that he is pursuing his
Master in Construction Management at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and gained his Master Degree in 2005. After
graduated from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, he serves as lecturer at Universiti Malaysia Pahang from 2005 until
2007 before continue his study in PhD at University of Salford. He obtained his PhD in Building Information Modelling
from University of Salford in 2013. His research interest and expertise are within the area of IT in construction,
construction management, Culture and organisational issues related to construction companies; Managing change
and IT implementation. He actives in involving with local construction working committee such as appointed by
CIDB Malaysia as External Independent Reviewer for CIDB BIM Access Portal and as Research and Technical
Committee for Building Information Modelling for Industrialised Building System which is appointed by CREAM
CIDB Malaysia.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 9
Z., Zahrizan; Nasly, Mohamed Ali; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron;
Amanda Marshall-Ponting; and Zuhairi, Abd Hamid
Amanda Marshall Ponting currently attached at the School of Built Environment, University of Salford
as a senior lecturer. She obtained her first degree in BSc (Hons) in Applied Psychology from Liverpool John Moores
University in 1999. She then gained her Master in Resources Informatics from University of Manchester in 2000 and
her PhD in nD modelling from University of Salford in 2006. Her actives in many international working committees
such developing Intel-City Roadmap Project and developing research links between the USA and the EU and funded
by the NSF (National Science Foundation, USA). Her research interest and expertise are within the area of application
of information systems in the Built Environment (GIS, VR, the internet, planning participation systems, multi-
dimensional modelling); Culture and organisational issues related to construction companies; Managing change and
IT implementation; Social aspects of urban regeneration and sustainability.
Zuhairi Abd. Hamid is the Executive Director of the Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM), a
research institute established under the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) which he joined in January,
2006. He has over 27 years of experience in the construction industry and started his professional career as a civil and
structural engineer with the Public Works Department of Malaysia in 1984. He has worked under various capacities
such as a road, bridge, building and district engineer, assistant director of planning, and a forensic and structural
design engineer. Later, in 1998 he joined CIDB as a senior manager at the Technology Development Division and was
then appointed to his current post at CREAM. He holds a B.Eng. (Hons.) Civil from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, a
Masters Degree in Structural Dynamic Engineering from the Kanazawa University, Japan and a PhD in IT Construction
majoring in Healthcare Facilities Management from the University of Salford, United Kingdom. He is a Professional
Engineer (P.Eng.) in the Board of Engineers Malaysia, a Fellow of the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (FIEM) and
also sits as a Board Member in the United Nation support International Research Council, CIB Conseil International
du Btiment (International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction). He also serves as
construction industry advisor to UTM, UTHM, UNITEN, UPNM and UiTM.
10 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
(Date received: 11.05.13/Date accepted: 20.12.2013)
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang*1, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin2, Dr Michelle Tan Tien Tien3
1
Leong Hing Sdn. Bhd., No. 1, Jalan P4/7, Seksyen 4, Bandar Teknologi Kajang, 43500 Kajang, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
3
The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The bifurcation and chaos phenomena appeared in power system have become a focus subject at present. It
has become apparent about a decade ago that power converters exhibit various types of non-linear behaviour
which includes all kinds of bifurcations and chaos. Even basic DC/DC converters exhibit bifurcation and chaos
phenomena as well as parallel-connected DC/DC converters and PFC system. The main source of such non-linearity
is the switching mechanism of the converters. Non-linear components of the converter circuit and control scheme
such as the use of naturally-sampled, constant-frequency PWM further contribute to the non-linear behaviour of
converters such as a DC-to-DC buck converter. Thus, all feedback controlled power converters exhibit certain
non-linear phenomena over a specific breadth of parameter values. Despite being commonly encountered by power
electronics engineers, these non-linear phenomena are by and large not thoroughly understood by engineers. This
paper examines the bifurcation behaviour of the buck converter in an ideal case when the input voltage is varied.
The computer simulation scheme, PSPICE is employed to model the behaviour of the ideal buck converter. For
certain values of the input voltage, Vin instability occurs. The analysis and conclusion presented in this paper will
provide an overview of the bifurcation behaviour of the DC-to-DC buck converter, aspiring to draw attention of the
power electronics and the circuits and systems communities to a field that is not often researched and examined.
Keywords: Bifurcation, Chaos, Non-linear Behaviour, Buck Converter
1.0 Introduction distance he travels, the more side streets or other routes
The mechanisms of bifurcation and chaos are so complex appear. In other words, bifurcation establishes history.
that there is not a unified criterion to identify them. Knowledge of the paths taken or not taken would be
Bifurcation is also known as the emergence of a further required to identify the state of the system at any point in
pattern of behaviour or string of states for a system. It time. The existence of bifurcations is unavoidable in the
can be thought of as a qualitative change in an attractors realm of nonlinear dynamical systems, which is beyond
structure when a control parameter is smoothly changed. the territory of circuitry. Rich bifurcation phenomena can
The qualitative change is followed by a change of the be found in power systems. An example would be the
stability in the attractor too [1]. A simple example oscillations and bifurcations due to the movement of the
would be that of a fixed attractor that might cave in to a dynamics of an electric power network towards its stability
periodic oscillation, and a periodic attractor that might boundary when the user demand for power arrives at its
become unstable and be replaced with a chaotic attractor peaks. Voltage collapse would probably be unavoidable.
when stress on the system is increased. Successive Bifurcations exist in mechanical systems too [1-5]. Hopf
bifurcations are normally attained when the value of some bifurcation may be present when a road vehicle under
characteristic parameter is increased. An analogy would steering control loses its stability. In the worst case, the
be that of a person walking down the road. The longer the development of chaos and hyperchaos might take place.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 11
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin and Dr. Michelle Tan Tien Tien
Period-doubling bifurcations which would ultimately lead orbit bifurcates at a period-doubling bifurcation point
to chaos may be experienced by a hopping robot even if [6-10]. The simulations carried out in this study seek to
it is just a simple two-degree-of-freedom, flexible, robot identify the bifurcation points where the crossing of the
arm. Bifurcations may also occur when an aircraft stalls border of stability occurs and the type of bifurcations that
due to over a critical angle-of-attack, or reduction of speed occur in the buck converter.
to be below a critical speed happens while in flight [1, 2,
5]. Vibration or wave frequencies that approximate to the
natural frequency of the machine can cause bifurcations 2.0 Methodology
in the dynamics of aero-engine compressors, vehicles and The PSPICE Model for this study The PSPICE schematic
ships. This could also lead to disasters if the oscillations of the closed-loop voltage feedback buck converter
and chaotic motions created by the bifurcations are not used in this study is depicted in Figure 1. The circuit is
controlled. Bifurcations are also observed in various fields very similar to that proposed by Fossas and Olivar [6].
such as chemistry, (for example, in chemical reaction The changes made in this PSPICE circuit however are
and fluid dynamics), weather dynamics and biological the replacement of one of the comparators with a gain
population dynamics [1, 3, 5]. of 8.4 in the Fossas and Olivars paper with an ideal
Thus, from the discussion above, it can be said that multiplier, and a difference comparator which forms the
bifurcations are ever-present in most physical systems error amplifier circuit of the buck converter. The switched
even when subject to controls. In many nonlinear systems, buck converter circuit in this study uses a PWM integrator
including some closed-loop systems which have feedback circuit. The PWM circuit consists of the wave generator,
controls, do exhibit all types of bifurcation. It is surprising the error amplifier and an infinite gain comparator. The
that local instability and complex dynamical behaviour PWM controls the ideal switch, S1 and is the most complex
exist in such controlled systems but in actual fact, this part of the switched regulator of the buck converter [6].
can happen due to the poles movement of the closed- All the components used in this PSPICE model are ideal
loop transfer function over the stability border when the components. Both the switches S1 and S2 have zero on and
feedback means of the system is not robust enough [1]. infinite off resistance, and can switch instantaneously.
The signal divergence caused due to the movement of Both the S1 and S2 switches work in a complementary
poles when the control progress continues may eventually manner. When S1 is on, S2 will be off and the input voltage
lead to some local self-excited oscillations, bifurcations supplies energy to the load resistance and the inductor. On
and even chaos instead of a global unboundedness. the other hand, when S2 is off and S1 is on, the inductor
The popular automatic gain control loops and all other current decays while flowing through the switch S2 and at
types of controlled and uncontrolled pendula would be the same time transfers some of the stored energy to the
among others examples of controlled systems where load resistor. The output voltage is controlled by setting
complex behaviour can be observed [1, 3-5]. The three the frequency of the sawtooth generator to be of constant
typical types of bifurcation which are known as the co- switching frequency and by altering the on-interval of the
dimension-one bifurcations are the stationary, Hopf and switch. The switch ratio which can be characterised as the
period doubling bifurcations. Such bifurcations are termed ratio of the on-time to the switching period is changed
co-dimension-one bifurcation due to the fact that there through the PWM switching. As the switches turn off and
may exist a number of control parameters for which fine turn on in a complementary way, instantaneously allowing
tuning is necessary to obtain the bifurcations intended. bi-directional current flow, the discontinuous conduction
A stationary bifurcation involves the crossing of a single mode can be assumed to be avoided. Such mechanisms of
eigenvalue over the border of stability. Hopf bifurcations the switches also cater for the existence of light load levels
on the other hand involve the crossing of a conjugate pair [6, 8-10].
over the border of stability. A limit cycle bifurcates in the Procedures in Obtaining the Waveforms for Bifurcation
time-continuous case. The imaginary part of the crossing Behaviour The value of Vin as the bifurcation parameter
pair gives the angular frequency of the bifurcations. In in the PSPICE model of the buck converter in Figure 1
the discrete case however, a quasiperiodic bifurcation is varied throughout the series of simulations carried out
orbit is normally obtained [1]. The bifurcation which is to obtain the bifurcation waveforms. The simulations are
possible in the discrete dynamical systems and absent in carried out with other circuit parameters held constant. The
the continuous systems is known as the period doubling fixed value parameters which include the reference voltage
bifurcation. In this bifurcation, the border of stability is Vref, the load resistor R, the inductor L, the capacitor C,
crossed by a real eigenvalue at period-1, while a period-2 switching frequency f of the ramp generator, and the ramp
12 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
upper and lower voltages are as summarised in the Table 3.0 Discussions and Results
1 below. In the present case, the output voltage is fed into an error
Table 1: Values of Fixed Circuit Parameters integrator. The difference comparator in the integrator
of the Buck Converter compares the output voltage with a reference voltage which
is chosen to be 11.3V. The difference between the two is
i) Reference Voltage, Vref 11.3 V
then input into the multiplier which would amplify the
ii) Load Resistor, R 22 ohm output of the difference comparator by 8.4. A comparator
then compares the error integrator output voltage with
iii) Inductor, L 20 mH the output of the sawtooth generator. The switches S1 and
S2 are controlled by the output of the comparator. If the
iv) Capacitor, C 47 F magnitude of the sawtooth wave voltage is greater than
that of the error integrator output voltage, switch S1 is
v) Switching Frequency, f 2.5 kHz
(Period = 400 s) turned on and switch S2 is turned off. On the other hand,
when the sawtooth wave voltage is less than the integrator
vi) Ramp Upper Voltage, Vu 3.8 V output voltage, switch S1 will be turned off and S2 turned
on [6]. The output of the error integrator which has a gain
vii) Ramp Lower Voltage, VL 8.2 V of 8.4 would be:
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 13
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin and Dr. Michelle Tan Tien Tien
When vco (t) > vramp (t) (i.e. S1 is off and S2 is on): When vco (t) < vramp (t) (i.e. S1 is on and S2 is off):
Equation 2
Equation 8
Equation 3 where I is the identity matrix.
The input voltage Vin is chosen as the bifurcation parameter
for the study of the bifurcation behaviour of the buck
When vco (t) < vramp (t) (i.e. S1 is on and S2 is off):
converter. The PSPICE model of the buck converter is
simulated for Vin being varied from 20V to 40V in steps
Equation 4 of 1V with the critical waveforms when changes occur.
Crucial information about the output voltage (which is
also the capacitor voltage), and the inductor current and
Equation 5 Fast Fourier Transform Spectrum are presented as follows
in their respective graphs.
When Vin = 20V, as can be seen from Figures 2 and
where v is the voltage through the capacitor and I is the 3, the output voltage and the inductor current waveforms
intensity of the current in the inductor. in time domain are both periodic in nature, demonstrating
The sawtooth voltage is given by equation 6 below: the period-1 stable operation of the buck converter. This
observation is further strengthened by its Fast Fourier
vramp (t) = VL + (VU VL) t/T Equation 6 Transform (FFT) Spectrum shown in Figure 4 where
narrowband, discontinuous and isolated frequency
harmonics can be seen. As for the trajectory or the phase
where VL and VU are the lower and upper voltages of the
portrait when Vin is equal 20V in Figure 5, a normal
sawtooth wave which are of the value 3.8V and 8.2V
period-1 loop is noticed [16-24].
respectively, and T is its period. The operation of the
The system continues to show period-1 behaviour
buck converter can be seen from both points of view:
until Vin reaches 28V. At Vin = 28V, the system starts to
autonomous system and nonautonomous system. Since the
bifurcate into a period-2 domain. It can be clearly observed
sawtooth wave has an externally determined periodicity, it
from the output voltage waveform, the inductor current
is essentially a nonautonomous system.
waveform and the FFT spectrum waveforms in Figures
The periodicity in this case would then be determined by 6, 7, and 8 respectively, where little hiccups can be seen
the number of triangular ramp wave cycles in a period in the voltage output and the inductor current waveforms.
of the output waveform. Since the system of differential Moreover, the trajectory or the phase portrait when Vin is
equations is linear, the exact solution for each of the equal to 28V shown in Figure 9 shows a two-branch loop
differential equation is obtainable if the initial conditions of a period-2 attractor [21, 23].
are set to be vo = v(to) and io = i(to). The period-2 bifurcation only lasted for a narrow range
of Vin value up to 32V. Beyond and including the threshold
of Vin = 32V, a period-4 bifurcation occurs. From the output
Let and and given that: voltage waveform and the inductor current waveform that
are depicted in Figures 10 and 11, show the hiccups when
Vin = 28V to be worse here. However, the waveforms still
follow a general form of repetition [22]. The trajectory
The solution for the differential equations above would be has now bifurcated into a period-4 portrait where a double
equations 7 and 8: image of the period-2 trajectory is observed as in Figure
When vco (t) > vramp (t) (i.e. S1 is off and S2 is on): 13. Period-8 bifurcation lasts for the smallest range of Vin
values from Vin = 32.35V to Vin = 33V. Period-8 bifurcation
waveforms which is observed when Vin is set to be 32.35V
can be seen in Figures 14 to 17.
Equation 7
14 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 15
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin and Dr. Michelle Tan Tien Tien
16 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 17
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin and Dr. Michelle Tan Tien Tien
18 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 19
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin and Dr. Michelle Tan Tien Tien
20 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
At Vin = 33V, the operation of the buck converter changed. When period doubling recurs, an infinite period
moves into the chaotic region. Random, unsymmetrical will ultimately lead to chaos. If bifurcations are under
disjoint and aperiodic nature is evident in the waveforms appropriate control, they can be both important and
of the output voltage and the inductor current of the buck beneficial.
converter as in Figures 18 and 19. The output voltage and There are still much to be pursued both in the study
the inductor current waveforms do not follow a specific of the non-linear behaviour of power electronics and the
form of repetition and are of random structures [24-28]. development of more effective control strategies for these
Furthermore, the Fast Fourier Transform Spectrum in behaviours. Following this study for example, future
Figure 20, which has a continuous and broadband nature, work needs to be done on investigating the bifurcation
further emphasises that the buck converter is now operating behaviour of the buck converter when other parameters
in the chaotic region. The trajectory however, exhibits a besides Vin are varied. Other parameters in the circuit such
strange attractor which signifies chaotic behaviour [16, as the load resistance, R, the inductance, L, the capacitor C,
18-20, 25-27]. Figure 21 shows the chaotic waveform the switching frequency, f and the amplitude of the ramp
corresponding to Vin = 33V. To confirm that the buck voltage should be varied so as to enable the study of non-
converter continues to operate in the chaotic region after linear effects they might have on buck converter operation.
Vin = 33V, simulations when Vin = 40V was carried out The ultimate goal of all these studies on the non-linear
and as expected, the results obtained as depicted in Figures behaviour of the DC-to-DC converters is to gain adequate
22 to 25 point to operation of the buck converter in the information and understanding of the system behaviour for
chaotic domain. better design, functionality, reliability and performance of
the converters when operating in unstable modes or even
chaotically.
4.0 Conclusion
Being one of the simplest of the DC-to-DC converters, the
buck converter is chosen to be the subject of this study References
because of its widespread representation of the circuit [1] G. Chen, J.L. Moiola and H.O. Wang Bifurcations:
to many practical DC-to-DC converters. Also, due to Control and Anti-Control, IEEE Circuits and Systems
its extensive applications in industrial and engineering Society Newsletter, vol. 10, no. 2, June/July 1999, pp.
applications, the knowledge of the system behaviour in 4-31.
different regions of parameter space should be crucial, [2] M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics Circuits, Devices, and
especially in designing the buck converter for sensitive Applications, (Third Edition) University of West Florida:
equipment. The bifurcation phenomenon and chaos in Pearson Prentice Hall International Edition, 2004.
the voltage mode controlled buck converter has been [3] C.K. Tse, Recent Development in the Study of Nonlinear
investigated with the modelling and simulation of the buck Phenomena in Power Electronics Circuits, IEEE Circuits
converter in PSPICE in this study. It has been found that and Systems Society Newsletter, March Issue, pp. 14-48,
the buck converter system experiences the normal period 2000.
doubling bifurcations leading to a stepwise transition from [4] C.K. Tse and M. di Bernardo, Complex Behavior in
period-1 behaviour to chaos. Figures 5, 9, 13, 17, and 21 Switching Power Converters, Proceedings of IEEE,
are phase portrait diagrams which show the progression of Special Issue on Application of Nonlinear Dynamics to
the change from period-1 to period-2, period-4, period-8, Electronic and Information Engineering, vol. 90, no. 5,
and lastly to chaotic operation of the buck converter pp.768-781, May 2002.
when Vin is varied from 20V to 33V. For low values of
[5] J. Baillieul, R.W. Brockett, and R.B. Washburn,
the input voltage, the system is periodic, but as the input Chaotic Motion in Nonlinear Feedback Systems, IEEE
voltage is increased the system bifurcates into period-2 Transactions on Circuits and Systems, vol. 27, no. 11, pp.
orbit and subsequently into period-4 and period-8 orbits 990-997, November 1980.
when the input voltage is increased further. When border
[6] E. Fossas and G. Olivar, Study of chaos in the buck
collision occurs at a much higher input voltage, the system
converter, IEEE Transactions on Circuits Systems I, vol.
inevitably moves into the chaotic region. The bifurcation 43, pp. 13-25, Jan. 1996.
pathway that is observed involves that of smooth period
doubling. Period doubling bifurcation concerns the break [7] D.C. Hamill and D.J. Jefferies, Subharmonics and Chaos
in a Controlled Switched-mode Power Converter, IEEE
of symmetry as can be seen in the trajectory waveforms. It
Transactions on Circuit Systems I, vol. 35, pp. 1059-1061,
is also known as the sudden appearance of a qualitatively
August 1988.
different behaviour when a parameter of the circuit is
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 21
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin and Dr. Michelle Tan Tien Tien
[8] J.H.B. Deane and D.C. Hamill, Instability, subharmonics [19] K.A. Mirus and J.C. Sprott Controlling chaos a
and chaos in power electronics systems, in IEEE Power high dimensional system with periodic parametric
Electronics Specialists Conference Record, 1989, pp.34- perturbations, Phys. Lett. A254, 275-278, 1999.
42.
[20] G. Chen, Chaos: Control and Anti-Control, IEEE
[9] J.H.B. Deane and D.C. Hamill, Instability, subharmonics Circuits and Systems Society Newsletter, pp. 1-5, March
and chaos in power electronics systems, IEEE 1998.
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 5, no. 3, pp.260-
[21] K. Chakrabarty, G. Podder, and S. Banerjee, Bifurcation
268, 1990.
behavior in buck converter, IEEE Transactions on Power
[10] P.T. Krein and R.M. Bass, Types of Instability Electronics, vol. 11, pp. 439-447, May 1996.
Encountered in Simple Power Electronics Circuits:
[22] R. Gavagsaz-Ghoachani, M. Phattanasak, J.P. Martin, S.
Unboundedness, Chattering, and Chaos, in APEC90,
Pierfederici, B. Davat Predicting the onset of bifurcation
IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference Proceedings,
and stability study of a hybrid current controller for a boost
1990, pp. 191-194.
converter, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation,
[11] J.H.B., Deane and D.C. Hamill, Analysis, Simulation vol. 91, pp. 262-273, May 2013.
and Experimental Study of Chaos in the Buck Converter,
[23] Hebertt Sira-Ramrez, Alberto Luviano-Jurez, John
PESC90, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference
Corts-Romero, Robust inputoutput sliding mode
Record, 1990, Vol. II, pp.491-498.
control of the buck converter, Control Engineering
[12] Poddar, Gautam, K. Chakrabarty and S. Banerjee, Practice, vol. 21, pp 671-678, May 2013.
Experimental Control of Chaotic Behavior of a Buck
[24] Lu Wei-Guo, Zhou Luo-Wei, Luo Quan-Ming, Wu Jun-
Converter, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I,
Ke, Non-invasive chaos control of DC-DC converter and
vol. 43, no. 8, August 1995, pp. 502-504.
its optimization, International Journal of Circuit Theory
[13] Y. Zhou, C.K. Tse, S. Qiu and F.C.M. Lau, Applying and Applications, vol. 39, pp 159174, Feb 2011.
Resonant Parametric Perturbation to Control Chaos in the
[25] Meyer, E., Zhiliang Zhang, Yan-Fei Liu, Digital
Buck DC/DC Converter with Phase Shift and Frequency
Charge Balance Controller to Improve the Loading/
Mismatch Consideration, International Journal of
Unloading Transient Response of Buck Converters, IEEE
Bifurcation and Chaos, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 3459-3471,
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 27, pp. 1314
2003.
-1326, March 2012. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplorehelp/
[14] Y. Braiman and I. Goldhirsch Taming chaotic dynamics Help_periodicals.html
with weak periodic perturbations, Phys. Rev. Lett. 66,
[26] El Aroudi, A., Robert, B. Stability Analysis of a Voltage
2545-2548, 1991
Mode Controlled Two-Cells DC-DC Buck Converter,
[15] R. Chacn and J. Daz Bejarano Routes to suppressing Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2005. PESC
chaos by weak periodic perturbations, Phys. Rev. Lett. 71, 05. IEEE 36th, pp. 1057-1061, June 2005.
3103-3106, 1993.
[27] Karama Kaouba, J. Pelaez-Restrepo, M. Feki, B.G.M.
[16] W.C.Y. Chan and C.K. Tse, Study of Bifurcations in Robert, A. El Aroudi, Improved static and dynamic
Current-Programmed DC/DC Boost Converters: From performances of a two-cell DC-DC buck converter using
Quasi-Periodicity to Period-Doubling, IEEE Transactions a digital dynamic time-delayed control, vol 40, pp. 395-
on Circuits and Systems I, vol. 44, no. 12, pp. 1129-1142, 407, April 2012.
December 1997.
[28] Chung-Chieh Fang, Eyad H. Abed, Analysis and Control
[17] P. Colet and Y. Braiman Control of chaos in multimode of Period-Doubling Bifurcation in Buck Converters
solid state lasers by the use of small periodic perturbations, Using Harmonic Balance, International Journal of Latin
Phys. Rev. E53, 200-206, 1996. American Applied Research, vol. 31, pp. 149-156, Jul.
2001.
[18] R. Lima and M. Pettini Suppression of chaos by resonant
parametric perturbations, Phys. Rev. A41, 726-733, 1990.
22 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter
profiles
NG KOK CHIANG graduated from the University of Western Australia with first class honours in Bachelor of
Engineering in Electrical & Electronics and Bachelor of Commerce majoring in Accounting, Investment Finance
(Derivatives), and Managerial Accounting. He then furthered his studies to the University of Nottingham, UK and
graduated with a PhD in Engineering having worked in the area of renewable energy and its storage for three and
a half years. Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang in his course of research and work had liaised with various organisations such
as E.ON (Power and Gas), Lockheed Martin, Jaguar/Land Rover (supercapacitors in automotive industry/electric
cars), Battelle (lab management and commercialisation), Malaysia Rubber Board (energy management, artificial
intelligent, control, and electronics), and MOSTI (Fabrication of Advanced Supercapacitors). He is currently the
Chief Technology Officer of MyBig Sdn. Bhd. and a Professional Engineer with the R&D Centre at Leong Hing Sdn.
Bhd. involved in research and prototyping projects in collaboration with various Malaysian Government Agencies
and research bodies. Among the prominent solutions founded were the advanced switching mechanism in the Nexcap
storage to efficiently capture minuscule trickle of charges, intelligent control systems incorporating power electronics
device, and the advanced Sunopy solar system.
NADIA TAN MEI LIN was born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She received the B.Eng. (Hons.) degree from the
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., in 2002, the M.Eng. degree from Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang,
Malaysia, in 2007, and the Ph.D. degree from Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan, in 2010, all in electrical
engineering. Since October 2010, she has been a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Electrical Power Engineering,
Universiti Tenaga Nasional. Her current research interests include power conversion systems and bidirectional
isolated dc-dc converters. Dr Tan is a Graduate Member of the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (IEM), a Member
of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), and a Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE).
MICHELLE TAN TIEN TIEN is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering at
the University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus. She received her BEng. degree in Electrical & Electronic Engineering
at Swansea University, Wales, UK where she also completed her PhD on using one dimensional Zinc Oxide nanowires
for bio-sensing application. Michelles current research focuses on the synthesis and characterisation of nanomaterials
for bio-sensing applications, with emphasis on graphene, metal oxide and graphene/metal oxide composites. Besides
that, her research also focuses on incorporating graphene composites for application in critical and hard environments,
such as aerospace applications, of which is currently funded by the Ministry of Science Technology & Innovation
(MOSTI), Malaysia.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 23
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube
Nanocomposite and Their Charge Storage Properties
(Date received: 20.09.2013/Date accepted: 05.05.2014)
R&D Centre, Leong Hing Sdn. Bhd., No.1, Jalan P4/7, Seksyen 4, Bandar Teknologi Kajang,
1
ABSTRACT
The synthesis of CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposites were first attempted through combining the hydro-oxidation
of SnCl2 to SnO2 and the reduction of KMnO4 to MnO2 onto CNTs in this work. The reducing presence of SnCl2
accelerated the deposition of MnO2 from 7 days to a day. Subsequently, CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposites were
characterised by X-ray diffraction, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and
galvanostatic charge-discharge. These microstructure and electrochemical results indicated that this nanocomposite
showed synergetic effect in term of specific capacitance, charge storage capacities and exceptional cycling stability.
All these enhanced electrochemical properties were attributed to increased surface area, increased utilisation of
co-deposited cassiterite-type SnO2 nanoparticulates and birnessite MnO2 monolayer. Additionally, their improved
electronic conductivity facilitated better mass transport of ions during charging and discharging process. Based on
the findings above, CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposite will be served as promising and affordable positive electrode
materials for high performance supercapacitors.
Keywords: Energy Storage, Cassiterite, Manganese Oxide, Nanocomposites, Supercapacitors
24 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
Recently, on-going researches on CNT-based devices as transparent conducting materials [12]. SnO2 is
supercapacitor have emphasized on the deposition also known to have lower toxicity as compared to some
of transition metal oxides which have higher specific other transition metal compounds used in supercapacitors
capacitance onto CNTs to enhance the pseudocapacitance [12, 13]. The various synthesis methods for the Ru-Sn
performance of CNTs. This is due to the fact that transition composites include the DC reactive sputtering carried out
metal oxides exhibit fairly higher electronic conductivity by Kim et al. [14], hydrothermal synthesis by Wang and
than CNTs. Transition metal oxides such as MnO2, NiO, Hu [15], co-annealing by Hu et al. [16] and sol gel process
SnO2, Co2O3 have been introduced onto CNTs through by Wu et al. [16]. SnO2 has also been combined with other
different deposition methods and studied in term of metal oxides such as Al2O3 [17], V2O5 [18], and In2O3 [19].
their electrochemical performance. For instance, two Manganese dioxide, MnO2, on the other hand has
separate nanocomposites namely CNTs/MnO2 and CNTs/ always been utilised in many electrochemical power
SnO2 were synthesized and reported to show improved sources dating back to the work of Leclanch in the 1980s
pseudo-capacitance in the work by Ng and co-workers in his work with alkaline batteries [20]. In the recent
[6]. They successfully demonstrated the deposition of years, MnO2 has been extensively reported in a wide
MnO2 and SnO2 onto CNTs through simple redox and range of journals as a promising electrode material for
hydro-oxidation reactions separately. Both CNTs/MnO2 the electrochemical capacitors. This is due to its low cost
and CNTs/SnO2 nanocomposites served as positive and and the environmental consideration when compared to
negative electrode respectively and showed superior other oxides besides the fairly high pseudo-capacitance
charge-storage capacity, high cell voltage, cycle life, exhibited. The investigation on this oxide started with only
and electrochemical kinetics. The improved capacitance 6 papers from the year 1999-2000 to more than 75 papers
was observed as these nanomaterials combined both ion from 2004-2007. There have been attempts to further
adsorption and fast redox reactions. improve the performance of MnO2 by seeking synergetic
SnO2 has recently been reported to exhibit pseudo- effect of combining the oxide with other transition metal
capacitance behaviour with long cycle life in aqueous oxides or conducting polymers [21]. Among the transition
solutions. This material has traditionally been investigated metal oxides and conducting polymers combined with
for lithium ion battery applications but gained light in the MnO2 for the improvement of the specific capacitance
recent years with the growing demand for greater power include NiO [22], Co2O3 [22], PbO2 [26], Fe2O3 [27, 28],
in applications utilising supercapacitors. Wu et al. [7] MoO2 [29], V2O5 [30], PANI [31], and PPy [32]. The
has shown that specific capacitances of 298 F/g and 125 Ni-Mn hydroxide reported by Shlyakhtin et al. showed
F/g can be achieved at scan rates of 10 and 200 mV/s significant reversible electrochemical capacity at high
respectively on SnO2 prepared by cathodic deposition at discharge rate (up to 70 mAh/g at I = 70 mA/cm2) [33,
a constant current of 2.5 mA/cm2. Rajendra Prasad and 34]. Prasad and Miura [26] and Zhao et al. [23-25] also
Miura [8] on the other hand also reported a maximum reported improvement with the addition of Co2O3 in the
specific capacitance of 285 F/g at a scan rate of 10 mV/s specific capacitance of MnO2. Remarkably high specific
with SnO2 prepared via potentiodynamic deposition at capacitance was achieved with the electrochemically
a scan rate of 200 mV/s. SnO2 has also been reported to synthesised MnO2 embedded in PPy besides improving its
be inserted in various different transition metal oxides charge-discharge stability by Sharma et al. [32].
or conducting polymers [9] as mixed composites for However, to date, there have not been any studies to
supercapacitor applications due to its pseudo-capacitive combine the MnO2 with SnO2, despite the high specific
and other encouraging properties as will be discussed capacitance achievable by both oxides [6]. SnO2 has
below. In particular, SnO2 has been extensively studied properties which are complementary to those of MnO2.
in some complicated oxides with RuO2. Such composites The tendency to form nanoparticulate, even in the hydrous
have resulted in the reduction of the overall cost of the form, can increase the specific area available for pseudo-
synthesis due to the known high cost of the RuO2 oxides. capacitive reactions. The high conductivity, i.e. 102 to 103
RuO2 has very high specific capacitance but is low S/cm [35, 36] of SnO2 is also higher than that of MnO2 (10-
in conductivity [10, 11]. Because of this very reason 3 to 10-4 S/cm) [37, 38-40], which would in turn improve
its usages are only limited to thin film applications in the electrochemical utilisation of MnO2 when combined
consumer products such as mobile phone and portable with the SnO2. In this work, the co-deposition of MnO2
electronics. This drawback of RuO2 may be overcome by and SnO2 was attempted and the deposition of MnO4 was
introducing a more conducting oxide such as SnO2 which accelerated due to the reducing presence of SnCl2. The
is traditionally used in many semiconductor and electronic synergetic effects of the combined metal oxides in term
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 25
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
2.0 Methodology
Synthesis of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposites 1.0g 3.0 Results and Discussions
of SnCl2 salt (Sigma-Aldrich, 98%) was dissolved in 50.0 Figure 1 shows the BET surface area of the nanocomposites
mL of deionised H2O with 1.0 mL of HCl (30% w.t.) and of different (Sn+Mn)Ox loadings. As stated before, the
continuously stirred for 1 hour before the addition of acid surface area of the acid-treated CNTs was found to be
treated multi-walled CNTs (L. MWNTs-1030, >95%, 10- 107.75 m2/g. In Figure 1, the BET surface area of the
30 nm in diameter, 5-15 m in length, amorphous carbon < nanocomposites shows an increasing trend up to a mixed-
3%). 10mg of acid-treated CNTs were immersed in SnCl2 oxides loading of 60% w.t. but a decreasing trend thereafter.
solution to synthesise nanocomposites with the mixed- The initial increase in surface area can be attributed to
oxide loadings of 60% w.t. Subsequently, 1.21 g of KMnO4 the fact that the mixed-oxides by themselves may have a
was added to obtain a Sn:Mn ratio of 1:1 in the deposited higher surface area as compared to the CNTs. However,
oxides. The mixtures were stirred at 200 rpm for 24 hours. the surface area of the mixed-oxides by themselves only
After 24-hr stirring, brown precipitate was settled at the would be expected to be slightly less than the surface
bottom of the flask. The products were filtered and washed area recorded for the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 80% as can be
with deionised H2O prior to 24-hour drying at 60C. The seen from the declining rate of decrease in surface area
dried products were ground using an agate and pestle. of the nanocomposites as the loading of the mixed-oxides
Chemical and structural characterisation of increases beyond the 60% w.t. loading. This would also
CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposites The ground elucidate the reason behind the maximum surface area
nanocomposites were characterised by an Environmental achieved at 60% w.t. loading. This is because if the surface
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM, Philips FEI XL30 area of the mixed-oxides on their own is slightly less than
FEG-ESEM), a low resolution TEM (LR-TEM, JEOL the nanocomposite with 80% w.t. oxides loading but higher
2000FX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD, Hiltonbrooks DG3 than that of the acid-treated CNTs, the maximum achieved
generator plus Philips PW1050/25 goniometer, CuK at the loading of 60% w.t. would be associated with the
radiation). A Micromeritics ASAP 2020 V3.01 H BET CNTs providing a three-dimensional nanostructure for the
surface area analyser was used to evaluate the surface area deposition of the mixed-oxides. The (Sn+Mn)Ox on their
of the nanocomposites powders. All samples were dried own may not be able to achieve as high BET surface area
thoroughly in the conventional oven before the degassing without the acid-treated CNTs because they may exist as
and further heating at 100 C for 60 minutes in the machine. agglomerates with low porosity. Thus, the CNTs substrate
Nitrogen sorption isotherms and textural properties of the has actually provided a synergetic effect with its structure
materials were determined at 77 K using liquid nitrogen in improving the overall surface area of the nanocomposite.
in a conventional volumetric method. The surface areas of With the mixed-oxides depositing onto the CNT substrate
the nanocomposites were calculated using the Brunauer- instead of forming agglomerates together with the nature
Emmett-Teller (BET) technique based on adsorption data of the random packing of the CNTs, the nanocomposites
in the partial pressure (P/P0) range of 0.05-0.35. formed would have higher porosity than that of the pure
Preparation of nanocomposite thin-films on mixed-oxides.
electrode for electrochemical studies 95% w.t. CNTs/ In addition, the corrosion phenomenon by KMnO4 on
(Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposite of different oxide loading the CNTs at high loading of MnO2 which was previously
and 5% w.t. PTFE binder (60% w.t. aqueous emulsion reported [29] shortened and destroyed the structure of the
of polytetrafluroethylene, Aldrich) were thoroughly CNTs substrate in the CNTs/MnO2 nanocomposite. The
dispersed in 4ml of deionised water. 10.0 l of the mixture decrease in surface area as the mixed-oxides loadings
was cast onto epoxy-sheathed graphite electrode (0.25cm are increased beyond 60% w.t. may also be associated
in diameter) to form a very thin nanocomposite film using with the destruction of porous structure provided by the
electronic micropipette (EDP3 Rainin LTS 10-100 L CNTs substrate due to the corrosion by KMnO4. When
with wide orifice tips). Thin nanocomposite films (65m this happens, the synergetic effect provided by the long
on average thickness) on graphite electrodes were dried entangled framework of the CNTs would be lost, hence
in desiccators overnight before electrochemical studies the decrease in the BET surface area.
26 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 27
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
Figure 3: TEM images of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite at different magnifications
4KMnO4 (aq) + 3C (s) + H2O g 4MnO2 (s) + (1) 3 (f) and (g). The bright spots on the darker fibrils were
K2CO3 (aq) + 2KHCO3 (aq) the deposited metal oxides through redox reaction.
Agglomerates with thickness of 5-10 nm were observed
The distribution of the metal oxide across the surface in Figure 3 (e). This was believed that those agglomerates
of CNTs was confirmed by the darkfield images in Figures were mixture of nanoparticulates of SnO2 and MnO2
28 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
from the results of the XRD. This uneven deposition of was enlarged for determining the interplanar spacing of
nano agglomerates was also initiated by the adsorption fringes exhibited by the dark crystalline grains and outer
of tin ions onto the surface of acid-treated CNTs due to coating of the dark crystalline grains in Figure 3-1 (d). The
electrostatic attraction, subsequent in situ oxidisation to measured d-spacing for the fringes found in the crystalline
SnO2 nanoparticulates by O2 dissolved in the solution. The grains and the outer coating of the crystalline grains were
exact deposition mechanism of SnO2 is shown below: approximately 0.3 nm and 0.7 nm respectively. The value
of 0.3 nm corresponds to the d(110) of the cassiterite-SnO2
2SnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O + O2 g 2SnO2 (s) + (2) in the JCPDS data of 41-1445, while 0.7 nm corresponds
4HCl (aq) to the d(001) of the monoclinic-MnO2 in the JCPDS data
of 65-1798. These TEM images evidently demonstrate
This controlled deposition of SnO2 on the CNTs that CNTs were not the only nucleation sites for MnO2,
resulted in a thinly and dispersedly coated SnO2 based SnO2 nanoparticulate clusters simultaneously served
nanocomposite. Further deposition of the SnO2 on the as heterogeneous sites for the nucleation and growth of
CNTs greatly depends on the adsorption of tin ions on MnO2 nanomaterials. This substantiates the claim that
the as-originated SnO2 coating, which is a
slow crystalisation route. Following such
deposition mechanism, uneven distribution
of SnO2 nano aggloramates was observed
and contributed to the jagged surface
of CNTs observed in Figures 3 (a-b).
Additionally, rapid co-deposition of MnO2
and SnO2 prevented the formation of thick
coatings of MnO2, as well as embedding
SnO2 nanocrystals in the structure. The thin
coating of both metal oxides led to reduced
electron transport lengths and ion diffusion
distances. The improvement of electron
kinetic was thus expected.
From the reactions (1) and (2), it can be
seen that the formation of the MnO2 solid
involved the reduction of MnO4 ions, while
in the controlled hydro-oxidation reaction,
SnO2 nanoparticulates were formed via
the oxidation of the Sn2+ ions on CNTs.
Instead of just CNTs acting as the reducing
agent for the deposition of MnO2, the
acceleration of such deposition to a day was
also due to the reducing presence of SnCl2
solution which was acidic in nature. This
work demonstrated that the reduction of
KMnO4 was much preferably under acidic
condition. On the other hand, the formation
of SnO2 on CNTs did not require the active
participation of the carbon according to the
hydro-oxidation reaction above, it was found
that CNTs were still instrumental in the co-
deposition, as they provided nucleation sites
for the deposition of SnO2 nanoparticulates. Figure 3-1 (a) CNTs/SnO 60% w.t. nanocomposite (b) CNTs/MnO 60% w.t.
2 2
To further verify the types of metal nanocomposite, (c) the nano-agglomerates on the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t.
oxide in those nano agglomerates, one nanocomposite surface, and (d) the d-spacing values of the fringes observed
of agglomerates shown in Figure 3-1 (c) from the enlarged portion of image (c)
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 29
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
MnO2 layers were blanketing the agglomerates of the coupled with the proton and cations deintercalations
SnO2 nanoparticulates which together formed the lumps and desorptions. Based on the findings of charge storage
observed. mechanism of MnO2 by Lee and Goodenough et al.
Figure 4 shows the XRD patterns of the acid-treated [43] and electrochemical performance of SnO2 by Wu
CNTs, nanocomposites of CNTs/SnO2 60% w.t. [6], et al. [44], the charge storage mechanism of the CNTs/(
nanocomposites of CNTs/MnO2 60% w.t. [6], and Sn+Mn)Ox nanocomposite involving surface adsorption of
nanocomposites of CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox of 60%. The metal the alkali metal cation (K+) on the SnO2 and MnO2 in this
oxides deposited on CNTs caused the broadening of the work can be expressed as the following equations.
CNT peaks and made those peaks become less distinctive.
(SnO2)surface + aK+ + ae (SnO2 Ka+)surface (3)
The SnO2 presence corresponds to the cassiterite-type
SnO2, while the MnO2 to the birnessite-type MnO2 and
(MnO2)surface + xK+ + xe (MnO2 Kx+)surface (4)
both match the JCPDS data of 41-1445 and 42-1317
respectively. The cassiterite-type SnO2 deposited had a
structure which corresponds to a = 4.738, b = 4.738, and c In the amorphous SnO2 and MnO2, there exist facile
= 3.187 , while the birnessite-type MnO2 was monoclinic diffusion of protons into the hydrous structure of both
with a = 5.150, b = 2.844, c = 7.159, and = 100.64 in oxides, the cation (K+) would be able to intercalate and
accordance with the XRD data obtained. deintercalate into the hydrous layer and lattice of the thin
deposition of the oxides on the CNTs during the redox
reaction corresponding to the following equations;
30 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
Reduction:
Sn(IV)O2 + Mn(IV)O2 +(a+x)K+ + (b+y)H+ + (10)
(a+b+x+y)e g Sn(IV)(a+b)OOKaHb + Mn(III)(x+y)
Mn(IV)1-(x+y)OOKxHy
Redox:
SnO2 + MnO2 + (a+x)K+ + (b+y)H+ + (11)
(a+b+x+y)e SnOOKaHb + MnOOKxHy
Figure 6: (a) Cyclic voltammograms and (b) mass-normalised capacitance vs. potential (vs. Ag/AgCl) of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox
60% w.t. nanocomposite at various scan rates (5, 10, 20, 50, 70 and 100 mV/s) in 2.0 M KCl.
Arrow indicates increasing scan rates
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 31
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
observed. With increasing scan rates, the voltammograms Ox 60% w.t. against Ag/AgCl at different normalised
become deformed from the rectangular shape. Decreasing currents of 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2 and 6.4 A/g. All the potential-
the scan rates enables the ions to reach deeper into the time plots from the galvanostatic charge-discharge test
electrode whilst interacting with active materials more show good linear variations of the potential (vs. Ag/
completely (redox reactions) to give the pseudo-capacitive AgCl) with respect to time in the potential range of -0.1
effect which results in a more rectangular curve such as to 0.9V for this nanocomposite. This was an indication
the one observed at the scan rate of 5 mV/s. of excellent capacitive behaviour by the nanocomposite
The mass specific capacitance for the at all normalised currents applied. Specifically, CNTs/
CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite, which (Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite exhibited the largest
decreased from 222.74 F/g to 71.69 F/g as the scan rate mass specific capacitance of 337.15 F/g at the normalised
increased from 5 to 100 mV/s, indicated that parts of current of 0.4 A/g which was much higher than those of
the surface of the nanocomposite in the electrode were CNTs/MnO2 and CNTs/SnO2 by Ng and co-workers [6].
inaccessible at high sweep rates [48-50]. These inaccessible Assuming proportional contributions from the oxide/oxides
parts were likely the inner active sites that could not sustain and CNTs in each of the three different nanocomposites,
the redox transitions completely at higher sweep rates as a the values of the specific capacitance, CM- oxide(s) of the
result of the diffusion effect of protons within the deposited (Sn+Mn)Ox, MnO2, and SnO2 were found to be 534.44 F/g.
(Sn+Mn)Ox [49]. Thus, the specific capacitance obtained The resulted higher specific capacitance of nanocomposite
at the lowest scan rate was of the highest utilisation of the was due to the increased surface area of the electrodes by
pseudo-capacitive material in the nanocomposite among both SnO2 and MnO2 nanoparticulates. The co-deposited
all the scan rates examined. Additionally, the specific SnO2 nanoparticulates serving as a more conductive metal
capacitance at the lowest scan rate of this nanocomposite oxide also enhanced the electronic conductivity of such
was much higher than those reported in the CNTs-MnO2 nanocomposite by preventing the formation of thick nano-
and CNTs-SnO2 nanocomposites prepared by Ng and co- layer of MnO2 under acidic condition. The active site
workers [6]. This clearly indicated the synergetic effect of utilisation of the co-deposited oxides was much higher and
the co-deposition of SnO2 and MnO2 onto CNTs in term of the complete utilisation of those sites would be possible
specific capacitance. with the reduction of the normalised currents due to the
slower rate of intercalation and deintercalation of the ions
Figure 7 shows the galvanostatic charge-discharge into or from the structure of the nanocomposite, resulting
properties of the nanocomposites of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn) in more extensive mass transport processes.
Figure 7: Potential-time plots from the galvanostatic charge-discharge test of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposites
at different normalised currents (0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, and 6.4 A/g) in 2.0 M KCl. Mass of nanocomposites on each of the electrode:
0.10 mg.
32 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
Figure 8: (a) Mass and (b) electrode specific capacitance of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite at different charge/
discharge normalised currents (0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, and 6.4 A/g). Mass of active material on each of the electrode: 0.10 mg.
The increase in specific capacitance followed an from the structure of the nanocomposite, resulting in more
increasing rate with the decreasing normalised current extensive mass transport processes. At higher normalised
and this was especially obvious in the case of the CNTs/ currents the iR drop was higher due to the distribution of
(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite as compared to the charges within the pores, thus the lower capacitance.
nanocomposite with the lower mixed-oxides loading.
The acid-treated CNTs showed the smallest increase Table 1 shows the properties and the calculation of
among the three materials examined, i.e. from 30.13 to the charge-discharge of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t.
41.21 F/g when the normalised currents were decreased. nanocomposite at the different normalised currents and the
The significant increase in the specific capacitance at an associated iR drops. As expected, the iR drop decreases
increasing rate at lower normalised currents especially with decreasing normalised currents applied (thus,
in the case of both nanocomposites could be attributed increasing specific capacitance). Nonetheless, it should be
to the porous structure of the nanocomposites and active noted that at the normalised current of 0.4 A/g, the CNTs/
site utilisation of the mixed-oxides. Especially when there (Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. recorded an iR drop of only 9.2
was a high loading of the mixed-oxides, a more complete mV, which is equivalent to 0.92% of the 1.0 V operating
active site utilisation would be possible with the reduction potential range.
of the normalised currents because of the slower rate of
the intercalation or deintercalations of the ions into or
Table 1: The parameters measured from the potential-time curves from the galvanostatic charge-discharge test and the
calculated values of the capacitance and iR drop for the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite for the potential range
from -0.1 to 0.9 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) in 2.0 M KCl. Mass of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite on the electrode:
0.10mg.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 33
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
Figure 9 shows the cyclic voltammograms and the its initial capacitance. Its pseudo capacitive property of
corresponding potential dependent normalised capacitance this nanocomposite was still retained even after intensive
plots of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. at different scans by showing rectangular shaped voltammogram. The
cycles, namely 3rd, 40th, 350th, and 1000th where results demonstrated that the long cycle life of the CNTs/
notable changes in the specific capacitance occurred. (Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite which deemed the
On the whole, after 1000 cycles at 20 mV/s, the CNTs/ material suitable for the supercapacitor application.
(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite retained 95.92% of
Figure 9: The changes in (a-c) cyclic voltammograms and (d-f) the corresponding normalised capacitance vs. potential (vs. Ag/
AgCl) plots of the 3rd, 40th, 350th and 1000th cycle for the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. nanocomposite at a scan rate of 20
mV/s in 2.0 M KCl. Mass of CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. on the electrode: 0.10mg.
34 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 35
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
Figure 12: Complex plane impedance plots of the CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox (a) 30% and (b) 60% w.t. nanocomposite at various bias
potentials (vs. Ag/AgCl) of 0, 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 V. Mass of nanocomposite on each of the electrode: 0.10 mg.
because of existence of a constant phase element. The of interplanar spacing of fringes for both metal oxides
delay caused by electrochemical changes especially with in the high resolution TEM images. This result was in
regards to the oxidation and reduction between the Mn(III) accordance with the crystallinity of both metal oxides
and Mn(IV) species in the working potential range and the determined in XRD patterns. Electrochemically, this
surface adsorption of the electrolyte cation of K+ for both nanocomposite exhibited a good positive polarization at
oxides would cause Faradic resistance which would in turn potential range of -0.1 to 0.9V against Ag/AgCl. Ideal
contribute towards the deviation from the ideal 90 straight cyclic voltammogram behavior of this nanocomposite
line behaviour of the nanocomposite. In addition, the was further demonstrated by showing rectangular shape
distributed capacitance along the inhomogeneous electrode during charge-discharge process at a scan rate of 5 mV/s.
surface and the porous structure of the nanocomposite film The highest mass specific capacitance achieved by CNTs/
would have also played a part in the divergence in the ideal (Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. was 337.15 F/g at normalised current
capacitive behaviour. of 0.4 A/g which correspond to the specific capacitance
(CM-oxide) of (assuming proportional contribution)
534.44 F/g. Pseudocapacitance of this nanocomposite was
still retained at least 95% even after long cycle life at scan
4.0 Conclusion rate of 20 mV/s which deemed the material suitable for the
In conclusion, the synthesis of CNTs/(Sn+Mn)Ox 60% w.t. supercapacitor application.
nanocomposite through combining the hydro-oxidation of
SnCl2 to SnO2 and the reduction of KMnO4 to MnO2
was successfully achieved in a day due to the reducing
presence of SnCl2. The acceleration of MnO2 deposition 5.0 References
from 7 days to a day was caused by the acidic condition [1] M. Endo, et al, High Power Electric Double Layer
facilitated by SnCl2 solution. The structural destruction of Capacitors (EDLCs) Form Operating Principle to Pore
CNT was observed in SEM and TEM images. However, Size Control in Advanced Carbons, 2 Carbon Science,
this length reduction of CNTs was compensated with the 2001. p117-128.
increase in their fibril diameter by the uneven co-deposition [2] Q.L. Fang, et al, Ruthenium Oxide Film Electrodes Prepared
of SnO2 and MnO2 nanoparticulates. The formation of at Low Temperature for Electrochemical Capacitors.
cassiterite SnO2 (JCPDS 41-1445) and monoclinic MnO2 Electrochemical Society, 2001. 148J: pA833-A837.
(JCPDS 42-1317) was confirmed in the determination
36 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
[3] M. Mastragostino, et al, Conducting Polymers as Electrode [17] Hu, C.-C., C.-C. Wang, and K.-H. Chang, A comparison
Materials in Supercapacitors. Solid State Ionics, 2002. study of the capacitive behavior for sol-gel-derived and co-
148: p493-498. annealed ruthenium-tin oxide composites, Electrochimica
Acta, 2007. 52(7): p. 2691-2700.
[4] D. Lozano-Castello, et al, Influence of Pore Structure and
Surface Chemistry on Electric Double Layer Capacitance [18] Jayalakshmi, M., et al., Nano SnO2-Al2O3 mixed oxide
in Non-aqueous Electrolyte. Carbon, 2003. 41: p1765- and SnO2-Al2O3-carbon composite oxides as new and
1775. novel electrodes for supercapacitor applications, Journal
of Power Sources, 2006. 158(2): p. 1538-1543.
[5] J.M. Boyea, R.E. Camacho, S.P. Turano and W.J. Ready,
Carbon-nanotube-based supercapacitors: Technologies [19] Jayalakshmi, M., et al., Hydrothermal synthesis of SnO2-
and Markets. Nanotechnology Law and Business, 2007. V2O5 mixed oxide and electrochemical screening of
4(1): p 585-593. carbon nano-tubes (CNT), V2O5, V2O5-CNT, and SnO2-
V2O5-CNT electrodes for supercapacitor applications,
[6] Ng, K.C., et al. CNTs/SnO2 and CNTs/MnO2
Journal of Power Sources, 2007. 166(2): p. 578-583.
nanocomposites for the fabrication of the electrodes
for supercapacitors. The Journal of the Institution of [20] Miura, N., S. Oonishi, and K.R. Prasad, Indium Tin Oxide/
Engineers, Malaysia, 2012. 73(3): p.7-13. Carbon Composite Electrode Material for Electrochemical
Supercapacitors, Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters,
[7] Kuo, S. L. and N. L. Wu, Electrochemical capacitor of
2004. 7(8): p. A247-A249.
MnFe2O4 with organic Li-ion electrolyte, Electrochemical
and Solid-State Letter, 2007. 10(7): p. A171-A175. [21] Chabre, Y. and J. Pannetier, Structural and electrochemical
properties of the proton / g-MnO2 system, Progress in
[8] Wu, M., et al., Cathodic deposition and characterization
Solid State Chemistry, 1995. 23(1): p. 1-130.
of tin oxide coatings on graphite for electrochemical
supercapacitors, Journal of Power Sources, 2008. 175(1): [22] Chang, J.-K., W.-C. Hsieh, and W.-T. Tsai, Effects of the Co
p. 669-674. content in the material characteristics and supercapacitive
performance of binary Mn-Co oxide electrodes, Journal of
[9] Prasad,R. K. and N. Miura, Electrochemical synthesis
Alloys and Compounds, 2008. 461(1-2): p. 667-674.
and characterization of nanostructured tin oxide for
electrochemical redox supercapacitors, Electrochemistry [23] Liu, E.-H., et al., Preparation and characterization of
Communications, 2004. 6(8): p. 849-852. nanostructured NiO/MnO2 composite electrode for
electrochemical supercapacitors, Materials Research
[10] Hu, Z.-A., et al., Polyaniline/SnO2 nanocomposite for
Bulletin, 2009. 44(5): p. 1122-1126.
supercapacitor applications. Materials Chemistry and
Physics, 2009. 114(2-3): p. 990-995. [24] Chuang, P.-Y. and C.-C. Hu, The electrochemical
characteristics of binary manganese-cobalt oxides
[11] Zheng, J.P., P.J. Cygan, and T.R. Jow, Hydrous Ruthenium
prepared by anodic deposition, Materials Chemistry and
Oxide as an Electrode Material for Electrochemical
Physics, 2005. 92(1): p. 138-145.
Capacitors, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 1995.
142(8): p. 2699-2703. [25] Zhao, G.-Y., C.-L. Xu, and H.-L. Li, Highly ordered cobalt-
manganese oxide (CMO) nanowire array thin film on Ti/
[12] Zheng, J.P., Ruthenium Oxide-Carbon Composite
Si substrate as an electrode for electrochemical capacitor,
Electrodes for Electrochemical Capacitors, Electrochemical
Journal of Power Sources, 2007. 163(2): p. 1132-1136.
and Solid-State Letters, 1999. 2(8): p. 359-361.
[26] Machefaux, E., et al., Supercapacitor behavior of new
[13] Gordon, R.G., Criteria for choosing transparent conductors,
substituted manganese dioxides, Journal of Power Sources,
MRS Bulletin, 2000. 25(8): p. 52-57.
2007. 165(2): p. 651-655.
[14] Kimbrough, R.D., Toxicity and health effects of selected
[27] Rajendra Prasad, K. and N. Miura, Electrochemically
organotin compounds: A review. Environ, Health Perspect,
synthesized MnO2-based mixed oxides for high
1976. 14: p. 51-56.
performance redox supercapacitors, Electrochemistry
[15] Kim, H.-K., et al., Characteristics of RuO2-SnO2 Communications, 2004. 6(10): p. 1004-1008.
nanocrystalline-embedded amorphous electrode for thin
[28] Wang, S.-C., et al., Supercapacitive properties of spray
film microsupercapacitors, Thin Solid Films, 2005. 475(1-
pyrolyzed iron-added manganese oxide powders deposited
2): p. 54-57.
by electrophoretic deposition technique, Thin Solid Films,
[16] Wang, C.-C. and C.-C. Hu, Electrochemical and textural 2008. 517(3): p. 1234-1238.
characterization of binary Ru-Sn oxides synthesized
under mild hydrothermal conditions for supercapacitors,
Electrochimica Acta, 2005. 50(13): p. 2573-2581.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 37
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang, Ms. Siew Shee Lim, Dr Chuang Peng
[29] Lee, M.-T., et al., Annealed Mn-Fe binary oxides for [43] Lee, H.Y. and J.B. Goodenough, Supercapacitor behavior
supercapacitor applications, Journal of Power Sources, with KCl electrolyte. Journal of Solid State Chemistry,
2008. 185(2): p. 1550-1556. 1999. 144(1): p. 220-223.
[30] Nakayama, M., et al., Electrodeposition of manganese [44] Wu, N.L., C.Y. Han, and S.L. Kuo, Enhanced performance
and molybdenum mixed oxide thin films and their charge of SnO2 xerogel electrochemical capacitor prepared by
storage properties, Langmuir, 2005. 21(13): p. 5907-5913. novel crystallization process. Journal of Power Sources,
[31] Nakayama, M., et al., Effects of heat-treatment on 2002. 109(2): p. 418-421.
the spectroscopic and electrochemical properties of a [45] Pang, S.-C., M.A. Anderson, and T.W. Chapman,
mixed manganese/vanadium oxide film prepared by Novel electrode materials for thin-film ultracapacitors:
electrodeposition, Journal of Materials Research, 2004. Comparison of electrochemical properties of sol-gel-
19(5): p. 1509-1515. derived and electrodeposited manganese dioxide. Journal
[32] Sun, L.-J., et al., Electrodeposited hybrid films of of The Electrochemical Society, 2000. 147(2): p. 444-450.
polyaniline and manganese oxide in nanofibrous structures [46] Toupin, M., T. Brousse, and D. Belanger, Charge
for electrochemical supercapacitor, Electrochimica Acta, storage mechanism of MnO2 electrode used in aqueous
2008. 53(7): p. 3036-3042. electrochemical capacitor. Chemistry of Materials, 2004.
[33] Sharma, R.K., A.C. Rastogi, and S.B. Desu, Manganese 16(16): p. 3184-3190.
oxide embedded polypyrrole nanocomposites for [47] Pourbaix, M., Atlas of electrochemical equilibria in
electrochemical supercapacitor, Electrochimica Acta, aqueous solutions. 1966, Pergamon Press, New York.
2008. 53(26): p. 7690-7695.
[48] Chang, K.-H. and C.-C. Hu, Oxidative synthesis of
[34] Shlyakhtin, O.A., et al., Ni-Mn hydroxides as new high RuOxnH2O with ideal capacitive characteristics for
power electrode materials for supercapacitor applications, supercapacitors. Journal of The Electrochemical Society,
Materials Letters, 2009. 63(1): p. 109-112. 2004. 151(7): p. A958-A964.
[35] Wu, N.-L., S.-L. Kuo, and M.-H.Lee, Preparation and [49] Gujar, T.P., et al., Electrosynthesis of Bi2O3 thin films
optimization of RuO2-impregnated SnO2 xerogel and their use in electrochemical supercapacitors. Journal
supercapacitor. Journal of Power Sources, 2002. 104 (1): p of Power Sources, 2006. 161(2): p. 1479-1485.
62-65.
[50] Gujar, T.P., et al., Electrochemically deposited nanograin
[36] Blanger, D., T. Brousse and J.W. Long, Manganese ruthenium oxide as a pseudocapacitive electrode.
oxides: Battery materials make the leap to electrochemical International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2007. 2:
capacitors. Electrochemical Society Interface, 2008: p 49. p. 666-673.
[37] Glicksman, R. and C.K. Morehouse, Resistivity studies
of various Leclanch cathode materials. Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 1956. 103 (3): p 149-153.
[38] Li, J., et al., A new type of MnO2.xH2O/CRF composite
electrode for supercapacitors. Journal of Power Sources,
2006. 160 (2): p 1501-1505.
[39] Wei, J., N. Nagarajan, and I. Zhitomirsky, Manganese
oxide films for electrochemical supercapacitors. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 2007. 186 (1-3): p 356-
361.
[40] Jin, X., et al., Nanoscale microelectrochemical cells on
carbon nanotubes. Small, 2007. 3(9): p. 1513-1517.
[41] Han, W.Q. and A. Zetti, Coating singled-walled carbon
nanotubes with tin oxide. Nano Letters, 2003. 3 (5): p.
681-683.
[42] Wang, Z.G. Chen, and D. Xia, Coating of multi-walled
carbon nanotube with SnO2 films of controlled thickness
and its application for Li-ion battery, Journal of Power
Sources, 2008. 184 (2): p. 432-436.
38 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Novel Bimetallic Tin-Manganese Oxides/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite
and Their Charge Storage Properties
profiles
IR. DR. NG KOK CHIANG graduated from the University of Western Australia with first class honours in Bachelor
of Engineering in Electrical & Electronics and Bachelor of Commerce majoring in Accounting, Investment Finance
(Derivatives), and Managerial Accounting. He then furthered his studies to the University of Nottingham, UK and
graduated with a PhD in Engineering having worked in the area of renewable energy and its storage for three and
a half years. Ir. Dr. Ng Kok Chiang in his course of research and work had liaised with various organisations such
as E.ON (Power and Gas), Lockheed Martin, Jaguar/Land Rover (supercapacitors in automotive industry/electric
cars), Battelle (lab management and commercialisation), Malaysia Rubber Board (energy management, artificial
intelligent, control, and electronics), and MOSTI (Fabrication of Advanced Supercapacitors). He is currently the
Chief Technology Officer of MyBig Sdn. Bhd. and a Professional Engineer with the R&D Centre at Leong Hing Sdn.
Bhd. involved in research and prototyping projects in collaboration with various Malaysian Government Agencies
and research bodies. Among the prominent solutions founded were the advanced switching mechanism in the Nexcap
storage to efficiently capture minuscule trickle of charges, intelligent control systems incorporating power electronics
device, and the advanced Sunopy solar system. Ir. Dr. Ng Kok Chiang is also a certified Green Building Facilitator and
a Professional Member of the Malaysia Green Building Confederation. He is currently serving as one of the committee
in the Electrical Engineering Technical Division and the Secretary/Treasurer of the Consulting Engineering Special
Interest Group at the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia.
MS. SIEW SHEE LIM obtained her BSc and MEng in Chemical Engineering at University at Buffalo, New York
(USA) in 2004 and 2005 respectively. After her attainment of MEng degree, she worked as an Assistant Professor
in University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus since 2006. She managed to secure a MOSTI eScience Fund in 2007
and worked on the synthesis of nanoscaffolds for bone regeneration. She successfully completed this eScience Project
in 2009 and is currently working her part time PHD study on the fabrication and functionalisation of nanocomposite
scaffolds using cost effective bioactive compounds. She is co-author of 2 scientific, 1 education journal papers and a
few others in the pipeline.
DR. CHUANG PENG did his BEng in China before coming to the UK in 2003. After obtaining his MSc (2004)
and PhD (2007) in Environmental Engineering and Chemical Engineering respectively, he worked as a research
associate for another three years in the University of Nottingham. Dr. Peng is specialised in materials electrochemistry,
particularly, the development of supercapacitors for energy storage with high power demands. This includes the
synthesis and characterisation of new electrode materials, and the design, testing and optimisation of supercapacitor
units and high voltage stacks. Dr. Peng has also undertaken researches on photo-electro-catalysis and electro-Fenton
process for decontamination of water. He is the author/co-author of 16 scientific journal papers, with accumulated
citations in excess of 260. After joining the CSM in September 2011, Chuang has broadened his research interests to
include various applications of materials electrochemistry in renewable energy and environmental technologies.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 39
Numerical Simulation of the Decay of Grid-generated
Turbulence in a Shock Tube
(Date received: 09.07.2013/Date accepted: 06.05.2014)
ABSTRACT
The decay of the grid-generated turbulence has been investigated numerically by solving the time-dependent three-
dimensional Navier-Stokes equations with k-e turbulence model for a compressible fluid. Turbulence grids are
placed in the shock tube to generate shock induced turbulence in the wake of the grid plate. All turbulent fluctuations
are computed along the longitudinal distance in the wake of the grid plate in the shock tube and it is observed that
the decay of the turbulence and the decay of Turbulence Kinetic Energy (TKE) level are accelerated along the
downstream direction and the percentage of decay depends on the strength of incident shock wave. Due to stronger
compressibility effects on decaying turbulent field, all length scales are decreased along the downstream direction.
The decay of dissipation rate of TKE is observed along the downstream direction for gradually decreasing the
turbulence intensity in the wake of the grid plate.
Keywords: Shock wave; Turbulence decay; Navier-Stokes equations; Turbulence model; Turbulent region;
Turbulence grids.
1.0 Introduction reflected shock wave and it was found that the strength of
In this paper, the investigations on the decay of grid- the turbulence was also changed during interaction with
generated turbulence in the shock tube are conducted reflected shock wave. The effect of the initial conditions
and it is one of the innovative works on grid-generated on the decay of homogeneous and isotropic turbulence
turbulence. Due to turbulence decay, the strength of the is still under debate, and there is a substantial body of
turbulence in the wake of the grid plate gradually decreases experimental evidence which would seem to suggest
which may create problems in interaction of reflected that the initial conditions and the slope of the spectrum,
shock with homogeneous, isotropic turbulence. at low wave numbers, determine the value of the decay
The turbulence decay in turbulent flow fields is of exponents. It is observed that the actual decay rate of
great practical importance in engineering applications. the isotropic turbulence is not only affected by the large
These types of phenomena are commonly seen in scale properties, but also by the small scale properties.
aeromechanical systems and in combustion processes as An asymptotic similarity state of decaying isotropic
well as in high-speed rotor flows. For designing aero- turbulence at high Reynolds numbers was predicted by
mechanism systems such as transport aircraft of supersonic Kolmogorov [2] based on a supposed dynamical invariant
and hypersonic speed, the shock/turbulence interaction of the flow field found earlier by Loitsianski [3]. However,
as well as turbulence decay in shock induced turbulent it was later shown by Batchelor and Proudman [4] that the
field are the important phenomena. After computing the Loitsianski integral is, in fact, not invariant. Furthermore,
turbulence fluctuations, a numerical simulation was carried Saffman [5] proposed a mean of turbulence generation
out by Jinnah and Takayama [1] at different strengths of for which this integral diverges. For this Saffman flow,
40 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Numerical Simulation of the Decay of Grid-generated
Turbulence in a Shock Tube
a new invariant was discovered, and a similarity state decaying two-dimensional turbulence. Particular emphasis
of decaying homogeneous turbulence at high Reynolds was placed on determining the long-time asymptotic
numbers was postulated based on this invariant. Recent evolution of the energy and entropy as a function of the
large-eddy simulations of decaying isotropic turbulence initial Reynolds number of the flow field. He considered
have confirmed the existence of this exact similarity state the asymptotic statistical evolution of the flow field
to within a few percent. Previous closure calculations and without specifically confronting the existence of coherent
numerical simulations have studied the decay of an initially vortices or their intermittent distribution in the fluid. This
axisymmetric turbulence [6] in the context of the return- was counter to most current trends in two-dimensional
to-isotropy problem. The direct numerical simulations turbulence research. A careful study of the dependence of
performed in the latter two works were necessarily limited the decay statistics on the initial Reynolds number of the
to low Reynolds numbers, and the computer resources turbulence may yield some useful information about the
available at those times allowed only a resolution of physics of the decay. In this previous study, large-eddy
323. Previously, Lavoie et al. [7] investigated potential simulations were used to confirm theoretical predictions of
effects of inflow conditions on the decay of approximately asymptotic decay laws for the energy and the self-similar
homogeneous isotropic turbulence. Inflow conditions decay of the energy spectrum based on low wave number
refer to the way the turbulence was generated. In the wind spectral invariants. The higher resolutions obtainable in
tunnel experiments of these authors, the turbulence was simulations of two-dimensional turbulence permitted a
passively generated by square-mesh biplane grids placed study of two-dimensional decay at relatively high Reynolds
at the test section entry. A particular aspect of the potential numbers by direct numerical simulations without the need
dependence on inflow conditions was whether the power- for sub-grid scale modeling. For the present numerical
law decay of the far downstream turbulence depends on simulation, the three-dimensional Navier-stokes equations
them. Lavoie et al. [7] tried four different conventional using k-e turbulence model, are solved by shock capturing
passive grids (with square or with round bars with/without method where for more accurate solutions, the grid
a small helical wire) and two different test sections (one adaptation technique is used. Grid adaptation techniques
with and one without a secondary contraction to improve with k-e turbulence model are the improved techniques
isotropy). They did not find any significant effect of to determine the turbulence decay in the wake of the
inflow conditions on the decay exponent other than that turbulence grids.
of anisotropy which was, itself, depended on inflow
conditions and persisted far downstream. Krogstad and
Davidson [8] carried out a similar wind tunnel study but 2.0 Numerical Methods
with two multi-scale grids and one conventional grid. 2.1 Governing Equations
Their grids were all mono-planar and their two multi-scale For the present computations, the three-dimensional
grids were chosen from one of the three design families of numerical code is developed to determine the decay of the
multi-scale grids introduced by Hurst and Vassilicos [9], shock induced turbulence in the shock tube and the validity
specifically the family of fractal cross grids. These grids of the present 3D code has been performed by Jinnah and
are very different in design from the low-blockage space- Takayama [11]. Without external forces and heat sources,
filling fractal square grids which have been used in the the conservative form of non-dimensionalized governing
vast majority of subsequent works on multi-scale/fractal- equation in 3D Cartesian coordinate system is
generated turbulence and which revealed the possibility of
a decaying turbulence without the expected high Reynolds
number dissipation scaling.
Many researchers considered the decay of a two-
dimensional homogeneous turbulence in a fluid of infinite where Q = [r, ru, rv, rw, e, rk, re], the vector of
extent. One of the attractions of studying two-dimensional conservative variables which contains mass, momentum
turbulence was its computational simplicity with respect and energy. All variables are calculated in per unit volume.
to fully developed three-dimensional turbulence. r is taken as the mass per unit volume. Three momentum
Nevertheless, numerical simulations are still non-trivial, terms in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates system
requiring high resolution and long-time integrations, and are ru, rv and rw per unit volume. Total energy, e, turbulent
the asymptotic behavior of the statistics during the decay kinetic energy, rk and turbulent dissipative energy, re are
remains an open problem. Chasnova [10] contribution was the energy terms per unit volume in these computations.
to present some new direct numerical simulation results for F, G and H are the three inviscid flux vectors in x-, y-, and
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 41
Mohammad Ali Jinnah
z-axis respectively. Similarly Fv, Gv and Hv are the three two-equation k-e turbulence model on solid boundaries, t
viscous flux vectors in x-, y-, and z-axis respectively. Also is set to zero.
r is the fluid density and u,v and w are velocity components
in each direction of Cartesian coordinates. While e is the 2.2 Grid Systems and Grid Adaptation
total energy per unit volume, pressure p can be expressed
Three dimensional hexahedral cells with adaptive grids
by the following state equation for ideal gas,
are used for these computations. In this grid system, the
cell-edge data structures are arranged in such a way that
p = (g 1)[e 12 (u2+ v2+ w2)]
each cell contains six faces which are sequence in one
to six and each face indicates two neighboring cells that
where g is the ratio of specific heats.
is left cell and right cell providing all faces of a cell are
vectorized by the position and coordinate in the grid system.
The source term S(Q) of the k-e turbulence model is
The initial three-dimensional grid system with turbulence-
written by,
generating grids is shown in Fig.1. The physical size of
each cell before adaptation is equal to 5x5x5 (mm) and the
S(Q)= [ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, Pk re Dk , (ce1 Pk ce2 re) ek ]
initial number of cell is 2876.
where the production term Pk is given in Cartesian
coordinates as
the gradients normal to the surface are taken zero. All solid are the density gradient for cell i and j, lc
= (ri-rj)/dl,
walls are treated as viscous solid wall boundary. For the rc is the density at the interface of right cell and left cell
and af is the constant which is initially designed to prevent
42 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Numerical Simulation of the Decay of Grid-generated
Turbulence in a Shock Tube
<p> =
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 43
Mohammad Ali Jinnah
v =
<v> =
The average lateral velocity in y-direction, Figure 4: The longitudinal turbulence intensity decay along
the centerline of the turbulent region.
Vav is (1/n)
The RMS lateral turbulence intensity variations are
determined along the centerline of the selected turbulent
where, vi is the instantaneous lateral velocity in y-direction.
region in the wake of the turbulence grids. It is observed
Similarly, the lateral velocity fluctuation in z-axis,
in Fig.5-6 that the decay of lateral turbulence intensities
along the longitudinal direction are more fluctuating
w=
and the lateral turbulence decay phenomena along the
The RMS lateral velocity fluctuation in z-axis,
<w> =
in z-direction.
The RMS longitudinal turbulence intensity variations
are determined along the centerline of the selected
turbulent region in the wake of the turbulence grids. The
decay phenomena in 3D turbulent field are observed along
the longitudinal direction and the variations of turbulence
decay are determined along the longitudinal direction by
taking the reference value as an initial value. It is observed Figure 5: The lateral (y-axis) turbulence intensity decay
in Fig.4 that the decay rate at the near region of the grid along the centerline of the turbulent region.
44 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Numerical Simulation of the Decay of Grid-generated
Turbulence in a Shock Tube
Figure 6: The lateral (z-axis) turbulence intensity decay Figure 7: The decay of dissipative length scale along the
along the centerline of the turbulent region. centerline of the turbulent region.
longitudinal direction are identical which was explained shock interactions. Due to stronger compressibility effects,
by Barre et al. [13] and confirmed that the <v> and <w> the turbulent dissipative length scale decreases and as the
components behave in the same way along the lateral compressibility effects decrease, the dissipative length
direction in the turbulent region. scale increases.
The decay of pressure fluctuations are determined The velocity length scale is defined by the expression,
along the centerline of the selected turbulent region in k1/2. The decay of velocity length scale is determined along
the wake of the turbulence grids and it is observed that no the centerline of the turbulent region in the wake of the
substantial pressure fluctuations variations occur along the grid plate which is shown in Fig.8. It is observed that
longitudinal direction in the 3D turbulent region. no substantial velocity length scale decay occurs at the
The dissipative-length scale is defined by the near region of the grid plate and the decay rate increases
expression, k3/2/e where the turbulent kinetic energy, gradually as increasing the longitudinal distance [17].
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 45
Mohammad Ali Jinnah
Figure 9: The decay of TKE along the centerline of the Figure 10: The decay of dissipation rate of TKE along the
turbulent region. centerline of the turbulent region.
flow with an initial TKE. The TKE evolves towards outlet dissipation rate is characterized along the centerline of the
of the nozzle divergent and it represents the turbulence turbulent region and the characteristic curve is shown in
intensity of the turbulent region. The solution of Navier- Fig.10. It is observed that the decay of dissipation rate is
Stokes equations provides the information of turbulent accelerated as increasing the longitudinal distance. Even
kinetic energy (TKE) level in the flow field where the TKE though change of compressibility is very low but due to
weaker turbulence fields, the dissipation rate decreases as
is computed from the equation, and increasing the longitudinal distance from the turbulence
grids.
in this case, the values of TKE are directly related to
the velocity fluctuations of the fluid particles. On the
other hand, the TKE is obtained from the solution of two
4 Conclusions
equations of k-e turbulence model and the accuracy of A numerical simulation has been conducted to determine
the TKE value depends on the modeling equations. The the decay of the 3D turbulence in the wake of the
values of TKE obtained from the velocity fluctuations of turbulence grids along the centerline of the shock tube. The
the fluid particles in the flow field are compared with the present computational results indicate that the turbulence
values of TKE obtained from the solution of two equations decaying phenomena in the wake of the turbulence grids
of k-e turbulence model because all turbulence modeling are the key factors during interaction with shock, reflected
equations are not ideal and it must have some deviations from the end wall of the shock tube. The use of the present
between these results. The comparisons between the decay technique has the advantage to get the different turbulence
of TKE values obtained from the solution of Navier- fields where the intensity of the turbulence varies along
Stokes equations and the solution of turbulence model are the downstream direction of the shock wave. So due to
determined along the centerline of the turbulent region the turbulence decay, it is possible to get the outcomes of
and the comparisons are shown in Fig.9 and the deviations the shock wave interaction with turbulence of different
between these results are 10-20 %. Even though the present strengths and the interaction results provide the important
deviation is more due to unsteady state condition but their information on shock wave interaction with different
decaying characteristics are almost similar. strengths of turbulent fields. The behavior of turbulence
The dissipation rate of TKE is changed depending on properties are analyzed due to turbulence decay in the wake
the compressibility level of the turbulent field and this of the turbulence grids. It is observed from the decaying
value vanishes for incompressible flow. Due to shock phenomena that all turbulent length scales decrease and
wave interaction with the turbulent field of stronger this result agrees with other existing computational results.
compressibility level, the dissipation rate is decreased The dissipation rate of turbulence kinetic energy depends
more and so more dissipation energy converts to thermal on the turbulence strength and due to turbulence decay
energy or internal energy of the flow. The decay of along the longitudinal direction; the dissipation rate of
46 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
Numerical Simulation of the Decay of Grid-generated
Turbulence in a Shock Tube
TKE is decreased more as the longitudinal distance from [15] Hannappel R and Friedrich R. (1995) Direct numerical
the turbulence grids increases. simulation of a Mach 2 shock interacting with isotropic
turbulence, Appl. Sci. res., 54, pp. 205-21.
[16] Lee S, Lele SK and Moin P. (1994) Interaction of isotropic
References
turbulence with a strong shock wave. AIAA paper 94-
[1] Jinnah MA, Takayama K. (2003) Numerical simulation 0311, Dept. Mech. Eng., Stanford Univ., CA.
of shock Mach effect on normal shock/homogeneous
turbulence interaction. Computational Methods and [17] Jinnah MA and K. Takayama K. (2012) Numerical
Experimental Measurements XI (Proc. of the eleventh Measurements of Turbulent Length Scales in Shock/
international CMEM-2003 conference), pp. 505-515 Turbulence Interaction, Journal of The Institution of
Engineers (India): C93(1):7581.
[2] Kolmogorov AN. (1941) On degeneration of isotropic
turbulence in an incompressible viscous liquid, Dokl.
Akad. Nauk. SSSR 31, 538.
[3] Loitsianski LG. (1939) Some basic laws for isotropic
turbulent flow. Trudy Tsentr. Aero. Giedrodin. Inst. 440,
31.
[4] Batchelor GK and Proudman I. (1956) The large-scale
structure of homogeneous turbulence. Philos. Trans. R.
Sot. London 248, 369.
[5] Saffman PG. (1967) The large-scale structure of
homogeneous turbulence. J. Fluid Mech. 27, 581.
[6] Herring JR. (1974) Approach of axisymmetric turbulence
to isotropy. Phys. Fluids 17, 859.
[7] Lavoie P, Djenidi L and Antonia R. (2007) Effects of
initial conditions in decaying turbulence generated by
passive grids. J. Fluid Mech. 585, 395420.
[8] Krogstad PR and Davidson PA. (2011) Freely decaying,
homogenous turbulence generated by multi-scale grids. J.
Fluid Mech. 680, 417434.
[9] Hurst DJ and Vassilicos JC. (2007) Scalings and decay of
fractal-generated turbulence. Physics of Fluids 19, 035103.
[10] Chasnov JR. (1997) On the decay of two-dimensional
homogeneous turbulence, Phys. Fluids 9 (1), pp- 171-80.
[11] Jinnah MA and Takayama K. (2011) Numerical and
Experimental Study of Shock/Turbulent Flow Interaction
A Code Validation Test. Journal IEM, Vol. 72, No.4:
37-46.
[12] Mohamed MS and LaRue JC. (1990) The decay of
power law in grid-generated turbulence. Journal of Fluid
Mechanics; Vol. 219: p-195.
[13] Barre S, Allem D and Bonnet JP. (1996) Experimental
study of a normal shock/homogeneous turbulence
interaction, AIAA J, 34, pp. 968-74.
[14] Lee S, Lele SK and Moin P. (1993) Direct numerical
simulation of isotropic turbulence interacting with a weak
shock wave, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 251, pp. 533-62.
Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014) 47
Mohammad Ali Jinnah
profiles
Dr. Mohammad Ali Jinnah is an Associate Professor in Department of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering,
Islamic University of Technology (An Organ of the OIC), Bangladesh. He obtained his Ph.D. from Tohoku University,
Sendai, Japan in 2005 specialising in Shock Wave interaction with turbulent flow.
48 Journal The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 75, No. 1, June 2014)
GUIDELINE FOR AUTHORS
References in the text should be cited following the Harvard style, with the
Submission of a contribution is taken to manifest the fact that the
following format:
submission has not been submitted, accepted, published, or copyrighted
elsewhere. To avoid publication delays, please send all manuscripts to Single author: Author, year
the Editor and observe the following guidelines. Two authors: Author and Author, year
Three and more authors: First author et al., year
A. submission of paper In the reference section, the references should be written in full, as follows:
Style for papers: Author last name, followed by first initial, (year), Journal
Four types of papers are solicited for the IEM Journal:
Title (italics), volume (issue), page range.
1. Regular Paper Presentation of significant research, developments or
applications in any field of engineering or within the scope of the journal. Style for books: Author last name, followed by first initial, (year) title (italics),
Tutorials and surveys are also considered. For submissions, the length location and publisher, chapter or page numbers (if desired).
should be about 30 pages. Style for website: www.iem.org.my (accessed October 2013)
2. Brief Paper A concise description of new technical concepts or Sample format for references is as follows:
applications within the scope of the journal. Submission should be about
20 pages. For Paper
3. Technical Correspondence Letter to the Editor, comments on Khalid, M. Omatu, S. and Yusof, R. (1995). Temperature Regulations with
established engineering topics and discussion of published papers. Neural Networks and Alternative Control Schemes, IEEE Trans on Neural
Submission should be about 10 pages. Networks, 572-582,.
4. Review Paper Articles which survey the state-of-the-art of a specific For Book
area of research. Omatu, S. Khalid, M. and Yusof, R. (1995). Neural-Control and Its
Applications, London: Springer-Verlag,.
A minimum of 10 references, primarily to recent journal paper is expected.
Citations of textbooks and web pages should be used very rarely. In order to At the end of the manuscript, each author should provide a brief profile (less
verify of the IEM journal is the right Journal for manuscript submission authors than 150 words), together with recent photographs (preferable less than 3
may check if they are able link their to findings to other work published in the MB).
IEM Journal. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited for the IEM Journal.
Manuscripts submitted as papers should state the significance of the problem C. STYLE FOR ILLUSTRATIONS
in the Introduction.
Try to include the illustrations in between the text.
Authors are to suggest at least 4 reviewers who are able to review the
Originals for illustrations should be sharp, noise-free and of good contrast.
submitted paper. These reviewers should be the experts in the area of
research. Each illustration must be numbered such as Figure 1, Figures 2-3, etc. and
have a meaningful caption at the bottom. For tables, the caption must be at
If the manuscript has been presented, published, or submitted for publication
the top.
elsewhere, please also inform the Editor. Our primary objective is to publish
technical materials not available elsewhere. On graphs, show only the coordinate axes, or at most the major grid lines, to
avoid a dense hard-thread result.
The language of the Journal is in English. However, a paper in Bahasa
All lettering should be large enough to permit legible reduction of the figure
Melayu is also accepted. For accepted papers, an abstract in English and
to column width, perhaps as much as 4:1. Typing on figures is not acceptable.
Bahasa Melayu must be included.
Photographs should be glossy prints, of good contrast and gradation and any
reasonable size.
B. STYLE FOR DRAFT OF MANUSCRIPT FOR REVIEW PROCESS
D. SUBMISSION OF PAPER
The manuscript should be typewritten using double-spacing, font of 12
(Times); on one side of sheet only and in a single column format. The format Authors are required to submit the manuscript via email for consideration
for IEM Journal follows that of the IEEE Transactions (USA). of publication in IEM Journal and enclose a cover letter giving your contact
Provide an informative 100- to 250-words abstract at the head of the details including telephone and e-mail address for correspondence.
manuscript. Submissions should be made to the address below:
All sections should be numbered in Arabic such as 1, 2, etc. with the title in Chief Editor
capitals. Sub-sections should be numbered such as 1.1, 2.3, etc. The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
Bangunan Ingenieur, Lots 60 & 62, Jalan 52/4
Numbered all equations in round brackets ( ) flush to the right. The equation Peti Surat 223 (Jalan Sultan), 46720 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan
should be in the center. Tel: 03-7968 4001/2 Fax: 03-7957 7678
E-mail: pub@iem.org.my or iemjournal@gmail.com
(for attachment bigger than 5 MB)
Journal - The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 68, No.3, September 2007) 49
This page is intentionally left blank
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
Bangunan Ingenieur, Lots 60/62, Jalan 52/4, Peti Surat 223 (Jalan Sultan), 46720 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan
Tel : 03-79684001/2 Fax : 03-79577678 E-mail : sec@iem.org.my IEM Homepage : www.myiem.org.my
The Standing Committee on Information and Publications is in the midst of compiling and updating the list of referees to assist in the vetting of articles received from
members and non-members. The referees should preferably be at least Corporate Members of The Institution or graduates with higher degrees or with academics
background.
The aim of appointing the referee is to ensure and maintain standard in the publication of the IEM Journal.
Members who are interested to be placed in the database of referees are to return the registration form
to the IEM Secretariat, providing details of their degrees and particular expertise and experience in the All submissions and correspondences are to be
engineering fields. addressed to: -
We need your generous services to look into the vetting and improving the IEM Journal articles received Journal Editorial Board
for Publications. An acknowledgement would be made at the end of the Sessions in either the Bulletin Standing Committee on Information and Publications
and Journal. Referees must be committed to return the papers within two weeks or a month from date The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
of appointment made. Bangunan Ingenieur, Lots 60 & 62, Jalan 52/4
P.O. Box 223 (Jalan Sultan)
Thank you. 46720 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan
Tel: 603-7968 4001/2 Fax: 603-7957 7678
Principal Journal Editor E-mail: pub@iem.org.my/sec@iem.org.my
Standing Committee on Information and Publications Website: www.myiem.org.my
Name :
Membership No. : (if applicable)
Grade : Graduate Member Fellow Affiliate
Non-member Others (please specify)
Qualifications :
Correspondence
Address :
Contact Details
Mobile No : Office : Fax :
E-mail Address :
Brief biodata (not longer than 50 words) (to be appended with this Reply Slip).
Have you ever reviewed submissions for publication in any Journal(s) before?
Yes No
If YES, name the Journal(s) : Do you have papers published in any Journal(s)?
Yes No
If YES, name the Journal(s) :
Date : Signature :
52 Journal - The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 68, No.3, September 2007)
ADVISORY PANEL FOR IEM JOURNAL
(MAY 2013 TO MARCH 2015)
Prof. Dr Azah binti Mohamed Ir. Prof. Dr Muhd. Fadhil bin Nuruddin Assoc. Prof. Margaret Jollands
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering Dean, Faculty of Engineering School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS RMIT University, 124 La Trobe St.
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bandar Seri Iskandar Melbourne, Victoria 3000
43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 31750 Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan AUSTRALIA
E-mail: azah@eng.ukm.my E-mail: fadhilnuruddin@petronas.com.my E-mail: margaret.jollands@rmit.edu.au
Expertise: Research and innovation Expertise: Environmental and engineering education
PUBLICATION DISCLAIMER
The publication has been compiled by IEM and Dimension with great care and they disclaim any duty to investigate any product, process, service, design and the like which may may be described in
this publication. The appearance of any information in this publication does not necessarily constitute endorsement by IEM and Dimension. They do not guarantee that the information in this publication
is free from errors. IEM and Dimension do not necessarily agree with the statement or the opinion expressed in this publication.
COPYRIGHT
Journal of IEM is the official magazine of The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia and is published by Dimension Publishing Sdn. Bhd. The Institution and the Publisher retain the copyright in all material
published in the magazine. No part of this magazine may be reproduced and transmitted in any form, or stored in any retrieval system of any nature without the prior written permission of IEM and
the Publisher.
We are pleased to announce that the articles in the IEM Journals have been indexed by other organisation i.e. Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering and Technology, Kansas City.