SUM OF PRODUCTS (SOP):

SOP is associated with the minterms of a Truth Table. Each row of a truth table is designated
with a minterm, that is a product of the input variables in direct or complemented form as they
appear.

Minterms provide a way to represent any boolean function algebraically, once its truth table is
specified. The Output function is given by the sum (OR) of those minterms corresponding to
rows where the output is 1.

Consider the following 3-input (or 3 variable) Truth table where A, B, C are inputs and Y is the
output.

A B C Y Minterm Maxterm

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

Table 1

In the above table, the output Y is 1 for 1, 2, 4, 7 rows, where the minterms are
. . , . . and so on.

Thus we write the output as the following sum of products:

(1)

PRODUCT OF SUMS (POS):

Each row of a truth table is also associated with a maxterm, which is a sum (OR) of all the
variables in the function, in direct or complemented form.

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Like minterms, maxterms also provide a way to represent any Boolean function algebraically
once its truth table is specified. The Output function is given by the product (AND) of those
maxterms corresponding to rows where the output is 0.

Each maxterm is a sum of input variables which are complemented forms of the given inputs.

In the above table, the output Y is 0 for 0, 3, 5, 6 rows, where the maxterms are
, and so on.

Thus we write, the output as the following product of sums:

( )( )( )( ) (2)

The output function is same whether it is calculated by the sum of products or product of sums.
So, the expressions in (1) and (2) can be shown to be equal after simplification by Boolean
Algebra rules.

KARNAUGH MAP:

Karnaugh Map (K-Map) is used to find and to simplify the Boolean expressions. The expressions
can also be found by direct inspections of truth tables, logic gate circuits and by SOP or POS
methods. But to easily obtain and to simply the complicated expressions without the Boolean
Algebra rules, K-Map is used.

K-Map is a two dimensional table where the input variables are placed on horizontal and
vertical sides.

Consider the 2-input Truth Table

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 1 1

Table 2

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The two-variable K-Map can be constructed as follows.

Table 3

The output function is [We have taken the entries where it is 1.]

Rules of finding the output function:

1. We have to look for the cells where it is 1.

2. We have to consider if there is a group of 1s.
3. Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.
4. Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8 or in general cells. [ = No. of input variables]
5. Each group should be as large as possible.
6. Groups can overlap
7. Group of 1s may be formed by folding the table horizontally and vertically.

So with the above rules, let us find the output functions.

Example #1

The K-Map corresponding to Table 1:

NOTE: For forming the K-Map table for 3 or more variables, we follow Gray code, where in the above
table, AB inputs come in order 00, 01, 11, 10. In Gray code, the digital values in successive entries can
change in more than one place. For example, we have 00 and then 01, after this it can not be 10 which
would mean changing A from 0 to 1 and B from 1 to 0. Instead we have 11.

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In the above table, we do not have any groups of 2 or more. We have individual cells with 1. So
considering the input values A, B and C, the output function,

Example #2

Consider the following 3-input Truth Table:

A B C Y

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

The K-Map for this is

We have here two groups as marked, one vertical group of 2-cells and another horizontal group of 4-
cells. In the group of 4-cells, the value of C remains constant which is 1. Thus Y is independent of A and
B. So the output is . Similarly, for the group of 2-cells, the output is 1 and it is independent of the
values of C (0 or 1). So, .

Thus we can write, the output function, .

Example #3

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 A B C Y

0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

For the above 3-input Truth Table, we prepare 3-variable K-Map:

In this K-Map, there is a horizontal group of 2-cells, where and A changes from 0 to 1 but B
remains 1. So the output does not depend on A. Thus for this . There are two 1s at the two
corners, which after folding become one group of two cells. For this, we find , whereas A changes
from 0 to 1 but remains 0. So the output does not depend on A. Thus we have .

Thus the output function,

One can construct more than 3-variable maps with the above methods. For example, for a 4-variable K-
Map we place AB on one side and CD on another side and so on.

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