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-
ur- V.ar/ *1
31'
A'*/Ja. c".,t""I
-rl , I t
| tu rd' Cr!1t
[0 forfS0 1
a(t)= YIU{t)l
Unit step 5
{t for r >o
1
/(f) = 1 {lt(t)l
Unit ramP
tz 1
r,lp(I)l
Unit patabolic P\t)=i s3
signal is the
It may be noted from the Laplace transforms that each successive
inte$al of the preceding one.
136
TimeDomainPerlormance
ol ContrclSvstems 137
6.2 RESPONSES
Once an input is given to a system, it will produce an output or response.The response
can be (i) transient or (ii) steady-staie.
The hansient response is that palt of the responsewhich approachesto zero as
time tends to infinity. The part of the responsethat remains after the transients die out
is called the steady-state resporue. The parameter, which is important in the steady
state, is the steady-stateellor, ers.It is defined as
ess= lim e(f)
where e(t), being the difference between referenceinput r(l) and output c(f), is the error.
where r = alao = firf.e constant ard K = bo/qo= gain of the system.Taking the Laplace
trarsform of Eq. (6.3) and assuming all initial conditions = Q we have
(s?+ 1)C(s)= KR(s) (6.4)
Equation (5.4) yields the transfer firnction as
^. C(s) (
(J(S)=:=-
" (6.s)
R(s) sr+1
The order of the transfer function is 1. So, such systems are called fust order systems.
The block diagram and the signal flow graph of a first order system are given in
Figure6.1.
1
sf
(4.) (b)
Figure6.1 Firs't (a)blockdiagram
oidersystem: flowgraph.
and(b)signal
Now, we check the resporue of the system for diflerent standard inputs.
138 to Linearand DigitalContrclsystems
lntroduction
=-.------
'
"*;
cG\=: e-;
So,
1
c(t) -+ :
c(t) r 0
The tine-response curve is 6.2.
0t
lorunitimpulse
curv
6.2 Timsresponse
Figure input.
11
=;---T
't*;
1 I-1
=-e t I
1 (6.10)
r
We see from Eq. (6.10) that if the value of r is high, ihe initial slope is low and vice
versa. Thus, the lower is t the faster is the response' Also, the lower is r, the Ngher
is the stability. This is aPparent from a plot of its poles (seeFigure 6 3 where a Plot is
shown for hvo values o]-t with q > tr' Here the transfer function may be obtained
from Eq. (6.8) as
-. . C(s)=; 1
=
G(s)
L(,) +1
by solvingthecharactedstic
Polesareobtained sr+ 1 = 0, yieldings = -l/r'
equation
This result js obiained from the time-resporue of the s)"stem.without finding out the
time.response,i.e., without doing inverse Laplace transform, we can find out the steady-
(see
state error by applying the finai value theorem. we will discuss the method later
Section6.5).
An interesting result may be obtained from Table 6'2 where the values of the
output are givm igainst t/l. lt may be seen that the step response of the first order
sysiem attaiiu 99.3i" of the final value for t = 5't ' The time-responsecurve is shown
in Figure 6.4.
140 lntoductionto Linearand DigitalControlSystems
withtimefor unitstepinput
Table6.2 Response
t/r
c(t) in % 63.2 86.0 95.0 982 99.3
c(t)
0t
cuffefor unitstepinput.
Figule6.4 Time'response
'I 1
s- sr+r
AB C
=;+-+------;.(saf)
s' s 5t+I
I nen"
t1l -_L
a =is'?ctsll^ = l - t
lsr+11 ^
=l+t,,.,,,]]"_,
LAS
_"
=_d7l"=,=
=[,i(rh)],=, (6.12',)
=[G"+ - t l L t s l l I =
il
1
Thus,
'lrrz
C(s)=+-'+ :
s' s st+r
-:
c(t)=t-a172 t
r
=t-tlL-e
-1)
"I (6.14)
\,/
The timeresponsecurve is given in Figure 6.5.The steady-stateeEor is given
e*
--
= tim [r(r)- c(f)]
tt_
Flgure6,5 Time"rsponse
curvefor the unitrampinput.
We find ftom Table 6.3 that the interrelation between different inputs also holds good
for the corresponding responses.
Table6.3 Mrnualrelationship
between
inpulandresponse
Input, r(t) Response,
c(t)
Reldtionship Relationship
Ramp
r(t) = t
dr(t\
u(t) = 1 7- e't/ t
dt *orl,,*
Impulse
d(4
*,^,,1,=" 1-!
t *n l"-,
ControlSystems
ila Eitoduction to Linear and Digital
ANALYSIS:SECONDORDERSYSTEM
6,4 TIME-RESPONSE
of a system is rePresentedby a differential
Ii tl d]'namic input-outPut relationshiP
equation of the form oI
d"\') = !or(1) (6.16)
ao6(1)
' d { a t * 0.4!ll 1
o^
iiiscalledasecondordersystembecausewewillpresentlyseethatthetrarrsferfunc
tion of the systemhas an order of 2'
Eouation (6.16)can be written as
1 dzclt)*2 dclt)+c(f)=Kr(f) (6.77)
c'* dt2 a" dt
where
'1_ az 2q
- , =a, , ^d K =b
ao as 0n 40
oi
,7,"^#u^JJ1*'#i
"*iil$|,iJl'ii'f*x\i#il#?"{#l#il";,'W'ff
-ittltl"t
ii."., utt = 0)' we get
conditions
iii-J-tt+"-
(6.18)
l++:!:+1lc(s)=KRG)
an
\ ar; )
Eq. (61E), we get the transfer function for the secsrd order system as
On rearranging
car=ffi=;l-fi
-'
4' ,,
,,,-z
=7.rlz.s;A
.{
= -.-.-L..-;
(6.1e)
rSr\
s _+ - + -
where
_K "=ai
7
TimeDomainPeiomance ot Control Systems 143
tx
YT
1
and 24@-=: (6.20)
t
=
2at
The results given in Eq. (6.20) are inportant becausethey indicate how the undamped
natural frequency and damping ratio behave with the gain, With the increase in gain,
the natural frequency increaseswhich, in turn, reduces the damping ratio.
The block diagram and signal flow graph representationsof a secondorder system
are given in Figure 6.6.
(a) (b)
Figure6.6 Second (a)blockdiagram
ordersyslem: flowgraplr.
and{b)signal
From Eq. (6.20) we see that the characteristic equation for the system is
+ afi =o
sz+2fatns (6.21)
Therefore, its roots are given by
We will consider only the r.nit step input for the second order system.
14 lntrodlrdionto LineAr.
aN DigitatContrctS}fl{ems
c(')=T;#;a R(,)
'i
t1 * zr,t * ,4,
s(s+(a, - jro,,t1.
- (2 11s
+ (a, + ia^.fi - 621
-4, B c
s 1s+(a,-jr,,lt-Crl k+(a4+ (6.%)
1a,,tl-y'1
Thery
' -=
e=sc(s)1.=. =,1
(s+ a, - ja,1l1_ ()(s + fa, +
|
iat,,tt_ 6r)1,=o
="t
'd * r,*Q- ')
(6.24)
et-ill-'z)F+ - F 2v r ;
(6.:2s)
TimeDomainPetformanceof Contrcl Systems 145
(6.26)
^z:J ! h\ _ e E 2 )
=| - e-c@rl
L,^ r,,- "l
jlt-e "or,,,l
=r,,{11
wherc,os4 . m"sf
(6.28)
"(t)=t-ffi"a(aat+O)
wherecosf={.
to LinearandDigitalControlS'rsterns
(6.28)shows a
ffi&. -sine wave decaying.,inan exponentialenvelope(see
if-, h arylogy udth the fi$t order systerL 1/6a+_which has - the
-* -dimensionof
i often called tJnethrle-mnstsntof the'seconiorier"system-
2
"<t)
I
Exponcntial
covElopc
a
Figue6.? ptotof Eq.(0.2a).
=,- Lfr
,1,1 -Eu,,,,,
* L-JVi- ",-,
,t--'!Fiw,r
-1
2,,1, zJP= " (6.30
lime DomainPeiormanceot ControlSystems 147
1''
,/ - CdticanydrnPed(E= 1.0)
,,' ----- l.t
overdrnpdc=
o 2 4 6 ,__________
J"
curvesfor critically
Figule6,8 Response damped sysiems.
andoverdamped
It is apparent from the curves that the more is the value of t the more is the rise time
and, tirerefore, ihe settling time. Also, it can be seen from the cuwe that a criiica1y-
darnped second order system attains the step inPut value at the time constant value of
nearly 8 while this value was nearly 5 for the first order system'
Delay time, t4 The time required fo! the steP responseof the system to reach
50% of the final value.
Rise time, J' The time required for the steP resPonseto reach the final outPut
for the ftst time in underdamPedsystemsor Srow from 10% to
90% of the value in overdamped systems
Peak time, tp The time required by the steP resPonseof the system to reachthe
first peak which is the maximum value of the output.
Maximum overshoot, Mp The maximum amount by which the outPut deviates from the
input. It is generally expressedas Per cent of the inPut.
Settling time, t' The time the s,'stem takes to settle within a givn Per cent of the
final value.
These parameters are graphically Presented in FiSure 6'9 for the steP resPonseof a
secondorder sYstem.
148 lntod^ction to Lineat and Digital ContrclSystems
t
c(t) t e
t'"
I i-1,
t.2 \Y,
0.8
----------------- t ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _ - _ ;
0.4
0.0
Figure6,9 Graphical
prsentation
of performance
param;o|
Nov/, let us discuss these parameters one by one.
Delay time
According to the definitiory ,(t)1,=,,=;. So, from Eqs. (6.28),(6.30)and (6.31)we get
(t+x)e-'=| (6.32)
5 r-{!-:! *1-,1(
-1
- =1
"
2'l( -t "r-e',"t}-r Ior (>'1
z,lg,-t "r-:-,ng-rr 2
wnere : = arola.Solutions to Eo. (6.32) carr
be obtained for diJferent values of f arrd
pol,lni.'[,,ffii graphof u' { A ti.,"",
". "pp.;,";;;"-i; iJ, g,"plltssivenuythe
x=7+0.7E (6.33)
Equation (6.33)yields ihe approximateexpression
for d as
. 1+o.ze
orn (6.34)
Rise time
We considerthe underdampedsystemfor simplicity.
If t, = 1i,o" requued to attain the
steady_-state
value,we noti thatihe sine facto^r
.f iiq. 1O.Zey'rf,orid
to makec(r) = 1. Thus,from Eq. (6.28),we get harr"a ,ero ualoe
. n - cos-l E (6.36)
^t;,2
Peak time
for it from
-tfte to reach the first pea! we can find an expression
ff t" = time required
rq.is.za1 using condition that c(f) will be maximum here' Thus,
-to"t" ,n, o-1r,t"
dc\t) =-lJt" cos(r,t"t,+ 61n2!! sin(rd,rt,+d)=0
|
dt 1,, Jt-g' ,!r-f
ad cos(0d, + il - E@^sin (odtp+ 0) = 0
|---
- cos - oz\tp+ 01- s:u;.l(a,
11ar".it 11'-,,')te+Ql=0
Jt f'z
i--------=
sin/ cos[(a,,,lt- ro'1to+/]-cosCsin(ar,17-a')tp+0)=0
snl@,,[-FYr+/-/]=o=sinNz 6s7)
For the first peak, N = 1' Therefore,
L=-.L (5.38)
' ,,Jt-i'
Maximumovershoot
Sinceit is the overshootvalue at the Peaktirne,
Mr=c(t)1,_ro_.1
--1o"i l
-(ltr+P1 (5.3e)
fusrnfta,./t
Substituting lo value from Eq. (6'38) h Eq (6'39), we get after a little algebraic
rnanipulation
-i-
Mo = s r'-' (6.40)
of
Maximun per cent overchoot can be obtained by rnultiplyin-g the righFhand side
gq. fO.+OlUy 100. Ii may be observed that Mo is a function of { only' Its behaviour with
f is shown in Figue 6.10'
150 to LinearandDigitalContrclSystems
tntroduction
'/oMe IOO
t
l,o
I
60
Flgure
6.10 6 vs Mpptot.
Settling time
If ts = time for settling within 2% of the final value, then
(6.4-L)
5@"
This approximate relation can be arrived at from the following considerations.Suppose
we want that the output settles u/ithin a toleranceband of tA. That means, the arnpli-
tude of the oscillating sine factor shoutd equal A Therefore,
t-=A (6.42)
Vl- 9-
Taking the logarithm of both sides of Eq. (6.42) and on rearranging, we ger
-atS"=rr6.,trj1
=]nA-:-
2
. t InA
t- =+--
' (6.43)
2an o"
Since f < 1, the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.43) doninates and so we
may write it as
t =-++
Eo"
$.44)
SubstitutingA = 0.02in Eq. (6.M),we get the approximatereiationof Eat.
6.aU.
ol conttolsystems 151
Tme DomainPerlormance
error
SteadY'state
of error
From the definition
--|'i"l (6.4s)
e( = r\r\- c0 = kV s\^(ali+ Q)
(6'46)
eo=e(r)L--=0
out a few Prob-
having recourse
With this
lems and then
to calculation
j'1#",':$tr1';{.'##j{liill':'#iffil'
having
6.t For a unity feedback system
EXAi/IPLE
L
cG)=a;l6i
(c) ara(d) ro and (e) Mo'
find (a) o+'(b) 'yu"'n' its overall transferfunction is grven
a unity f""aUutt
Solution: Sinceit is
by
rG)=#%
25
s(s+10)+25
25
s 2+ 1 0 s + 2 5
a]"
-
=--------
sz + Z(tons+ a4
with that of the stan-
of the given transfer function
ComParingthe denomirators
we ger
da-rdsecondorder system'
(a) ai =zc
an = 5 tad/s
(b) z(a, = L0
,=5 '-l (criticallY damPed)
l- c z _- w
i
(Dd=./JnlL-9
(c)
Control Systems
152 lntroductionto Linearand Digital
(d) b=--#'+*(noveak)
cG)=:-
+:
s(r+sl,
where T and K are Positive constants.By what factor should the gain K be reducedsudr
that
(a) the peak overshoot of the system to unit steP input is reduced from 75oloto
25o/", auld
(b) the damping ratio increasesfrom 0.1 to 0 5?
Solution: The overall hansfer function of the system is given by
rr"r G(s)
-'-' =
1+G(s)
K
s(1+sT)+K
=" K /sT n
-'T'T
- (r)
s2+ 2(ans+ c']
1
By comparison we get *rd=ft.
o;"=.tK/T
(a) From Eq. (6.40) we
--+
-^^ .tr-
' ti" = / J (ii)
\Mp)1= Lwe
'-- ,t
/rr \ -inn-
- Lw.
,!t-ii -oE, (iir)
\tvlp 12
-ffi=nffi=rn3-rn4
-G ln4-ln3 = ^ ^^., (i")
OI = - U'u,lo
TimeDomainPeiormanceot ContrclSystems 1S|
(-^ ln4-ln1
-ffi = ::j_:___:- = 0.4413 (v,
E =#
Substituting ^^ r=#, we get from Eqs.(iv) and (v)
:=U,VYIo
r ^ ^^..
J4KJ -1,
or K1T = 30.045 (vi)
"t ^ ,,..
-=u.'+4tlJ
,l4K2T-1,
or K2T = 7.534 ("ii)
=---1-
''
"(s) ( s + l ) ( s ' + 1 )
Solution: /(t) = sin t
RG)=-5f
s-+1
Equathg the numeratols of both sides, we get from comPadng the coe{ficients
s6,*, sa,s3,s2,s and the constant
lntoduction to Linear and Digital Antol Systems
154
1111']
A=l,B=-:'c=:. D= : andr=;
42244
Thus,
I 1 -t.1 s-l 1 '-l
L(J)-a.
s+ I (rr_i)t- 4 ?;
1 1 1 s I 1 1 s .1 1
-I's+t-Z T-.-:---------i-_-:.-;----'-
[t+f12'2 G 2+ 1 ) 2 4 s 2 + 1 4 s?+1
EXAITPLE6.4 A step inPut is applied to a unity feedback sl"stem having the following
openloop transfer function:
u(s)=s(s+3)
Find (a) the closed-loop Fansfer functiort (b) at, (c) { and (d) (d,i.
Solution:
transfertunction=i%==+*
(a) Closed-loop = ^z tS
1+C(s) s(s+3)+15 <'+35-15
(b) Comparing the denominator of the closed-loop transfer ftnction with that of a
standard second order transfer funtiory we get
1ti =1'5
or a, -- JE =3 873rad/s
(c) From the same compadson,we also get
z(tt' = 3
3
' 2a,, =-L=o.sez
t=
2.1"15
(e) =1se
%M, (- ",.'
"' ft)=', [-ffi] =*,
EXAMPLE 6,6 A unity feedback control system has the following oPen-looP transfer
function:
^. 4s+l
UtS)=-
4s'
Find expressionsfor its time responsewhen it is subiectedto (a) unit imPulse inPui and
(b) unit steP rnPut.
Solulion: The closed-loop transfer function of the system is given by
- C(s) 4s+1 4s+7
-'-'
R ( s ) 4 s r+ 4 5+ I (2s'i)'
Thert
--
\-
+-
2
1
=(,.i),=
)'.u,t=+ ,
tl'
)
ds
=*(,. 1 \ l
.r)'.,0]"__, /L| 1
2 z
Thus,
co=-/+l'++
ul'*;) '*,
The inverse Laplace trarsform of the above equation yields
_!pi=1,_i]r:
,6="4
(b) For a unit stepinput, R(s)=]. f:herefore
7
cG\= j;g*{ t,"yr
( +=+*,
'l'n '*,
tJ ['.;J
,*1 I =l
.,{=sc(s)1,_o=a+l
['*rJl"=,
1l
/ ir\l 2
-..1
| s+:l
^ I al 1,
D =ls+;lc(s)l = ---al
\ zJ I I s I 2
- ls=-:
2
.=f,{(,'};'.r,,}L_,=
=i:+ ---, t Jl.=_r
L
Thus,
1
2
TimeDomainPeiormanceol control systems 157
yields
lE inverse LaPlace transform
. | | | rr I
c. t 1 =j + ! k 1 - e - z = t - l t - : l s z
2 \ z/
of the control system given in flguJe Ort]
E(AtilPLE6.7 Determine the trarsfer function a magnitude of 2
ffi"i"-ri* ur.""pression for its output if the input is a step having
units,
(Example
system
of thecontrol
Figure6'11 Blockdiagram 6.7).
Figure 6.11(a).
Solution: The block diagram can be reduced as shown in
r(s 'f 4) + 4
Flgure6.11(a)
4
(s+2)(s+6)
158 ln oductionto LinearandDigitatControlSystems
J
Given, R(s)=: . Therefore,
s
cG)=so;is+6)
=A* B=*-!_1r"y1
5 S+l 5+6
Then,
=Girl"==_,
B=(s+2)c(s)1"__,
,
' ' ' s = - o=81=:
C=(s+6)C(s)l
s(s+2)l 3
Thus,
cG)=:.1_++1.+
J s s+z J s+6
Its inverse Laplace traasform yields
EXAMPLE
6.8 Measurement conducted on a servomechanismshows the error response
to be
e(t) = 1.66e-8t
sin (6f + 32")
where the input is a sudden unit displacement,Determine the natural frequency, damp_
ing ratio and damped angular frequerLcyof the system.
Solution: Given, r(f) = 1. 11"r"1ot"
e(f)=r(s)-c(t)=1-c0)
Since the error is sinusoidal, it is a secondorder underdamped system where for a step
iltput
"-go"t
c(t)=1--:......".-s (adt + cos-1)
Therefore,
ao=#"*t'rr+cos-1 4)
ol ContrdSystems 159
TimeDonainPertormance
By comparisorL
cos-l 6 = 37"
= cos 37" = 0.7986
aa = 6 rad/s
A_ = ---:= = Y.YOYraa/s
"ha
EXAfITPLE6.9 In the block diagram shown in Figrue 6.12,G(s) = A/g and H(s) = 25 a 2'
For A = 1O determine the values ol m and n for a step inPut with a time{onstant 01 s
which gives a peak overshoot of 30%
(Example
Figure6.12 Blockdiagram 6.9).
afi = 4n =19,
From Eq. (i) we find
. 10m 10m (ii)
'
20n 2.t10n
Now,
T i m e c o n s t a n t -. ==:-=:=0.1s (given)
60,, )Um 5fi
t60 lntoduction to Linearand Digital Contol Systems
m=2 \
1tz2= (7.204)2
(1 _ 2)
e=IE=ouu,n
Thus, substituting the value of f in Eq. (iii), we get
/rn
,l- = 0.3579
ln
,=ffi=ze.oz
EXAITPLE6.10 A sysremand irs curve ;ue given in Figue 6'13(a)and (b)'
Determinetre values ot ,r,r,a u.J?o*e
(ar
G)
Flgure
6.13 Example
6,10:(a)th6system
and(b)theresponso.
I
I
M d z x l t , r) B d x ( t +
) Kr(f)=y(r)
df dt
initial conditions = 0' is
Its l-aplace transform, for all
(szM+ sB + r0 XG) = Y(s)
system is
Therefore, the transfer function of the
r(,)=#=7r*+K
=j;T;E,
1/M (i)
By comParisonwe gef
zio"=fr
BB (ii)
'F = --,-:-- =:
2a"M z.JY'M
ft=-.o'oeu=zzzos
(in)
x=ffi=2e6.67p7*
--ft
1 =o, = z{fromresPonse)
5'
"11-
= 1.958radls (v)
Combining the results of Eqs. (iv) and (v), we get
',=ffi=''*'
v 1041,,
rvt =---. =.-- = / /,365 Ke (vi)
,)z /1 Oq9\z
EXAIIPLE6.|1 In the closed-loop system shown in Figurc 6.14, determine the value of
K and a such that the per cent peak overshoot due to the unit step input does not
exceed10%.Settling time should be equal to 1s.
Now, f s= - = l s ( 8 r v e n )
ro,= +
g.
= - lusrng!,q. (r,l
a=8 (ii)
^1,
-+=2.303
l" n'
\l'- 4K
t--------"'= -'---
t!4K - a'
.. 116Li ...l
K = - | -"""""= + b+ | = +) / / 1
ol
4 L2.303- I
164 lntroductionto LinearandDigitatControlSyslms
EXAiIPLE6.12 Detemdne the value of controller gains Iq and K, for the system shown
in Figure 6.15 so that its damping ratio and natural fre'quency of oscillation become 1
and,4 t1z resDectivelv.
Figure
6.'15Control (Example
system 6.12).
Solutlon:Here,
^. . 2(K, + K,s)
b(5)=+
s(s+ 4)
G(s)
" 1+G(s)
2K1+ 2Kps
s(s+ 4) +2K1+2Kps
zKt + 2Kps
s" + (zKp+ 4)s+zKl
Comparing the characte stic equation, s2 + QK, + ls + 2Kt = 0, with that of a standard
second order system, we get
o; = zK1
We are given vn = 4. 5o,
a n = 2 1 w n= 8 1 8
nr2
'2
= 64r'
2
= 315.83
and
2(at, =2Y, a 4
or 2{at, - 4
= t+-Z
=8tt-2
= 23.13
TimeDomainPeiormanceot ControlSystems 165
ERROR
6.5 ANALYSISOF STEADY-STATE
the same for fiIst
We have already delhed steady-stateerror in Eq' (6 1) and calculated
the inverse Laplace
and secondordel systemsin time-domain by a method tlut involves
;;;t- of respooses. But this error can be calculated directly from the Laplace
t values of the response. We will discuss the Procedure in the following
"n"fo"rnea
Daragrapfu.
' -fro*
Eq. (6.1) we know that
e" = lirn 4t) (6.4n
Figure
6.16 Canonical controlsystem.
feedback
This yields
R(s) (6.51)
"('r=i;d;E6
e.. = lirn sE(s)
.. sR(s) (6.52)
=:S1+cG)HG)
2SeeAppendix A
166 lntroduction
to Linearand DigitalControlSystems
From Eq. (6.52)we find that while the numerator is related io the input, the denomi-
nator, which is the characteristicpol1.nomial, relates to the ry?e of the system. Thus the
steady-stateerror of a system depends on the following:
. Input to the system
o Type of the system
Next we define what are called static errcr coeffcientsot mnstsnt,
.. .t s
c-=Slr_qu*o1l
1
.. 1
"-,01+ G(s)H(s)
L+li4G(rHG)
1
(6.53)
1+K"
where
Kp=lt4GG)HG) (6.54)
/'
RamP inPut
tlete,
1
RG)=-
I s 1l
7l
""=SL*cG)At
1
-
- li'n
ijd st1+ GG)H(s)l
1
-limsG(s)H(s)
s+0
1
=K" (6.5s)
where (6'56)
(- = lim sG(s)H(s)
indicates
static oelocityeffor constdnt'We note that ii co:tair-rsan s which
called the
is til fact thai velocity is the fusi derivahve
differentiation for once rn t"*""ari;';tflt
of the position variable'
ParaboticinPut
Here,
1
R(s)=-
s-
| -
" 1l
- _
- li'- I .-l
" y-i [11c1gHG)c .l
1
-
-lis
;lt rtlr + c(s)riG)l
1
-
lim s'?G(s)HG)
1 (6.s4
Ko
where (brd)
K- = lim s2cG)HG)
' '
conslaflt' Ptediclably' it contans s- 'arhichindicatesa sec-
is called the statb acceleration
vadable'
J.J-d"rlttuti.t" of the Position
I
168 Introductionto Linear and Digital Contol Systems
I
6.5.3 system Types and Steady-stateErrors
try." system_earlier(Section2.11).Ir is determined
by thenumber
or poresaf the oflgrn 9l
Y"_1,:9:.0.,1n" " at s = 0)
(i.e. in the openJoop transferfunc'tiorLG(s)H(s),
^exis.trng '
of a system. The general form of G(s)H(si is
- sTrXl+ sTz)...(1+ sI",)
' ' _ {(1 -
c(s)H(s) (6.se)
s ( ( l s 4 ) ( t+ s T r ) . . . (+t s 7 l )
In Eq. (6.59),k is the number of poles at the odgin. Therefore,it
$ a type k svstem,
EXAMPLE 6.13 Identify the t]?e of the systemfor which
K ( ]+ 3 s ) j-5s
(^r,l ,D r1 - allo ElSl=-
s' s'+6s+7
Solution: Here,
={++ls)gjjj.l
c(s)H(s)
s ' ( s "+ 6 s + 7 )
Since the number of poles at the origin is 2 (indicated by s2 in
the denominator),
=
twe 2.
EXAMPLE
6.14 ldentify the t'?e of the system for which
7. Stepinput
= K'1-1 J=7i
Ko=lu1c(s)H(s)
11
%"= 661)
r + K p =1 + K
/ fnne DomainPeiormanceot conjtrotsystems 169
/ z. r-*p irrput
K-, = l i m s c ( s ) H ( s ) = 0
s-ro
1
6.4\
3. Paflbolic inqut
=0
K- = Iim s2c(s)H(s)
(6.63)
Type ,
Here,
5T2) (1+sT")
.r.\,{n\ _ K(l+sT1X1+ (6.64)
s(1+s4)(1+sTr)" (1+ si;)
7. SW input
Kp=lil4GG)HG)=-
1^ (6.65)
e5s=""--=U
2. Rntttpinput
=K
K"' = lim sG(s)H(s)
6-i0
11 (6.65)
ess=17=A
3. Pffinbolicinput
=0
K- = lim s2c(s)H(s)
1 $.6n
Type 2
l{erc,
^...,,. K ( l + s T l x l+ s T r ") ( 1 + s T n ) (6.58)
u(srrI (5,= -.;----=i;:---=1----;-:-;-
s ' ( l + s l 4 x I +s r b ) ( r + s r t r ,
1. Stepinp t
&' = l i m G ( s ) H ( s ) = -
s'0
179 lnfuuction to Lineat and Digital Control Systems
1^
e""=;- =U (6.70)
3. Pqrq.boliinput
& =lrms'?cG)ruG)=r
. %=K=" 6.71)
The results, so far obtained, are summarised in Table
6.6. The following points are
apparent from the table:
1. Ramp and parabolic inputs should not be applied to t)?e
0 system.
2. Parabolic input should not be applied to
[pe 1 systern.
3. For t)?e 2 3, eu = 0 for all inputs
Two more points which are not apparent from Table 6.6
are as follows:
1. e* for a linear combination of inputs can be superimposed.
2. The rnethod fails for sinusoidal inputs, becausethe final
value lheorem camot
be applied in that case.
Table6.6 Steady_slale
efforfor ditferent
hpesanddiffersnt
inDuts
Wltt
Step Rnnp Parabolic
IWe e" =:---:- 1
l+^, - =_l
e__
K"
1+K
0 1
K
0 1
0
K
0 0 0
6.6 DYNAMICERRORCOEFFICIENTS
br Section 6.5 we discussed how to evaluate-.the steady-state
error utilising the final
value theorem The method suffers from the limitation 'th"i
ii determination of
erlor coefficientsfor only tfuee kinds of input. Also, for those "-d*r
permitted kinds of input,
l-tmeDonain Peiomanceof controtsystems 171
overcome
it does not show how the error varies with tirne' These disadvantagescan be
are often telmed
uy fo owing the method of finding generalisederror coefficients that
dvnamic
' error coefficients.
The eror function, we iound in Eq. (6.51),is given by
E(s)= 1 (6.72)
R(') 1+GG)HG)
The denominator on the right hand side of the equation is a function of s and it can
be written as powe! series in s as follows
E(s) 1. 1-,7^2,
-'
R(r)=&-i<t"'8"
++sn(o+l lKsr+..
EG)=:RG) (6.73)
l(2
K1 ^3
Ttrerefore,if the input function is known, dynamic error coefficientscan be figured out
throueh a compatison between Eq. (6.7a) and the polynomial obtained from invelse
Laplaie transfoim3. The following Lxamples will make the procedure clear'
6.15 For a systemhaving
EXAiIPLE
= KG+4)
GG)HG)
s(s3+5s2+6s)
find (a) type of the system,(b) static error constantsand (c) error due to input fr2 '
Solution:
(('+L\
(") GG)HG)=d;i;6o - -{G+4) . T h e r e f o rw
ee, =2.
s,(s,+5s+6)
(b) Sinceit is a type 2 system,19 = K, = *.
=tl^:!:'9-=2:
K,' ' = lims2c(s)H(s)
s+0 seus-+5s+b J
A3A
Therefore, 2K
lSome authors define e or coefficimts as Ci = I/Ki.
'qil
172 to Linearand Agihl ControlSystams
tntroduction n
EXAIIPIE6.tG The open-loop transfer function of a servo system with unity feedbackis
given by
500
=;I+0_;i
L,(s.f
E(s) 1 s+0.1s2
R(t=1.cO=sofi;nI'
The long division of the right-hand side of the equation yields
0.002s+ 0.000196s2- 0.000000792tr
500+s+0.1s2 ) s + 0.1s2
ts-r 0.002s2'a0.0002.s3
0.098s2- 0.0002d
i 0.0000196/
t0.098d i 0.000195s3
- 0.0000195#
-{.000396,s3
+ ...
+0.000396dr 0.000000792d
E(s)= - 0.000000792s3
o.oozs+ 0.000196s2 +...
R(s)
E(s) = 9.002t41r1+ 0.000196s2R(s) +
- 0.000000792fR(s)
=a ^G)n] r^Gy
. , +=1- +..'
" +]K 4 sanlsy
s'zn1s1
Kt., Kz K3
Its invelse Laplace transform Felds
tt,tt\ ,l2r(r\ i3t,'\
e(t)= $W2;! :i+
+ 0.000196 - 0.00r00ffi792
:-:* + ..
d3r(tl= ^
--:-i- u
dt'
TirE Dolain Pettomane d contd systr'ms 173
These give
e{t) = o.oa2? + 24 + 0'000196(2)- 0'000000792(0)+ "'
= 0.004392+ 0.004,
= 0'00'1392+ 0'004t and the dynamic error
{a) The eror series of the qrstem is e(l)
coefficients are
Kr=1=-
0
x'' =;l==596
0.002
G(s)=
.4=
sls+ ru,
inPut is r(t) = 1 + 2t
Find out dynamic error coefficients and the error series when the
+*.
Solutlon: It being a unity feedbacksystem,we have
E(s) 10s+ s2
RG)=50-10;7-
s' we
Note that sincewe want to find out a polynomiatin ascendingpowers of
the
have to arrangethe numeratorand denom:natoiin that order, before Performing
long division' By long divisiorr we get
+ (o)CRG)+ 0'004#R(s)+ -
E(s) = 925p1t1- 0'02s2R(s)
Its inverseLaplacetransformyields
trtt\ ,12,1t\ A3 l\ dar,l.l
+02!y
e?r=@\r(t\ - ":i)'/
o.o2 +(0)" j:i' + 0'004:-:j:' + '
dt dt' dt' dt'
=*n
.t#.*#.;#.+#.
174 lntroduction
b LinearandDigttatContlOf
Systerns
Drrarrric error coelficimts are, therefore,
& =1=-
0
r, =;1.=5
",=-#=-*
rn =]=-
0
*G='fo=_
The input is r(t) = 1 + 2t + *. 9o,
it\
:::):! =2+ 2t
d2r(t) ^
dt'
Thus the error series is given by
4t)=o.2(2+2r-0.02(21
= 0.36+ 0.4t
EXAITPIE
6.18 The open-loophansfer function of a unity feedbacksystemis given by
jP
c1t1=-"---.
'
s'(s+4xt' + 5s+ 25)
o*ar*tat" errorofthesvstem
whenit issubjecte
l-l"ni:t"::';Fnirldrf;
Solutlon: Static error coefficints are
& =limGG)HG)=
tg a,."a, *g-,.*, =-
K"=limsc{4'(s)
=ga,.4# =-
u"- *)
&=tims'zc(s)H(s)=u-, loo = 10 =t
s+o sro (s+ 4Xs,+ 5r + 25) (4X25)
Taling the Laplace transform of the input, we get
)LA. -
R(s)=:1-:a
5s_s"
r TimeDomainPerformance
of ContralSystems 175
We obsewe that this is a combination of step, ramp and parabolic inputs. Hence
the steady-stateerror is given by
2
,-= *4 *4
" 1+ Kp K, ("
,"=j-*a *!=+
EXAMPLE 6.19 A servomechanism,the block diagram of which is given in Figure 6.17,
is designed to keep a radar antenna pointed at a llying aeroplane. If the aeroplane is
flying with a velocity of 600 km/h, at a range of 2 km, and the maxirnum tracking ellor
is to be within 0.1o,determine the required velocity error coefficient.
Sofution:Giver; the velocity = 600 km/h ='166.67m/s. The radial dGtance= 2km
= 2000 m. Therefore, the angular velocity is
u 166.fi
o = - = --::+ = 0.083rad/ s = 4.756desJs
r 20ffi
The input to the hacking system is the angle swept in time t sec. So,
r(t)=at=4.756t
+ RG)=!iq
The open-loop trarufer function of the system is
= K'
G(stHrs)
''
s ( 1 +s T )
<r1r <?\ r L
1 + G(s)HG) = :-:-l-:j-1-:jr
s(1+si)
=lim &
s,o 1+ G(s)H(s)
176 to LinearandDigitalControlSystems
tntrcduction
4.7ffi
K.
To maintain steady-statetracking erlor at 0.1o,
4.756 ^
"
K1
or K' = 47'56/s
EXAIIPLE5,20 Find tyPe, error coefficients and eo for the system, shown in Figure 6'18,
for the inputs (a) r(t) = 12, (b) 7(t) = 6r and (c) r(t) = 12 + ot + l*'
2
2-
= ---
-''-'(s+sxs+10)
"-t.l
H(s) = 55
(Example
lorthecofirolsystem
Figure6.18 Blockdiagram 6.m)
(Exanple
blockdiagram
Flgure6,19 Beduced 6.20).
r
Therefore, the open-loop tmrsfer function of the system
is
of coni{.olsystems 177
TimeDomainPerformance
250
10c. 250 =;
= -eHl =
cc)H(s) - t40r- 50
| (r- t/G' r0)-rrsr
For a t)?e 0 system' only
It has no poles at the odgin. Therefore, it ls a t,?e g sygtem
the static position error coefficient, Kp, exists, its value being
,q0
=
Kp= lim c(s)H(s) =s
l* 7;
_.. 12
(a) Here, l<(s)= - Therefore,
-. sR(s) 72
-" = l r m
P
*d 1 + G(s)H(s) 1+ Kp
O) Here,R(s1={ Therefore,
5 =-
, =l;rn
-s
-tj
s s[1+G(tH(s)]
-.. L2 6 L
(c) Here, K(s)=-+-+-
s s- zs-
have aheady seen that
Since erors for individual inputs can be superimposed and we
say that for
l"t tf-," secondPart is -, wlthout calculathg it for the third Par:twe can
""
this input also e," = -
Figure 6'20
EXAITPLE 6.21 Determine the range of values of K of the system shown in
so that es < 0.004when r(t) = 0'2t-
(Example
system
Figure6.20 Control 621)
s(s+1)+K
l-CG)H(s)=-
t\r T r./
Therefore,
e*=jinr--*]:-
sro 1+ c(s)H(s)
=umlo;2:'G+1)I
s-01 a. ..tcLvl
,.
- |Ur
0.2(5
_-i-
+ t)
sros-+s+K
o.2
(
From the given condition
0.2
--= < 0.004
K
.. 0.2
0.004
K>50
6.7 EFFECTS
OF ADDITIONOF POLESAND ZEROSON RESPONSE
SYSTEMS OF
TG)=-"----:- (6.75)
s'+0.6s+1
Obviously it is a secondorder.systemwith q =
1 and f = 0.3. We add a pole to make
I (sJ = -a-.
1r -
s'+ 0-6s+1 rr's+1 (6.76)
ii' TimeDamainPeioman@ ot controlsystems 179
(6.75) lor ro = 6, 1,
Figorc 6'21 shows step responsesfor the system representedby Eq.
2ar.d4
4t\ r.4
1
l"
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8l0 12 14 16 l8 20
_---__-_________>,
(s)
forEq.(6.75).
Figure6.21 Stepresponses
G(s)=--1- (6.n)
D\' T Z,/
We add a 'pole
tp at s = - a to make it
i(sl=-
c(s)
" 1+G(s)
1 (6.78)
. / . r ? \ r 1+ r < \ + 1
!\, , _t\_ -pt, i \
180 Introduction
to LinearandDigitatControlSystems
4t) 1.5
t
I
I
tu tz 14 16 lt 20
--"-------' t(s)
Figure6,22 stepresponses
for Eq.(6.78).
It te^observed from this plot that
-may
mcrease.An increaseof a means that the 1s g ircreases,both peak overshoot and dse time
fob comei
The conclusion, though <irawn for a particular io tf,u o"g_ in the s_plane.
i,"for"i
i" J;l ;;tte generat.
"""",
6.7.2 Addition of Zeros
As in the case of poles, here also..we will
consider open-loop ard closed_loopcases
separatety and a unity feedback will U"
.o.siae..a-]oi.ie ;;:#"p.
Closedloop transfer function
Let the closedloop transfer function be
1
r (s,= ;r_:_::; (6.7e)
We add a zero to it at s = _1/r. so that
7+t_s
I (S) = --:-----j--
(6.80)
s'+ s+1
fime DomainPeiormanceot Controtsystems 181
c^(tl=c(t\+r,
' - d t.Lc(t)
(6.82)
that the zero term decreasesthe rise time but increasesthe Peak overshoot'
I 12
I
I
9r
e
6
0.6
0.4
0.2
4.2
0123
-_______)I (s)
transiertunction'
of zeroto closedloop
Figure6.23 Efiectot addilion
OpenJooptransfer function
Let the open-loop trarsfer frmctioa be
1 (6.83)
G(s,= -_-
s(s+ r,
and the zero a15 = -1/t. Then the unity feedbackclosedloop iransfer funetion becomes
7+ c-s (6.84)
' = ---------:-
- ' '<\
T(
(1+t s)+s(s+1)
182 lntroductionto Linearand DigitalContrclSystems
We obsewe here that while the term (1 + z-s) in the numerator increasesthe
ma\imum overshoot,r:) term in the denominator aJds to the damping term, which, in
tum, reduces the maximum overshoot. The combination of two counteractingeffects
produces a complicatedresult that for lower values of t: addition of zero reduces
maximum overshoot and irnproves dse time, but aftet an optimum value of ?, the
situation reverses.
Let us considerthe openJoop transfer function with a zero added to it as
5(1+r"s)
G(s)= (6.8s)
s(s+1Xs+2)
Its urLityfeedbackclosedJoopform is given by
(6.86)
s ( 5r l l ( s - 2 ) 5 ( 1- r . s )
sr+3s2+(2+5rrs)s
"5
The step responseof Eq. (6.86)is shown in Figt,re 6.24 lor t = g,0.2,0.4,2,4 a d
8. It may be obsewed-from the figure that the peak overshootas well as rise time goes
down as ?, ircreases fiom 0 to 2. After that, though the rise hme continues to decr&se,
the peak overshootgoes on increasing.
c0
I
0.8
0.6
0.4
o.2
__>, (s)
Figure6,24 Effect
0f addition
0f zeroto openlooplransfer
iunciion.
of ContrclSystems 183
fime DomainPetormance
6 7'
of addition of poles and zeios are summarised in Table
The results
of effectsof addilionof polesandzeros
Table6,7 Sumrnary
As the zero nears tJle origin
As the PoIefiearc Lheorigtn
Typeof tnrsfer Peak o7)ershoot Rise time Peak ooelshoot
Rige tu e
furrction M. tl MP
tl
PHASESYSTEMS
6.8 MINIMUMAND NON-MINIMUM
about minimum and non-minimumPhasesystems'HeIe'
In section2.14,we had talked
;";;;;',; seethedirterence.:j in rheirrransrer
We recall, minimum Phase:T"?:*'*i:':::; il:"'il:",tiil,
phaseareais larger' Let
phase,the sweep.in
fur.;"r. i;t# ,yr,"- i" oi.o.--iri*l.- minirnum and non-minirnum phase systems' the
of
us compare the unit steP lesporues
of which are given by
"--rr?.'run.no*
c(4=6-"1';=-n----"-- (6.87)
s "+ s + 1
-(+l
and ;!'a =c",**,ts)=;-- (6.88)
x(s)
1.2
E 0.8
E 0.6
0.4
0.2
0 6 l0 12
Time(s)
pnase
of a mlnlmum sy$em'
Figure6.25 Uniistepresponse
1A4 lntroductionto Linearand DigitatContot
Systems
1.4
1.2
I
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
4.2
r'od
l0 t2
'"lffii,',,i,,'i;'.'[3,:','J.'fff
';;frT",fr:um::;fiil;,il
l,:li''l*'
l,*"1,flffi':,,,1hlj*:l;trfiilf
The difference in behaviour
g',1-4df;]1#ll1llilJlifl
. i
j,T:
lEYlEwQurslor.rs
1, Choose the correct artswer:
ora svstem
is s2+ 2s+2 = 0.rhesysrem
"' T".Hff:'ff;Tation is
riiii""",i",i.pi1"'* .1_-'j
:3:.oTo"o
ttt' none of these
@1 ror a controif1"m to be ,JPeratedin overdamped conditiory
oampng ratio should be the value of the
(i) 0
(ii) > 1
(iii) 1
(iv) < 1
(c) The steady-stateerror
for a tPe 3 sy-s.temfor a
(i) zero unit step input is
(iii)one
.$l ffH,t
(d) The open loop
transferfunction of a system
-'- is l0 . *o
rrre sready-state
1+t ", error
due to a unit step input is
l1meDomainPefiomanceof ControlSystems 185
(i) 10 (ii) 0
,...' 1 (iv) -
'11 -
{r1ll
(Question
Flgure6.27 Blockdiagram 2).
Figure6.28 Sysiern
(euestion
4.
(b) I fhat do you mean by transient response
and steady state response?
What is steady-siateerror? Supposeunit ramp inpnt
is given to type O type f *a
type 2 systems. Compare thJ iteady-state error lor
ttre-sethree iises.
9. (a) Find out the tirne responseanaiysis
of a unity feedback urderdamped control
transfer function.
indicating Peak over-
19. (a) Sketch the unit steP response of a second order system
shoot, dse tilare and settling time.
as a fust order s)slem with,a
' A temPerature sensing device can be modelled
(b)
time constant of 6 s. Ii is suddeniy subiectedto a steP inPut of 30'C to 150'C'
What temPerature will be indicated in 10 s after the process has started?
14. (a) Define the fouowing:
(i) Rise time (ii) Delay time
(ni) Settling time (iv) Overshoot
(b) The open-loop transfer function of a uaity feedbackcontrol system is given by
A
G(t)=r(1*rr)
(i) By what factor should the amplifier gain A be multiplied so that the
dimping ratio is inceased from a value of 0'2 to 0'6'r
(ii) By what factor should amplifier gain be muJti,plied-so-that the overshoot
=
oi ttt" ,rLlt step resPonseis reduced ftom 80V' to 209? [% overshoot
r"-----'=
100exPen|/^11- 62I, d = damping ratiol
15. (a) Find out the resPonseof a typical underda:nped second order closed-loop
system with unity feedback having steP inPut'
(b) For a unity feedback closed-loop control system, the open-loop transfer
function is given bY
'E
..(s,r=;G;5
Calculate the value of rise time (t') and maxiqrum overshoot (Mo) when the
system is subiected to a unity step inPut'
16. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Time constant
(b) Settling tirne
(c) Peak overshoot
(d) Standard test signals used in time'domain analysis of control systems'
BASICSOF CONTROLLERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
h9* that an automaticcont(
"ffiff":jff#Fi"#"{'T#i
l".",Hi',",HT;##t;iH;.]i{:rfi
3"
Disturt ac6
CoEpaaatoa
DcsirEd
yrlue MaiF&red
Cotrtolld
&)
Figurc7,1 Automatic
conrotsystem:
(a)openloop
't"ff
and(b)closeoroop.
fl*;,*ftd,#$$i1**ld**$
.:*tjt 188
of Contrclters 189
Basics
1. ProPortional
2. Inte$ar
i"ffi i!'x*T":'.i:1""
rharacteristicsSo'
,f;iJ-h?1":':1d".",:J
:ii:"T"ff
controllerscan oe urvruEu
contror:
on their mode ot
controUer
t. Two-posifionor ON-OFF
2. ProPortional(P) cortrouer
3 InteFal (I) controller--
.4 Dedvative (D) controller
(PT)conholler
i. proo-tio"uf Plus inte$al
i. i""i"tn*"f plus derivative (PD) controller--.
plus derivative (PID) controuer
i. or"'p-,t"rr"l ptus integral and evaluate their
the fouowing sections we will consider these controllers
h
perfolmance'
(oN-oFF) CONTROLLER
7.2 Two-POSlTloN
contr?Tl,:.:':,i:.^::',Lv^
rwo-position "i":xx"?:::il:1;i,'$ll";;:'*"'o-operated
theu a
valvel, etc. Schematicary'
ON-OFF
--4,
Az-
I
Contollr
controller'
ol a lwo-posftion
representaiion
Figure?'2 Schematic
CoDfroller
gap'
Figure7.3 Differential
190 lntroductionto Lineatand Digital Control Systems
Table7.1 Advantages
anddisadvantages
of on-oficontroller
Adoahtage Disadaantage
Simple, economical. Used in domestic 1 . Transient conditions and steady-stateaccu-
applances as well as in industry where rough racy a.renot much improved.
control t5 necessary_
2. Controller condition oscillates around the
set point.
7.3 PROPORTIONAL
(P) CONTROLLER
In a proportional controller, the actuating signal is proportional
to the e[or signal.
Mathematicalln if ri(f) = 6gtu6tin, signal, the;
a{t) e e(t)
= Kf(t) (7.2)
The Laplacetransformof Eq. (7.2) is
7.3.1 Accuracy
Consider, for example, the second ord.er system given in Figure
7.4.
Figure7.4 Second
ordersystem.
Here, with the addition of a proportional controller
"KP-'
r,f
GG\HG!=
''
s ( s+ 2 a 4 \
Therefore,
sR(s)
" ,-o1+c(s)H(s)
Basicsot Conttolle6 191
sR(s)
/ =lim
'1 -L
K"o;
-
s(s+2ot)
t'(t*26'") ^.R(r) (7.4)
- r,*
iii s(s+ 24a,) + Kvroi
SteP input
Here,
- -,,'- t'(t * 26'") =.R(r)
+260t"1+Xrto;
"" i36 s15
szG+2{to,1 1
-
-lin ;.-
iI6 s9+za,l+ Kpai s
s(s+ 21a"\
-
- 116 ------'------.7
+ 2(a,) + Kra4
iI6 s1s (7.s)
-o
RamPinPut
In this case,
.. sR(s)
'" -
li 1+GG)HG)
s 2( s+ 2 a , ) - . 1 -
-- r . ^
?)d 52a2s6x1,+ Kp(Di s'
(7.6)
Kpa,
Parabolic inPut
ln the case of ParaboUcinPut'
sR(s)
-;6
_ ,._
1+c(tHG)
s 2 (+s2 o t , ) (7.7)
-_ r . ^
il6 sz+ 2sa^+ Kptt" . Ls"=*
7.3.2 Advantages
of proportional controllers:
The following are the advantages in Eq (5'20)
of controller *t'"*"' *t io*artl Path gain ^We have seen
1. This tyPe natural
increase t tn" 'otiiutJ p"tft g"nt increases the undamped
that an
192 tntrcductionto Lineat and DigitatContol Systems
7.3.3 Disadvantages
The following are the disad.vantages
ol proportional controllers:
t causes
offset,i.e.,it maycause
fi"%Tl.*"yil::rroller a sustamed
deviarion
from
2. It increases the maximum overshoot
of the system becauseit lowers
t
7.3.4 Realisation
A simple op-arnp realisation
of thr is indicated
input-output*tu"*l,+^1", in Figure7.5.rhe
:':i*if;:iloller
"*i
r, I n,
E, I Rt (7.8)
or P controlleris tharthereexists
ft" iil:ltff#:i an offsetberween
rhedesiredand
Figure7.5 proportional
mntrollerchcujt.
=x,le@dt (7.e)
where Ki = constant'
The Laplace transform of Eq. (7.9) is
AG)=!-E(s) (7.10)
5
7.4.1 Realisation
i5 nothing but an integrator
A simple oP-amP realisation is shown in Figure 7 6' This
clrcuit'for which the outPut-input relation is given by
,"=]7l1,,,lat (7.r1)
TheLaplacetralsformofEq.(7.11)yieldsthetralsfelfrmctionofthecontlol]eras
E"(t)=1. (7.12)
61r.1=
-''' -1=
E;(s) s R1C1
ot an integral
Figure7.6 Op{mprealisation contlollet
=K,t9
'dt
(7.73)
7.5.1 Realisation
The simple op-amp realisation (Figure7.7)of a derivativecontrolieris nothing
else thajl
a differentiator for which the output is rclated to the input as
dr.
e"=RC+ (7.1s)
at
From the Laplace transform of Eq. (7.1,5),we get the transfer
funcnon
&(d = ,ta
c1s1= (7.16t
t,(s)
Figure7.7 Derivative
controller.
7.6 PROPORTIONAL
PLUSINTEGML (PI) CONTROLLER
br the case of a PI controller,
a(t)= Kre(t)
+K, dt (7.17)
Je()
at'l=[r-'f)er"r {7.18)
i, ta -1
Basicsot Conttollets 195
t
signalof Pl conroer forsteperrorinput'
Figure7.8 Actuating
7.6.2 StabilitY
order closed-loop
controller' let us consider a second
To check the stabiUty of a PI
rt ij attached
*r,i.n (seeFigure79)'
;;;l;
to secondorder
attached pianl'
7.9 Pl c'onlroller
Figure
195 lntodltction to Linearand DigitalControl Sysbms
-, . c(s)
fr*/q1
\
"tl |
-------:-:-----
s , / s\s+ L'anl )
'
R(s)
'.('-:.)l ,r*
s(s+ 21ot)
(s+ K;)of,
(7.20)
s3+2{otnsz
+(s+K)r'fi
The characteristiceouation
+(s+ &\(tL =0
s3+2(atns2 (7.27)
possessestfuee roots. II K; > 2(ao, thm two roots have positive real parts that will make
the system unstable. However il Ki < 2ea,, then all the three roots have negative real
parts indicating a stable systemt. Next we discuss the steady-stateerror, or in other
words, accuracy that a PI controller offets.
7.6.3 Accuracy
The steady-stateerror for the system with a PI controller is
sR(s)
sss= rrm sE(s,= llrn:--:=#
s+u I + (,(srt,(s)
.. s3(s+ 2{ar-)R(s)
T-o s3a l(6,s2 + aj,s+ Kiafi Q.n\
Step input
In the caseof siep input,
s3(s+ 2lan1 1^
"s =lim '
116s3+ zlat s2+ fi,s + Kaafi,5 v.n)
Ramp input
kr the case of ramp input
=lim 1 ^'
' (7.24)
T-i653s 2.E6ne2
+ afis+ x,r,] s2
0 0
Ramp 0
,"
Parabolic K;@o
7.6.4 Advantages
The following are the advantagesof a PI controller:
1. e$ is reduced, which means accuracy imProves.
2. The order and t)?e of the system increaseby 1. That imProves damping and
reduces overshoot'
3. Noise is filtered.
4. Offset is eliminated-
7.6.5 Realisation
For the circuit given in Figure 7-10,
Figurc7.10 Pl mnirollerrealisaton.
198 lntrcductionto Linearand Digital Control Systems
i r,
',=[ I lrlo,,an,
=uf J;,,1ar* ",
The Laplace transforn of Eq. (7.26) yields
fr (7.26)
E"G) & 1
Ei(s) Rr RrCz,
Ki
=Kr*7 Q.2n
7,7 PROPORTIONAL
PLUSDERIVATIVE
(PD) CONTROLLER
In a PD conholler,
,1"t t\
a(t) = KDe(t)+ K,t ::Y! (7.281
at
Its Laplace transform produces
A(s) " ..
t(s) (7.2e)
rtKr=1.
a(t)=K"u(t\
+ Kd = X, * X odln (7.30)
ff
whirh indicaies that the actuating signal is an impulse. However,
if the error signal is-
a rarnp, it is easy to see that the actuating signal is also a ramp
lsee figure Z.ifj.
of pD contrcller
Flgure7.11 Ac ratingsignat forramperrorsignal.
Basicsol Conttolleg 199
sG+ 2ea)
secondorderprocess.
PD-controlled
= 0 can be rewritten as
The charactedstic equation s2+ (29a,+ Kdz*)s + d
,,*z(e*ff),"F+0*=o
s2+ z( ans+ a|, =0 v.32)
where
, - o -Ko'n
Equation (7.33) shows that the effective darnping of the system increasesby indu:qtg
-overshoot
.o.titoU"r. As a result, the maxirnum is reduced (seeFigure 5'10 for
"=pO
( vs M, gapF.).
7.7.3 Accuracy
Here,
.,,=$*#h
200 lntrcductionto LineatandDigitalContot Systems
,. sz +zta-l
' (s
= lun ; i' = (7.u)
s+o s' + (2lon + Kd(4)s + ot
Step input
In the case of step inpui,
Ramp input
In the caseof ramp input,
szG +2a') 1 tF
e* =lim . - (7.36)
" :-o s2+ (z(a, + Koal)s+ ofi s- @"
Pdrabolic input
In the caseof pambolic input
s-\s+ zgan) I
-"' s-o
!.._:lll..i----_llll-lllll!illlllll!i-.-=E
7.7.4 Realisation
From the chcuit shown in Figure 7.13, we gei
i=-iz
(7.38)
e" = -e;
Applyng KVL to Laplace transformed cfucuit, we get
&.1
Ei(s,= ----i 11(s)
R', + -
sCr
, . . s R , C+, 1 - . .
11(s)=--t'(s) (7.39\
EG) (7.40)
Thus,
(7.41\
+
h
circuit.
Flgure7,13 PDmntroller
(PID)
PLUSINTECML PLUSDERIVATIVE
7.8 PROPORTIONAL
CONTROLLER
As the name suggests,in a PID conholler the actuating signal has the following form:
+K,Iett)dt+x1ff
a(t)=Kre(t\ (7.4)
The block diagram of the PID controller acfion is shown in Figure 7.14.
Figule7.14 PIDctntrolaclion'
Without detailed analysis, we may say based on superposition of enors, tlnt since
the PD conhol improves the transient Part and the PI control improves the steady-state
pajt, a combination of PI and PD imProves the overall control
202 Introductionto Linear and DigitalControl Systems
Figurc7.15 PIDcontroller
circuit.
Table 7.3 presents a sunrnary of salient features of three basic modes of control to help
select a controller for a particular process.
Table7.3 Selecdon
ot controlac{ion
Figule7.16 Ratefeedback
controlaclion.
Here,
dc(t) (7.43)
a(t)=e(t)-KD
dt
7 Basicsol con]/liollers 203
(7 M\
AG)=EG)-Kosc(s)
- --,r'o forward Path gain is
lnLD "_-
,t*
s(s+ 260")
cG)=!11=
E(s) ..
- "Kod
s(s+ 2a^)
== 't (7.45)
s'+(2(ro,+Keai)s
function is
The overall transfer
cG)- G(s)
R(5) 1+ GG)
=- d . (7.46)
s ' + ( 2 a , + K D a ; ) s + a"t '
is
The characteristic equation
s2+ (2(ro,+ Keohs+ tfi =g (7.47\
+ Koa*,
,' -2a,
2a^
- o- K r ' n (7.48)
2
is increased'As a result (a) the mari-
It is clear from Eq. (7.48)that the damPint rafio
ts mcreaseo'
mum overshootis decreased,and (b) the nse-rime
--'l
No-, let us chck the effect on the steady-stateellor'
sR(J)
,-'s=ri,''.
;nlrc(tH(t
+ (264r"
- l, sts-'z + Kpg;)slR(:)
s'o st + 121a,+ Krai\s ' t'si'
Step input
In the caseof stePinPut,
?ls- (2a,- K=pot)l .! =o {7.s0)
"=' i'jd s']- (2d"- KD(4\s+a;^ s
= i^
204 lntroductionto Linear and DigitalContol Systems
Ramp input
-
=
s2ls+(21a)r+KDo?)l 7
Here, e--
" lim r: + (2(a, - grrz 1t- S "2
"-ri
2[a, + Krafi
=---E-
2t ,. (7.s1)
an
Parabolic input
In the caseof parabolicinput
K_p(4)l
o _ 1i- .s21s-+-(2ot:_.+ _ '. L _ _
-* (7.s2)
;; r, + 12{t.r,- Knal,l s + d}, s3
A comparison between the PD controller and rate feedback controller, both of which
employ derivative action, will be of interest here.
7.IO INTEGRALSQUAREERROR(ISE)
Unlike the steady-stateerror, the inte$al squareenor is a measureof the systemerror
tfuough the entire time, i.e. from f = 0 to f = -. It is defined as
Therefore,
,)l t 1 ,-
= r f r,,rl (7.5s)
2'J_filE-")
on tworactors'
iheIsEis dependent damping
namelv
g"t3,"ii'fii,?Jft
:ffjtffi
(IAE)
7,11 INTEGRALABSOLUTEERROR
erlor over a certaintime Period,T,
The integral absolute error is a measure of average
and is defined
.r
teE= \7 -56)
Jnle(t)ldt
has a-forward path transfer
EXAI/IPLE 7.1 (a) A unity feedback position control system
tunction G(s) = K/s. Fot o^t "d ;i;;t compute the value of K that minimises lSE'
The transfer ftnction of a system is 1/(1 + sT) The input to the system is 'u(t)'
@) erroi'
f}r" ,]"ip"i-*o"fa track the system Find the value of the ste.ady'state
=
Solulion: (a) Given, G(s)= K/s' H(s) \'
',r"
' ' - ' =99)
R(s)
G(s)
=
1 + G(s)
K
s+K
C(s)=----::- L.
Kf
=1l
R(,)
t^, 5(s L sl
L1
s s+K
Therefore,
lSE=| e'"'dt
Jo
o-2Kt l'
2i( [
1
=2K
+ RG)=+
Therefore,
sR(s)
-'s ,.
;:d 1+c(s)H(s)
,. -. l
s(r+sl). ,
=llltl-
sio 2+ sT
Altemativelt we can find the same result from the following study in the t-space.Here,
the closed-loop transfer function is given by
C(s)_ G(s)
R(s) 1 + GG)
= 1
2+tT
Therefore,
1/T
L(s.)= ---7-----;T
s-ts+* |
\T/
/1 DL
- --t--7------;- \5dy,
Basicsof Controllers 207
ihen,
r )l
=i
a=,,c(,)1,=o=+l+ll IJ-; JI
\ r . ,l ! = o
1 1l
,l =-i7-lTl
,=ft1*rt',1,="=l!, =-'
r-l 4
"-71"=o l'*iJ l.=.
.=[,.i).orl,__,
1l r
=71,,=-z=i
1TT
C(s)='--=--+--7--; -
Z, :J ,l^ , |
\ r./
,--21
c l ' 2=4- 4
--+-e'
f. -l zr\l
=L^ll+' l1-"-i ll
r-*12 a( ll
EXAI|PLE7.2 In the system shown in Figore 7.17, the damping latio is to be made 0'8
using derivative control. Determine the value of K4'
(Exampl
7.17 Syslem
Figure 7.2).
Here,
Solution:
18
_, , c(s) s2+ 2.6s
'
R(s) ' - ? 1 8
* L6t
208 lntroductionto LinearandDigitalContrclSystems
18
s z+ 2 . 6 s+ 1 8
Therefore, the characte stic equation is
s 2+ 2 . 5 s + 1 8 = 0 = s+22 ( r o n+so f i
By comparisory
4=B
or a, = 4'243 rad/ s
2t'+= z'0
- -2 .-O =0.3
or 4' =
(2)(4243)
Now, with derivative control, 6'has to be 0.8. So,
Kaa-
=E+_z_
- -
= Ko=V-gL
@n
2
= (0.8
' - 0.3)
' =0.24
4.243
EXAi|PLE7,3 hr the system shown in Figre 7.18, determine the derivative feedback
constant I(o which will increase the damping factor of the system to 0.6. What is the
steady state eflor to unit ramp input with this setting of the derivative feedback
constant?
(Example
7.18 System
Figure 7.3).
1
Solutlon: Given, GrG) = -:- and H1(s)= sKo
Gr(s)
G(s)=
1+qG)H1G)
1
s(s+2)+sK,
Basicsof Controllers 209
s+3.8
=lim
s-ros' + 3.8s+ 10
= 0.38
EXAI'PtE
7.4 Figure 7.19 shows the block diagram of a position contlol system.
AEplifie!
(a) In the absenceof the derivative feedback,i e', Kl = 0, determine the damPing ratio
of the system for amplifier gain KA = 5'
K1 so that the damping ratio of-the
*' Find the suitable values of parameters Ka and
(b)
in
;yrt"^ is increased to 0.7 without affecting the steady-stateerror as obtained
part (a).
Solulion: (a) Here,
5
rG)=ffi=
s(0.5s+ 1)
r- -u---i-
s(0.5s+ 1)
s2+ 2s+10
'"_ =telS*-
.-o 1+
do;*1)
0.5s+ 1
=lim
,+0 s(U.5s+ I) + )
- nt
rto=91')=,
-'
Kt9'l'1,
R(s) 1+ KaQ(s)
KA
s(0.5s+1)+sK1
=;----E^
- -
s(0.5s+ 1)+ s(1
KA
0 5 s 2+ ( K 1+ 1 ) s + K A
--
Ka /0.5
-'-------7;L'-"
2 Kr+r.l(A
The characteristicequation is
. K+1 K, ^
5_T-:=-j---==\,
u.5 u.J
= s2+2(ais + aiz
By comPariso&
,f =#
or a;' =h5
tx;
ztu;=T
L
or '- = K t + l ' 'zt;
P
0.5
-_...,
tv L, 1 \ I : =
1'{r(e
= 0.7 (grven)
0.7 (0
J0.5
Now.
1,
sx--t
e" = lin] r\A
s-eo r
lf---.------::.---:-
s(0.5s+ 1)+ s&
212 lnboductionto Linearand DigitatControlSystems
=lim 0.5s+1+Kr
sro s(0.5s+ 1+Kl) + K,{
1+K
KA
Kr+1
=02 ldeterminedfor part (a)] (ii)
K^
Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get
n7
JK'=d(ot
Kt = 24.5
- 1
l(r = U.ZK,q [From Eq. (ii)]
- lo