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Thermal Conductivity *Thermophysical Properties*NonmetallicsAlum

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Fluoridesconcretebasaltbauxitemineralsbenteneberylberyllium
oxidescarbidesbrickscalcitccarbonatescarboncementceramics
silicidssclaycoalcoatingscompositesdiamonddlatomitesoil

rubber compoundsfibersfiberboardfiberglasswoodfirebrickglass
borosilicstc glasscoming glassessilica glssslime glassplat glass
sods glass-graphitenitridesiodineivorylimestonealuminatesmarbles-
nitridesiodineivorylimestonealuminatesmarblemicamineral wool
phosphorusplasterplexiglaspolymersplssticspolyethylenepolystyrene
porcelainpyroceramsqusrttresinrocksrubberrubyrut liessltsand
sandstonesapphiresilicasodium chloridehydroxidesSulfatesnitrates
spinelsulfurhoneycomb structurestefloninorgsnic compounds

20. ABSTRACT (cont)

Volume 2. 'Thermal Conductivity - Nonmetallic Solids,' Toulouklan,
Y.S., Powell, R. V., Ho, C. Y., and Klamene, P.G., 1302
pp., 1970.

Volume 2 in this 14 volume TPRC Data Series covers nonmetallic materials which
are in the solid state st normal temperature and pressure, including five
elements (with over 100 varieties of graphite), 53 simple end complex oxides,
82 systems of oxide mixtures, 83 nonoxide compounds, seven systems of mixtures
of oxides snd nonoxides, 15 organic compounds, 22 kinds of cermets, 10 groups
of systems, eight kinds of refractory materials, ovsr 40 kinds of glssses, 24
minerels, 16 polymers, 26 animal and vegetable natural substances, 30 processed
composites and processed natural and mineral substances, snd 10 aggregate mixes,
slags, scales, and residues. Data for the elements and for a few oxides have
been critically evaluated, analysed, and synthesised, and recommended values
or provisional values are presented in addition to the original experimental
data.
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 THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
Nonmatailic Solids

__ . -r^ v
P
 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
The TPRC Data Series
A Comprehensive Compilation of Data by the
Thermophysical Properties Research Center (TPRC), Purdue University

Y. S. Touloukian, Series Editor

C. Y. Ho, Series Technical Editor

Volume 1 Thermal Conductivity-Metallic Elements and Alloys

Volume 2. Thermal Conductivlty-Nonmetallic Solids
Volume 3. Thermal Conductivlty-Nonmetallic Liquids and Gases
Volume 4. Specific Heat-Metallic Elements and Alloys
Volume 5. Specific Heat-Nonmetallic Solids
Volume 6. Specific Heat-Nonmetallic Liquids and Gases
Volume 7 Thermal Radiative Properties-Metallic Elements and Alloys
Volume 8 Thermal Radiative Properties-Nonmetallic Solids
Volume 9. Thermal Radiative Properties-Coatings
Volume 10. Thermal Diffusivity
Volume 11. Viscosity
Volume 12. Thermal Expansion-Metallic Elements and Allovs
Volume 13 Thermal Expansion-Nonmetallic Solids

New data on thermophysical properties are being constantly accumulated at TPRC Contact TPRC
and use its interim updating services for the most cunent information

' III
-7-
^_

THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

VOLUME 2

THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
Nonmetallic Solids

Y. S. Touloukian
Director
Thermophysical Properties Research Center
and
Distinguished Atkins Professor of Engineering
School of Mechanical Engineering
Purdue University
and
Visiting Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Auburn University

R. W. Powell
Senior hes)archer
Thermophysical Properties Research Center
Purdue University
Formerly
Senior Principal Scientific Officer
Basic Physics Division
National Physical Laboratory
England

C.Y. Ho
Head of Data Tables Division
and
Associate Senior Researcher
Thermophysical Properties Research Center
Purdue University

P. G. Klemens
Professor and Head
Department of Physics
University of Connecticut
and
Visiting Research Professor
Thermophysical Properties Research Center
Purdue University

IFI/PLEIMUM NEW YORK-WASHINGTON 1970

'*.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 73-129616

SBN (13-Volume Set) 306-67020-8

SBN (Volume 2) 306-67022-4

r
Copyright 1970, Purdue Research Foundation

IFI Plenum Data Corporation is a subsidiary of

Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011

Distributed in Europe by Heyden & Son, Ltd.

Spectrum House, Alderton Crescent
London N.W, 4, England

Printed in the United States of America

. , ...^.w Wv
 "In this work, when it shall be found that much is omitted, let it not be forgotten
that much likewise is performed...''

SAMUEL JOHNSON, A.M.

Prom last paragraph of Praface to his two
volume Dictionary of the English Language.
Vol. I. page 5, 1755, London. Printed by Strahan

m **
Foreword
In 1957. the Thermophysical Properties Research
Center (TPRC) of Purdue University, under the
leadership of its founder. Professor Y. S. Touloukian.
began to develop a coordinated experimental,
theoretical, and literature review program covering
a set of properties of great importance to science and
technology. Over the years, this program has grown
steadily, producing bibliographies, data compila-
tions and recommendations, experimental measure-
ments, and other output. The series of volumes for
which these remarks constitute a foreword is one of
these many important products. These volumes are a
monumental accomplishment in themselves, re-
quiring for their production the combined knowledge
and skills of dozens of dedicated specialists. The
Thermophysical Properties Research Center de-
serves the gratitude of every scientist and engineer
who uses these compiled data.
The individual nontechnical citi/en of the
United States has a stake in this work also, for much
of the science and technology that contributes to his
well-being relies on the use of these data Indeed,
recognition of this importance is indicated by a
mere reading of the list of the financial sponsors of
the Thermophysical Properties Research Center;
leaders of the technical industry of the United States
and agencies of the Federal Government are well
represented.
Experimental measurements made in a labora-
tory have many potential applications. They might
be used, for example, to check a theory, or to help
design a chemical manufacturing plant, or to com-
pute the characteristics ol a heat exchanger in a
nuclear power plant. The progress of science and
technology demands that results be published in the
open literature so that others may use them. For-
tunately for progress, the useful data in any single
field are not scattered throughout the tens of thou-
sands of technical journals published throughout
the world. In most fields, fifty percent of the useful
work appears in no more than thirty or forty journals.
However, in the case of TPRC, its field is so broad
f"
that about 100 journals are required to yield fifty
percent. But that other fifty percent I It is scattered
through more than 3500 journals and other docu-
ments, often items not readily identifiable or ob-
ainable. Nearly 50,000 references are now in the
files.
Thus, the man who wants to use existing data,
rather than make new measurements himself, faces
a long and costly task if he wants to assure himself
that he hi.s found all the relevant results. More often
than not, .> earch for data stops after one or two
results are found- or after the searcher decides he
has spent enough time looking. Now with the
appearance of these volumes, the scientist or engineer
who needs these kinds of data can consider himself
very fortunate. He has a single source to turn to;
thousands of hours of search time will be saved,
innumerable repetitions of measurements will be
avoided, and several billions of dollars of investment
in research work will have been preserved.
However, the task is not ended with the genera-
tion of these volumes. A critical evaluation of much
of the data is still needed. Why are discrepant results
obtained by different experimentalists? What un-
detected sources of systematic error may affect some
or even all measurements? What value can be derived
as a "recommended" figure from the various con-
flicting values that may be reported ? These questions
are difficult to answer, requiring the most sophisti-
cated judgment of a specialist in the field. While a
number of the volumes in this Series do contain
critically evaluated and recommended data, these
are still in the minority. The data are now being
more intensively evaluated by the staff of TPRC as an
integral part of the effort of the National Standard
Reference Data System (NSRDS). The task of the
National Standard Reference Data System is to
organize and operate a comprehensive program to
prepare compilations of critically evaluated data on
the properties of substances. The NSRDS is ad-
ministered by the National Bureau of Standards
under a directive from the Federal Council for Science
vil
w
viii Foreword
and Technology, augmented by special legislation
of the Congress of the United States, TPRC is one
ofthe national resources participating in the National
Standard Reference Data System in a united effort
to satisfy the needs of the technical community for
readily accessible, critically evaluated data.
As a representative of the NBS Office of Stan-
dard Reference Data,l want tocongratulate Professor
Touloukian and his colleagues on the accomplish-
ments represented by this Series of reference data
i mi tm m
books. Scientists and engineers the world over are
indebted to them. The task ahead is still an awesome
one and I urge the nation's private industries and all
concerned Federal agencies to participate in fulfilling
this national need of assuring the availability of
standard numerical reference data for science and
technology.
i
EDWARD L. BRADY
Associate Director for Information Programs
National Bureau of Standards
-I mt a^i m*
r
 Preface
ThcrmophysUat Properlies of Maller, the TPRC
Data Series, is the culmination of twelve years of
pioneering effort in the generation of tables of
numerical data for science and technology. It
constitutes the restructuring, accompanied by ex-
tensive revision and expansion of coverage, of the
original TPRC Data Book, first released in I960 in
loose-leaf format, ll'xl?' in size, and issued in
June and December annually in the form of supple-
ments. The original loose-leai" Daia Book was or-
ganized in three volumes: (I) metallic elements and
alloys, (2) nonmetallic elements, compounds, and
mixtures which are solid at NT.P.. and (3) non-
metallic elements, compounds, and mixtures which
are liquid or gaseous at N.T.P. W ithin each volume,
each property constituted a chapter.
Because of the vast proportions the Data Book
began to assume over the years of its growth and the
greatly increased effort necessary in its maintenance
by the user, it was decided in 1967 to change from the
loose-leaf format to a conventional publication.
Thus, the December 1966 supplement of the original
Data Book was the last supplement disseminated by
TPRC.
While the manifold physical, logistic, and
economic advantages of the bound volume over the
loose-leaf oversize format are obvious and welcome
to all who have used the unwieldy original volumes,
the assumption that this work will no longer be
kept on a current basis because of its bound format
would not be correct, fully recognizing the need of
many important research and development programs
which require the latest available information.
TPRC has instituted a Data Update Plan enabling
the subscriber to inquire, by telephone if necessary,
for specific information and receive, in many in-
stances, same-day response on any new data pro-
cessed or revision of published data since the latest
edition. In thiscontext. the TPRC Data Series departs
drastically from the conventional handbook and
giant multivolume classical works, which are no
longer adequate media for the dissemination of
**
L _
numerical data of science and technology without a
continuing activity on contemporary coverage. The
loose-leaf arrangements of many works fully recog-
nize this fact and attempt to develop a combination
of bound volumes and loose-leaf supplement arrange-
ments as the work becomes increasingly large.
TPRC's Data Update Plan is indeed unique in this
sense since it maintains the contents of the TPRC
Data Series current and live on a day-to-day basis
between editions. In this spirit, I strongly urge all
purchasers of these volumes to complete in detail
and return the Volume Registration Certificate
which accompanies each volume in order to assure
themselves of the continuous receipt of annual
listing of corrigenda during the life of the edition.
The TPRC Data Scries consists initially of 13
independent volumes. The initial ten volumes will
be published in 1970, and the remaining three by
1972. it is also contemplated that subsequent to the
first edition, each volume will be revised, updated,
and reissued in a new edition approximately every
tillh ye<r. The organization of the TPRC Data Scries
makes each volume a self-contained entity available
individually without the need to purchase the entire
Series.
The coverage of the specific thermophysical
properties represented by this Series constitutes the
most comprehensive and authoritative collection of
numerical data of its kind for science and technology.
Whenever possible, a uniform format has been
used in all volumes, except when variations in
presentation were necessitated by the nature of the
property or the physical stale concerned. In spite of
the wealth of data reported in these volumes, it
should be recognized that all volumes are not of the
same degree of completeness. However, as additional
data are processed at TPRC on a continuing basis,
subsequent editions will become increasingly more
compleif and up to date. Each volume in the Series
basically comprises three sections, consisting of a text,
the body of numerical data with source references,
and a material index.
IX
 Preface
The aim of the textual material is to provide a
complementary or supporting role to the body of
numerical data rather than to present a treatise on
the subject of the properiy. The user will find a basic
theoretical treatment, a comprehensive presentation
of selected works which constitute reviews, or com-
pendia of empirical relations useful in estimation of
the property when there exists a paucity of data or
when data are completely lacking. Established
major experiir.Tital techniques are also briefly
reviewed.
The body of data is the core of each volume
and is presented in both graphical and tabular formats
for convenience of the user. Every single point of
numerical data is fully referenced as to its original
source and no secondary sources of information are
used in data extraction. In general, it has not been
possible to critically scrutinize all the original data
presented in these volumes, except to eliminate
perpetuation of gross errors. However, in a signifi-
cant number of cases, such as for the properties of
liquids and gases and the thermal conductivity of
all the elements, the task of full evaluation, synthesis,
and correlation has been completed. It is hoped that
in subsequent editions of this continuing work,
not only new information will be reported but the
critical evaluation will be extended to increasingly
broader classes of materials and properties.
The third and final major section of each volume
is the material index. This is the key to the volume,
enabling the user to exercise full freedom of access to
its contents by any choice of substance name or
detailed alloy and mixture composition, trade name,
synonym, etc. Of particular interest here is the fact
that in the case of those properties which are re-
ported in separate companion volumes, the material
index in each of the volumes also reports the con-
tents of the other companion volumes* The sets of
companion volumes are as follows:
Thermal conductivity: Volumes I. 2. 3
Specific heat: Volumes 4. 5, 6
Radiative properties: Volumes 7, 8, 9
Thermal expan >a: Volumes 12, 13
The ultimate aims and functions of TPRC's
Data Tables Division are to extract, evaluate, re-
concile, correlate, and synthesize all available data
for the thermophysical properties of materials with
*For the first edition of ihe.Scries, this arrangement was not
Ceasihle for Volume 7 due lo the sequence and the schedule
of its publication. This situation will be resolved in sub-
sequent editions.
-a-
the result of obtaining internally consistent sets of
property values, termed the "recommended reference
values." In such work, gaps in the data often occur,
for ranges of temperature, composition, etc. When-
ever feasible, various techniques are used to fill in
such missing information, ranging from empirical
procedures to detailed theoretical calculations. Such
studies are resulting in valuable new estimation
methods being developed which have made it possible
to estimate values for substances and/or physical con-
ditions presently unmeasured or not amenable to
laboratory investigation. Depending on the available
information for a particular property and substance,
tho end product may vary from simple tabulations of
isolated values to detailed tabulations with generating
equations, plots showing the concordance of the
different values, and, in some cases, over a range of
parameters presently unexplored in the laboratory.
The TPRCData Series constitutes a permanent
and valuable contribution to science and technology.
These constantly growing volumes are invaluable
sources of data to engineers and scientists, sources in
which a wealth of information heretofore unknown
or not readily available has been made accessible.
We look forward to continued improvement of both
format and contents so that TPRC may serve the
scientific and technological community with ever-
increasing excellence in the years to come. In this
connection, the staff of TPRC is most anxious to
receive comments, suggestions, and criticisms from
all users of these volumes. An increasing number of
colleagues are making available at the earliest pos-
sible moment reprints of their papers and reports as
wel! as pertinent information on the more obscure
publications. I wish to renew my earnest request that
this procedure become a universal practice since it
will prove to be most helpful in making TPRC's
continuing effort more complete and up to date.
It is indeed a pleasure to acknowledge with
gratitude the multisource financial assistance re-
ceived from over fifty of TPRC's sponsors which
has made the continued generation of these tables
possible. In particular, I wish to single out the sus-
tained major support being received from the Air
Force Materials Laboratory-Air Force Systems
Command, the Office of Standard Reference Data-
National Bureau of Standards, and the Office of
Advanced Research and Technology- National Aero-
nautics aad Space Administration. TPRC is indeed
proud to have been designated as a National In-
formation Analysis Center for the Department of
Defense as well as a component of the National
 Preface xl

Standard Reference Data System under the cog- thank those members of the staff, research assistants,
nizance of the National Bureau of Standards. graduate research ass-stants, and supporting graphics
While the preparation and continued mainten- and technical typing personnel without whose dili-
ance of this work is the responsibility of TPRC's gent and painstaking ;fforts this work could not have
Data Tables Division, it would not have been possible materialized.
without the direct input of TPRC's Scientific Docu-
Y. S. TOULOUKIAN
mentation Division and, to a lesser degree, the
Theoretical and Experimental Research Divisions. Director
The authors of the various volumes are the senior Thermophysical Properties Research Center
staff members in responsible charge of the work. Distinguished A tkins Professor of Engineering
It should be clearly understood, however, that
many have contributed over the years and their Purdue University
contributions are specifically acknowledged in each Lafayette, Indiana
volume. 1 wish to take this opportunity to personally July 1969

UMta <
Introduction to Volume 2
This volume of Thermophysical Properties of Matter.
the TPRC Data Series, is among the more compre-
hensive of all the volumes of the Series. Indeed, it
is the result of one of TPRC's oldest data tables
programs, initiated in 1960.
The volume comprises three major sections:
namely, the front text material together with its
bibliography, the main body of numerical data and
its references, and the material index.
The text material is intended to assume a role
complementary to the main body of numerical
data which is the primary purpose of this volume.
It is felt that a concise discussion of the theoretical
nature of the property under consideration together
with a review of predictive procedures and recognized
experimental techniques will be appropriate in a
major reference work of this kind. The extensive
reference citations given in the text should lead the
interested reader to sufficient literature for I detailed
study. It is hoped, however, that enough detail is
presented for this volume to be self-contained for
the practical user.
The main body of the volume consists of the
presentation of numerical data compiled over the
years in a most comprehensive and meticulous
manner. The ,cope of coverage includes most
nonmetallic materials of engineering importance
which are in the solid state at normal temperature
and pressure. The extraction of all data directly
from their original sources ensures freedom from
errors of transcription. Furthermore, some gross
errors appearing in the original source documents
have been corrected. The organization and presenta-
tion of the data together with other pertinent
information on the use of the tables and figures are
discussed in detail in the text of the section entitled
Numerical Data.
While only a very limited number of the
materials reported have been critically evaluated,
it is planned that the policy of Volume 1 will be
extended and that future editions of this volume
will include the "recommended values" for an
increasing number of materials which can be
reasonably well characterized to enable critical
analysis.
As stated earlier, all data have been obtained
from their original sources and each data set is so
referenced. TPRC has in its files all documents cited
in this volume. Those that cannot be readily obtained
elsewhere are available from TPRC in microfiche
form.
The material index at the end of the volume
covers the contents of all three companion volumes
(Volumes 1, 2, and 3) on thermal conductivity.
It is hoped that the user will find these comprehensive
indices helpful.
This volume has grown out of activities made
possible by TPRC's Founder Sponsors and through
the principal support of the Air Force Materials
LaboratoryAir Force Systems Command, under
the monitorship of Mr. John H. Charlesworth.
The limited effort on the critical analysis of the
data for the elements and some oxides was made
possible through the support of the Office of
Standard Reference DataNational Bureau of
Standards, under the monitorship of Dr. Howard J.
White, Jr. Over the past nine years, many graduate
students and research assistants have rendered
assistance for long or short periods under the
authors' supervision. We wish to acknowledge in
chronological order of their association with TPRC,
the contributions of Messrs. C. V. Wang, K. C. Lin,
D. Y. Nee, R. L. Feng, J. J. G. Hsia, M. Mangkorn-
kanok, M. Nalbantyan, G. K Kirjilian, and Mrs.
E. K. C. Lee and Mr. K. Y. Wu. The two last
mentioned are still at TPRC and participated in the
final organization of the tables and figures and the
demanding task of checking details. We also wish to
acknowledge the benefit of extensive discussions with
Dr. J. Kaspar, Senior Staff Scientist, Materials
Sciences Laboratory, Aerospace Corporation. He
is also a Visiting Research Professor at TPRC.
Inherent to the character of this work is the
fact that in the preparation of this volume, we have
xiii
xiv Introduction to Volume 2
drawn most heavily upon the scientific literature and
feel a debt of gratitude to the authors of the
referenced articles. While their often discordant
results have caused us much difficulty in reconciling
their findings, we consider this to be our challenge
and our contribution to negative entropy of infor-
mation, as an effort is made to create from the
randomly distributed data a condensed, more
orderly state.
While this volume is primarily intended as a
reference work for the designer, researcher, experi-
mentalist, and theoretician, the teacher at the
graduate level may also use it as a teaching tool to
point out to his students the topography of the state
of knowledge on the thermal conductivity of non-
metallic solids. We believe there is also much food
for reflection by the specialist and the academician
concerning the meaning of "original" investigation
and its "information content."
The authors and their contributing associates
are keenly aware of the possibility of many weak-
nesses in a work of this scope. We hope that we
will not be judged too narshly and that we will
receive the benefit of your suggestions regarding
references omitted, additional material groups
needing more detailed treatment, improvements in
presentation, and, most important, any inadvertent
errors. If the Volume Registrali-m Certificate accom-
panying this volume is returned, the reader will
assure himself of receiving annually a list of corre-
genda as possible errors come to our attention.
Lafayette, Indiana Y. S. TOULOUKIAN
July 1969 R. W. POWELL
C. Y. Ho
P. G. KLEMENS
 -

Contents
Foreword Ml

Preface l\

Introduction to Volume 2 .... xiii

Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xviii

Theory, Estimation, am* Measurement

Notation la
Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Nonmetallic Solids 3a
1. Introduction ...... 3a
2. Lattice Waves 4a
3. Lattice Thermal Conductivity 5a
4. Intrinsic Resistivity at High Temperatures 6a
5. Intrinsic Resistivity at Low Temperatures 7a
0. Boundary Resistance .... a
7. Thermal Resistances due to Lattice Imperfections 9a
8. Amorphous Solids ..... 10a
9. Resonant Scattering .... 10a
10. Other Cases 10a
Experimental Determination of Thermal Conductivity 13a
1. Introduction ...... 13a
2. Steady-State Methods .... 14a
A. Longitudinal Heat Flow Methods . 14a
a. Absolute Methods .... 14a
(i) Rod Method .... 14a
(ii) Plate (or Disk) Method 15a
b. Comparative Methods 16a
(i) Divided-Rod (or Cut-Bar) Method 16a
(ii) Plate (or Disk) Method 16a
c. Combined Method 16a
B. Forbes' Bar Method 16a
C. Radial Heat Flow Methods 17a
a. Absolute Methods 17a
(i) Cylindrical Method 17a
(ii) Spherical and Ellipsoidal Methods 18a
(iii) Concentric Sphere and Concentric Cylinder Methods 18a
(iv) de Senarmont's Plate Method 18a
b. Comparative Methods 19a
(i) Concentric Cylinder Method . 19a
(ii) Disk Method 19a

x\

*** MM*
 xii Contents

D. Direct Electrical Heating Methods . 19a

a. Cylindrical Rod Methods 20a
(i) Longitudinal Heat Flow Method 20a
(ii) Radial Heat Flow Method 2a
(iii) Thin-Rod-Approximation Method 20a
b. Rectangular Bar Method 21a
E. Thermoelectrical Method 22a
F. Thermal Comparator Method 22a
3. Nonsteady-State Methods 22a
A. Periodic Heat Flow Methods 23a
a. Longitudinal Heat Flow Method. 23a
b. Radial Heat Flow Method 23a
B. Transient Heat Flow Methods 23a
a. Longitudinal Heat Flow Method 23a
b. Flash Method 24a
c. Radial Heat Flow Method 24a
d. Line Heat Source and Probe Methods 24a
e. Moving Heat Source Method 24a
f. Comparative Method. 25a

References to Text ..... 27a

Numerical Data

Data Presentation and Related General Information 41a

1. Scope of Coverage ....... 41a
2. Presentation of Data 41a
3. Classification of Materials ...... 42
4. Symbols and Abbreviations used in the Figures and Tables 43a
5. Convention for Bibliographic Citation. 43a
6. Conversion Factors for Thermal Conductivity Units 45a
7. Crystal Structures, Transition Temperatures, and Other Pertinent Physical Constants of the
Elenvnts 45a

Numerical Data on Thermal Conductivity of Nonmetallic Solids (See pp. xviii to xxix for detailed listing
of entries for each of the following groups of materials) I
1. Elements ........... 1
2. Single Oxides . 93
3. Oxide Compounds ......... 251
4. Binary Mixtures of Single Oxides and/or Oxide Compounds 321
5. Multiple Mixtures of Single Oxides and/or Oxide Compounds 453
6. Mixtures of Oxide and Nonoxide 541
7. Borides 561
8. Bromides 565
9. Carbides 571
10. Chlorides 613
11. Fluorides and Their Mixtures 627
12. Nitrates 647
13. Nitrides 653
14. Phosphates 679
15. Sulfates .... 687
16. Sulfides and Their Mixtures 697
17, Cermets .... 707

- *
ti>iii
1 18. Miscellaneous Inorganic Compounds and Mixtures
Contents x*ii

757
19. Minerals ......... 797
20. Aggregate Mixes 861
21. Miscellaneous Refractory Materials a.)r\Ji (rla>SS*< 889
22. Polymers 943
23. Miscellaneous Organic Compounds 985
24. Systems . 1009
25. Animal and Vegetable Natural Substances and Their Derivatives 1059
26. Fabrics, Yarns, and Hairs ....... 1093
27. Processed Composites 1107
28. Processed Mineral Substances ...... 1135
29. Slags and Scales 1147
30. Residues 1155
References to Data Sources ....... 1159

Material Index
Material Index to Thermal Conductivity Companion Volumes I, 2. and 3 Al

***mmm*m
xvlii Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables

GROUPING OF MATERIALS AND

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

ELEMENTS

FiRure and/or Symbol Pane No.

Name
Table No.

1 Boron B I
2 Carbon C 5
:i Carbon (Diamond) C 9
Carbon (Graphite) C
4 AGOT Graphite 13
5 ATJ Graphite 20
AWG Graphite 24
7 Pvrolvtie Graphite M
8 SA-25 Graphite 42
< K75S Graphite 45
hi M9()S Graphite 4
11 Miscellaneous Graphite J 53
11 Iodine I 83
13> Phosphorus P 86
U* Sulfur S 89

2. SINGLE OXIDES

FiKure and/or ^ Formula Page No.

Tnble No.

15* Aluminum Oxide (Sapphire) AljO, 93

16* Aluminum Oxide Al,Oj 9
17 Barium Oxide BaO 120
I- Beryllium Oxide BeO 123
19 Boron Oxide B,Oj 138
20 Calcium Oxide CaO 141
21 Cerium Dioxide CeO, 14-1
22 (di)Copper Oxide C\if> 147
23 Hafnium Dioxide HfO, 150
24 Indium Oxide InO 1P3
25 (trOlron Tetraoxide fefiA 154
26 Lithium Oxide Ufi 157
27* Magnesium Oxide MgO 158
2H Manganese Oxide MnO 16H
29 (trt)Manganese Tetraoxide Mn,ii, 170
30 Nickel Oxide NiO 171
il Silicon Dloxlde(Cry8talline) SIC, 174
32" Silicon Dioxide (Fused) SIO, 183
33 Strontium Oxide SrO 194
34* Thorium Dioxide ThO, 195
I
Number marked with an asterisk indicates that recommended values are also reported for thla material
on separate figure and table of the same number followed by the letter R.
 "

Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xlx

2. SINGLE OXIDES . ,.iiiui,.h

Flguri! and/or M.m

Namc Formula Page No.
Table No.

N Tin Dloxidv SnOj 199

M* Titanium Dioxide TiO| 202
:i7 Tungsten Trioxide WO, 209
38 Uranium Dioxide UO, 210
3t (tri)Uramum Octoxide U,0| 237
M Yttrium CKide Xfit 240
41 Zinu Oxide ZnO 243
\1 Zirconium Dioxide ZrO, 246

3. OXIDE COMIHJUNDS

43 Aluminum Fluoaillcate Tupa/I 2A1FO SiO, 251

44 Aluminum Silicate (Mulllte) 3AljO, 2S10j 254
45 Barium MctatitanaU' BaTiO, 257
46 Barium Dititanate BaO 2T10, 260
47 Bismuth Stannate HIMSIKVJ 261
48 Calcium Stannate CaSnOj 264
49 Calcium Metatitanate CaTiO, 267
50 Calcium Tungstate CaW04 270
51 (trilCbalt Strontium Metatitanau; CojSrTIO, 271
62 Cobalt Zinc Ferrate Co(Zn)Fej04 272
53 Forsterite Mg,S104 275
54 Garnet [M^M^fSlO),] 278
65 Lead Metatitanate HJTIO, 279
56 Lead Zirconate PbZrO, 28i
57 Magnesium Alumlnate MgO Al,Oj 283
68 Magnesium Alumlnate MgO 3. SAliO] 286
59 Magnesium Stannate MgSnO, 289
60 Manganese Ferrate Mill, i), 292
61 Manganese Zinc Ferrate Mn(Zn)Fej04 295
62 Nickel Zinc Ferrate Ni(Zn)Fej04 298
63 Sodium Tungsten Bronze NaxWO, 301
64 Strontium Metatitanate SrTIO, 304
65 Strontium Zirconate SrZrO, 307
66 Yttrium Alumlnate Y,Al,Ou 308
67 Yttrium Ferrate Y,Fej(Fe04), 311
68 Zinc Ferrate ZnFe104 314
69 Zirconium Orthoaillcate ZrS104 317

Number marked with an asterisk indicates that recommended values are also reported for this material
on separate figure and table of the same Dumber followed by the letter li.
 xx Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables

B1NAHY MIXTURES OF SlNGLfc OXIDES AND/OH OXIDE COMPOUNDS

Figure and/or
Namt Page No.
Table No.

70 Aluminum Onlde + Aluminum Silicate A1,0, + 3A1,0, 2810! 321

'I Aluminum Oxide + (dl)Chromlum Trloxlde A1,0, + Cr,0, 324
72 Aluminum CKide + (dl^Manganese Trioxlde AljO, + MnjO, 327
73 Aluminum OKide + Silicon Dioxide AMij + SiO| 328
74 Aluminum CKlde + Zirconium Dioxide AljO, + ZrO! 331
75 Aluminum Silicate + Aluminum Kide 3A1,0, ZSlOj + AljG, 334
76 Barium GKide + Strontium Oxide BaO + SrO 337
77 Barium Metatltanate + Calcium Metatltanate BaTiO, + CaTIO, 340
78 Barium Metatltanate + Magnesium Zirconate BaTiO, + MgZrO, 343
79 Barium Metatltanate + Manganese Niobate BaTiO, + MnjNbjO, 344
80 Beryllium Kide + Uranium Dioxide BeO+ UO, 347
81 Cerium Dioxide + Magnesium Oxide CeO] MgO 350
82 Cerium Dioxide + Uranium Dioxide CeOi + UOj 353
83 Gadolinium Oxide Samarium Kide Gd,0, + SmjO, 356
84 Lead Kide 1 Silicon Dioxide PbO SiO] 359
85 Magnesium Aluir.lnate + Magnesium Oxide MgO Al,(i, MgO 362
86 Magnesium Alumlnate + Silicon Dioxide MgO Al2i I, * SiO| 365
87 Magnesium Alumlnate + (dl)Sodlum Oxide MgO A1,0, NajO 368
88 Magnesium Oxide + Beryllium Kide MgO+ BeO 371
8 Magnesium Oxide + Clay MgO + Clay 374
90 Magnesium Oxide + Magnesium Alumlnate MgO + MgO AljO, 376
91 Magnesium Oxide + Magnesium Orthoslllcate MgO 2MgO SI! 378
92 Magnesium Oxide + Nicke! Oxide MgO + NIG 381
93 Magnesium Oxide + Silicon Dioxide MgO SID, 384
94 Magnesium Oxide + Tin Dioxide MgO + SnO, 387
95 Magnesium Oxide Uranium Dioxide MgO + UO, 390
96 Magnesium Oxide + Zinc Oxide MgO ZnO 391
97 Magnesium Orthoslllcate Magnesium Oxide 2MgO SIO, + MgO 394
98 (dl)Manganese Trioxlde Aluminum Oxide MnjO, + AljO, 397
99 (dMManganese Trioxlde + Magnesium Oxide MnjO, + MgO 398
100 (di)Manganese Trioxlde 4 Silicon Dioxide Mn,0, + SIO, 39
101 Silicon Dioxide + Aluminum Oxide SiO| + A1,0, 402
102 Silicon Dioxide + Calcium Oxide SiOj + CaO 407
103 Silicon Dioxide + (di)lron Trioxlde SiO, + FejO, 410
104 Thorium Dioxide + Uranium Dioxide ThO), + UO, 413
105 Tin Dioxide + Magnesium Oxide SnO, + MgO 416
106 Tin Dioxide Zinc Kide SnO, + ZnO 419
107 Tungsten Trioxlde + Zinc Kide WO, ZnO 422
108 Uranium Dioxide + Beryllium Oxide UO, BeO 423
109 Uranium Dioxide + Calcium OKlde UO, CaO 426
110 Uranium Dioxide + (dl^Niobium Pentoxide UO, + Nb,Ot 427
111 Uranium Dioxide + Yttrium Oxide UO, Xf>t 428
11? Uranium Dioxide + Zirconium Dioxide UO, ZrO, 429
113 Yttrium Oxide + Uranium Dioxide Y,0, + UO, 432
114 Zinc OKlde + Magnesium Oxide ZnO MgO 435
115 Zinc OKlde Tin Dioxide ZnO SDO, 438

II
 Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xxi

bINAHY MKTUHES OF SINGLE OXIDE AND/OR OXIDE COMPOUNDS (continued)

Figure and/or
Name Formula Page No,
Table No.

IM Ziruonium Dioxide t Aluminum UKide ZrO| Ai|0| 441

117 Zirconium Dioxide + Calcium Oxide ZrO| CaO 442
Ul Zirconium Dioxide + Magnesium Oxide ZrO| HgO 446
11 Zirconium Dioxide + Yttrium Oxide ZrOi + YJO, 449

5. MUIT1PLE MIXTURES OF SINGLE OXIDES AND/OR OXIDE COMPOUNDS

120 Aluminum Oxide + Silicon Dioxide + ..\i AljO, 4 SiO, + EXj 453
121 Aluminum Oxide + Titanium Dioxide + DCj AljO, + TiO, 4 EXj 456
122 Barium Oxide + Silicon Dioxide + ^Xi BaO + S10| 4 EXj 467
12.1 Barium Oxide + Strontium Oxide + EXj BaO + SrO 4- EX, 460
124 Beryllium CJMde + Aluminum Oxide + LXj BeO + A1,0, + EXj 461
125 Beryllium Oxide + Magnesium Oxide + EXj BoO + MgO + EX, 464
12(1 Beryllium Oxide + Thorium Dioxide 4- IXi BeO + ThOi + EX, 467
127 Beryllium Oxide + Zirconium Dioxide + EXj BeO + Zr! 4 EXj 470
128 (di)Chromium Trioxlde + Magnesium Oxide + EXj Cr^ + MgO + EX, 473
1211 Lead Oxide + Silicon Dioxide * :.\1 PbO + SlOj + EXj 474
130 Magnesium Oxide + Calcium OKide + ,.X1 MgO + CaO + ZXj 477
l:u Magnesium Oxide + (di)Chromlum T( (de + IXj MgO + Cr,0, + EXj 480
132 Magnesium Oxide + (dl)Iron Trioxlde < ZXi MgO + FejO, + EXj 483
133 Magnesium Oxide + Silicon Dioxide 4- JXj MgO y SIO, 4 EXj 484
1.14 Silicon Dioxide + Aluminum Oxide + EX SIO, + AljO, + EX, 487
135 Silicon Dioxide 4- Barium Oxide + SX SIO, + BaO + EX, 495
136 Silicon Dioxide + Boron Oxide + EXj SiO + Bf>, 4 EX, 498
137 Silicon Dioxide 4- Calcium Oxide + EXj SiO, 4 CaO + IX, SOJ

138 Silicon Dioxide + Lead Oxide + EXj SlOj 4 PbO 4 EX, 504
131 Silicon Dioxide 4- (dl)Potasium Oxide + EXj SIO, + K|0 + EX, 507
140 Silicon Dioxide 4 (di)Sodium CKide 4- EXj SIO, 4 NajO 4 EXj 5Jo
141 Strontium OKide + Lithium Aluminate + EXj SrO + L1,0 AljO, + EXj . . . 513
142 Strontium OKide + Lithium Zirconium Silicate +
EXj Sr04 U,0-ZrO-SiC),+EXj . . . 514
14:i Strontium Oxide 4 Titanium Dioxide + EXj SrO + TiO, 4 EXj 517
144 Strontium Oxide + zinc Oxide + EXj SrO + ZnO 4 EXj 520
14;. Tin Dioxide + Magnesium Oxide + EXj SnO, 4 MgO 4 EXj 523
14(i Tin Dioxide + Zinc Ofcide + EX, SnO, + ZnO 4 EXj 524
147 Zinc Oxide + Strontium Oxide + EXj ZnO 4 SrO + DC, 527
14^ Zinc CKlde Tin Dioxide 4 EX, ZnO + SnO, + ZX, 528
1411 Zirconium Dioxide + Calcium Oxide + EXj ZrO, + CaO + EXj 531
160 Zirconium Dioxide + Silicon Dioxide 4 J3C1 ZrO, + SiO, 4 EXj 534
151 Zirconium Dioxide 4 Yttrium Oxide + EXj ZrO + YjO, 4 EXj 537

xxii Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables

6. MIXTURES OF OXIDE AND NONOXIDE

Figure and/or
Name Formula Page No.
TaWe No.

IM (telra)Boron Carbide + Sodium Metasilieate B<C + NaiO- SID, 541

IM Graphite + Thorium Dioxide C + ThO, 544
IM Graphite + Uranium Dioxide C + UO, 547
lor. Maijneslum Oxide + Talc MgO H^gjCSlO,) 550
156 SiUcon Carbide + Silicon Dioxide SIC + SlOj 55a
157 Silicon Carbide + Silicon Dioxide + EX, SIC + SlOj + DCj 554
IM Thorium Dioxide + Graphite ThO, + C 557

7. IODIDE

159 Cesium Iodide CBI 561

li,(i Copper Iodide Cul 562
Ml Silver Iodide AKI 56.)

BHOMIDES

IM Cesium Bromide CsBr 565

Ml I'otassium Bromide KBr 566
IM Silver Bromide AgBr 569
K,., Thalliam Bromide TIBr 570

9. CAB BIDES

IM (dilBeryIlium Carbide Be^ 571

Ml (letra)Boron Carbide B^C 572
168 hafnium Carbide lUC 575
IM (irl)Iron Carbide FejT 578
170 (di)Molybdenum Carbide Mo,C 579
171 Niobium Carbide NbC 582
172 Silicon Carbide SIC 585
173 Tantalum Carbide TaC 589
174 Thorium Carbide ThC 592
Iff Thorium Di carbide ThC, 5K1
in Titanium Carbide TIC 594
177 Tungsten Carbide WC 598
I Uranium Carbide UC 601
178 Uranium Dicarbide UC, 605
IM Vanadium Carbide VC 606
Ul Zirconium Carbide ZrC 609

1
-, -^ .
I Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xxlii

10. CHLOR1DK

Figure and/or Paget

Name Formula
Table No.

182 I'olaasium Chloride KC1 611)

183 Silver Chloride AgCl 620
ls4 Sodium Chloride NaCl 621
IHT) Thallium Chloride TICi , 626
186 Zinc Dichloride ZnCl, 626

11. FLUUR1DES AND THEIR MIXTURES

1-7 Harium Diduoride ll.il 627

M Calcium Dtfluoride CaFj 630
IM Lanllianum Trlfluoride UF, 633
IM Litiiium Fluoride UF 636
191 Lithium Fluoride +
PoUMlum Fluoride ZX, UF + KF + EXj 641
192 Sodium Fluoride NaF 642
m Soiiium Fluoride +
Beryllium DUluorlde NaF BeF, 645
194 Sodium Fluoride + Zirconium
Tetralluoride * Dv, NaF + ZrF4 * lXi 646

12. NITRATES

195 PoUMtum Nitrate KNO, 647

196 Silver Nitrate AgNO, 650
197 Sodium Nitrate NaNO| 651

13. NITRIDES

IM Aluminum Nitride A1N 653

IM Boron Nitridi BN 656
M ilainium Nitride 1UN -1
HI (ti ilSilicM Tetranitride 81^ 62
JJJ TantHlum Nitride TaN 65
203 Titanium Nitride TIN 66
M Uranium Nitride UN 672
206 Zirconium Nitride ZrN 675

14. raOSPHATEB

20 Ammonium Uiivvdrogeij Phosphate Nll4Htl>04 679

207 x T
' - - - - '" | ' KD]PU4 680
208 Potassium Dihydrogen iniosphate KlljK^ 683
xxiv Irouping of Materiah and List of Figures and Tables

15. SULFATKS

Figure and/or
Name Formula Page No.
Table No.

209 Ammonium Hydrogen Sulfate NH^O, 687

210 Potassium Chromium Sulfate Alum' KCHSO^j 12HiO 688
211 Potassium Hydrogen Sulfate K1ISU4 691
212 Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate NaliSO 692
213 Sodium Thiosulfate Na.Sjdj- ..11,11 693
214 Zine Sulfate Heptahydratc ZnS04 7HP 694

16. SULFIDES AND THEIR MKTURES

215 Cerium Sulfide Co8 697

216 (di)Cerlum Trlsulfide Ce^, 698
217 (ditCopper Sulfide CutS 699
218 (dDCopijer Sulfide Iron Sulfide *
(tri)Niekcl Disulfide Cu,S + FeS + Ni^j 700
219 (dDCopper Sulfide + (tri)Nickel Disulfide CU|S + Ni^S, 701
220 Lanthanum Sulfide US 702
221 (tri)Nickel DisuUide Ni^, 705

17. CERMETS

222 Aluminum Odde + Chromium AI2, + Cr 707

223 Beryllium Uxide Beryllium BeO + Be 708
224 Beryllium Chide + Beryllium +
Molybdenum BeO+ Be + Mo 711
225 Beryllium Oxide + Beryllium + Silicon BeO + Be + Si 714
-ii ('.etra)Boron Carbide 4 Aluminum B4C + Al 717
227 Silicon Carbide + Silicon SIC + Si 718
228 (di)Sodium Oxide + Sodium Na20 + Na 721
229 Strontium Metatltanate + Cobalt SrTiOj * Co 7/2
230 Titanium Carbide + Cobalt TIC + Co 728
231 Titanium Carbide + Cobalt +
Niobium Carbide TiC + Co + NbC 726
232 Titanium Carbide + Nickel +
Molyl denum + Niobium Carbide TIC + Nl + Mo + NbC 727
233 Titaniim Carbide + Nickel +
Niooiuro Carbide TIC + Ni + NbC 730
234 Uranium Carbide + Uranium UC + U 731
235 Uranium Dioxide + Chromium UOj + Cr 732
236 Uranium Dioxide + Molybdenum UOj + Mo 735
237 Uranium Dioxide + Niobium UO, + Nb 738
238 Uranium Dioxide + Stainless Steel UO] Stainless Steel 741
239 Uranium Dioxide + Uranium UO, + U 744
240 Uranium Dioxide + Zirconium UO, + Zr 746
241 Zirconium Dioxide + Titanium ZrO, + Ti 749
242 Zirconium Dioxide + Zirconium ZrO, + Zr 762
243 Zirconium Dioxide + Yttrium Uxide +
Zirconium ZrO, + YjO, + Zr 753

-7~
 . --

Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xxv

18. MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Figure and/or
Name Formula Page No.
Table No.

Ammonium I'crchlorate Ml,il( i, 757

846 Cadmium Germanium Itiosphlde CdGeP| 758
Ml Calcium Carbonate CaCOj 769
J47 Calcium Phosphate Lithium Carbonate +
Magnesium Carbonate CijfPOi^ + UjCO, + MgCO, 763
24 ,s Carbon + Oxygen C + O 764
34 Carbon + Volatile Materials C + Volatile Materials 765
M Gallium Phosphide GaP 766
HI Graphite + Bromine C + Br 767
Nl Graphite + Uranium Dicarbide C + UCj 770
253 Lithium Hydride UH 773
m Magnesium Carbonate MgCO, 776
M Potassium Bromide + Potassic.m Chloride Kflr + KC1 779
256 Potassium Chloride + Potassium Bromide Ml KBr 782
J.-.7 Potassium Dlhydrogcn Arscnate Kll]As04 785
258 Potassium Thiocyanate KSCN 788
259 Silicon Carbide + Graphite SIC + C 789
M Sodium Hydroxide NaOH 790
Ml Strontium Difluoride + SXj Sr ^ LXj 791
262 Zinc Germanium I'hosphide Zm^ePj 792
263 Zirconium Hydrid; ZrH 793

1. MINERALS

IM Basalt 797
M Beryl 800
M Clay 803
HI Coal 807
HI Dolomite 810
HI Earth 813
Gabbro 816
J71 Granite 817
m Limestone 820
m Mica 823
.'74 Perllte 827
J7r> Rock 828
IN Salt 832
-77 Sand 833
278 Sandstone 840
J7y Siliimanite 845
UNO Slate 846
M Soil 847
^2 Spinel 848
283 Spodumene 851
M Steatite 852
285 Tourmaline 855

.
'

xxvi Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables

19. MINERALS (crvlinued)

Figure and/ur
Nanu1 V.
Table No.

2S Tuff BS6
287 Wullastonile M

2u. AG<.;RKATE mxxa

H Cement w
288 Concrete 862
M Piaster Ml

21. MISCELLANEOUS REFRACTORY MATERIALSAND GLASSES

291 Bricks 889

292 Ceramics, Miscellaneous 915
29a Cordierite 918
294 Enamel 921
295* Glasses 922
296 Mullite 934
297 Petalile 938
298 Porcelains 936
299* I'yroceram Brand Glass - Ceramic 939

22. POLYMERS

300 Copolylchloroethylene-vinyl acetate) 943

301 Copoly(formaldehyde-urea). Mipora 944
302 Nylon 945
303 Phenolic Resin 949
304 Pliofoam . 950
305 Polychloroelhylene(polyvinyl chloride) 953
306 Polyethylene 956
307 Polyhexahydro-2H-azepin-2-one. Silon 959
308 Polydnethyl methacrylate) iHexiglaa] 960
309 Polystyrene Ml
310 PolyMralluoroethvlene Teflon" 967
311 Polytrifluoiochloroethylene 970
312 Rubber (Ebonite) 971
313 Rubber (Elastomer) 974
314 Rubber (GB-S) 977
316 Rubber (Miscellaneous) 980

Number marked with an asterisk indicates 'iiat recommended values are also reported for this material
on separate figure and table of the same nuinber followed by the letter R.
 Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xxvll

23. M1SCKLLANEOUS ORGANIC COMKUJNDS

Hpfra and/or N
Namt Formula Page No.
TabU- No.

IM Ami) MMM [O04CK)0p|] M5

U1 Benzene, I'-dlbromo C,!!,!-, !*
tat MM, l* -dich loru C,!!^! 'Jf<"
Ui UoiUt'ni1, P-dlUKlu OMi M
U2 Dilihen>l 0,11,0,111 SN'J
HI l)lplu-i\y'l INI. 0,11,',,1) U1H)
n lphenylunlne (0,11,^11 91
M DlphenylmethMie t
Nin>hthukM)f (0,11,^11, + O,,!!, im
324 Wiphttolca 0,^1, M
IM Nu|ihUil 1,^1,011 UKH
M Nitroplifiiol N0(0,ll4Oll 1U01
J27 ItieniuiUui'n ^14.0 <
M Sanlowux H 1U&
328 StKliuin Ao'UUi- Na0,ll,O, 311^) 1006
M Tiinitrotolui'iu' CIl^lljINO,), 1007

U. SYSTEMS

ia ApiiUitl O.mUiisB (Nonnu'lallul 100!

332 Honeycomb Slruclurc INomm'lallic) lOl
Honeycomb SlruclurcB (Metallic - Nonmelalllc) 1015
334 UimmatcH (Nomnetalllc) 1021
n., Uimlnates (Metallic - Nonmelalllc) loa
m I'owtler (NonmetalUc) 1040
337 Sanilwlches (Nimmclall.c) 1044
338 Sunilwiche (Metallic - Nonmelalllc) 1047
M MUeellaneous Systems (Nunmotalllc) 1051
M| Miscellaneous Systems (Metallic - NonmetalUc) 1055

25. ANIMAL AND VKUETAULE NATURAL SUUSTANOKS AND THEIH DKIUVATIVKS

341 Ash 105

342 MM lotto
. :i4i Uoxwood 10)1
344 Oedar 1002
345 Cork Ml
346 Cotton 106
:I47 Kat 1072
348 Fir 107:1
34 Greenheart 1074
350 Hardwood 1075
351 Ivory 107
362 Kapuk 1077

-_ ^
xxvlli Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables

25. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE NATURAL SUBSTANCES AND THEIR DERIVATIVES (continued)

353 Lignum Vltae 107a

354 Mahogany 1080
355 Maple 1N1
356 Oak 1082
357 MM 1083
358 Redwood 1084
35 Sawdust 1085
360 Spruce 108
361 Ttak 1087
362 Vulcanised Fiber 1088
363 Walnut 1089
364 White Wood 1090
365 Wood Fiber 1091
366 Wool 1092

26. FABRICS, YARNS, AND IIAIRS

367 Cotton Fabric 1093

368 CottonWool 1096
369 Hair Felt 1099
370 1'lulon Cloth 1100
371 Rene 41 Cloth 1102
372 Silk Fabric 1105

27. PROCESSED COMPOHITES

373 Asbestos Cement Board 1107

374 Asphalt - Glass Wool Pad 1108
375 Cardboard 1109
376 Cellulose Flberboard 1110
:177 Cornstalk Wallboaid 1111
378 Di.itomitr Agyrcgate 1112
379 Excelsior 1113
380 Fir Plywood 1114
381 Glass Flbei Blanket [Fiberglass] 1115
382 Glass Fiber Board 1124
383 Koldboard 1125
384 MonoUJiic Wall 1126
385 Paper 1127
386 Sea-weed P.-oduct 1128
387 Vegetable Fiberboards. Miscellaneous 1129
388 Wallboards. Miscellaneous 1131
389 Wood Products, Miscellaneous 1132
390 Wool Felt 1133

__ .-
 Grouping of Materials and List of Figures and Tables xxix

28. PROCESSED MINERAL SUBSTANCES

I Figure ard/or
Table No.
p^ No.

381 Asbestos Fiber 1135

392 Micanite 1138
393 Mineral Fiber 1139
394 Processed Mineral Wool 1140
396 Quartz Fiber 1143
396 Rock Cork 1146

29. SLAGS AND SCALES

397 Mineral Wool 1147

398 Mystic Slag 1150
399 Slag Wool 1151

:IU. RESIDUES

400 Bitumen 1155

401 Bone Char 1156
402 Charcoal 1157
403 Coal Tar Fractions 1158

j.

d
Theory, Estimation, and Maaauramant

/ ..".
i.
r
-T--^P ,m
i ^li
kMMMHH^ tm^
 -
Notation
A Cross-sectional area
a Cube root of atomic volume; Half the focal
length of an ellipsoid; Axis of ellipse
h Amplitude of lattice wave; Axis of ellipse
h Inverse lattice vector
- Specific heat per unit volume
C 'i/a
ow Spectral specific heat
c, Lattice specific heat per unit volume
c Defect concentration
n Thermal diffusivity
E Voltage drop
Unit vector in the direction of polarization r Velocity of lattice waves; Sound velocity
G Number of atoms in a crystal
k Planck constant
i Klectric current
i Suffix denoting the type of carrier
i Index denoting the possible polarizations
of a wave
K Kelvin
k Thermal conductivity
A, Lattice thermal conductivity
A, Intrinsic lattice thermal conductivity
Ar Thermal conductivity of a reference
material
L Phonon mean free path for boundary
scattering
1 Mean free path; Effective length of a
specimen
l< Phonon mean free path
M Atomic mass
N Number of atoms per unit volume
n Exponent
P Slope
1 Heat flow per unit time; Wave number
q Wave vector
Theory of Thermal Conductivity of
Nonmetallic Solids
I. INTRODUCTION
Heat in solids is conducted by various carriers:
electrons, lattice waves (or phonons), magnetic
excitations, and, in some cases, electromagnetic
radiation. The total thermal conductivity is additively
composed of contributions from each type of carrier.
It can be shown that
(1)
where the subscript I denotes the type of carrier.
C, is the contribution of each carrier to the specific
heal per unit volume, r, is the velocity of the carrier
(we regard the carrier as a particle; if the carrier
is a wave, the appropriate velocity is the group
velocity), and /, is a suitably defined mean free path.
The theory of the thermal conductivity of
solids has been the subject of numerous investigations
and several review articles [I 4]. It is the purpose of
this introductory text to present the major results
of the theory only to the extent to which it is needed
by the user of these tables: to caution him as to
which results are likely to be structure sensitive and
thus likely to vary from specimen to specimen,
and to help him judge which materials are likely to
have similar properties, and thus to guide him in
guessing the thermal conductivities of materials
which have not been measured. For detailed theor-
etical developments and discussions, the reader is
referred to the aforementioned review articles and
to the references given to the individual topics
discussed later. Other useful review articles (some
are short) and books which contain articles pertaining
to this subject are [5 12].
The occurrence of a mean free path in equation
(1) opens up the possibility that in some cases one
cannot uniquely define the thermal conductivity of
a material. This happens whenever a carrier mean
free path becomes comparable to the smallest
I
MMgb Mb mm
r Radial distance
S Seebeck coefficient
r Temperature
AT" Temperature difference
/ Time
Time required for the back-face tempera-
ture of a thin-disk specimen to reach half
its maximum value
r Coefficient of equation (13)
u Displacement of an atom
I Electrical potential
w Thermal resistivity
, Lattice thermal resistivity
H. Intrinsic lattice thermal resistivity
X Reduced frequency (x = hv/xT)
\ Equilibrium site of an atom
A.v Distance difference
3 Index denoting various scattering processes
* Parameter
r Anharmonicity coefficient
1 Amplitude decrement
f Local thermal strain
9 Debye temperature
K Boltzmann constant
A Wavelength
K Minimum wavelength of lattice waves
corresponding to the maximum wave
frequency vm
Wave frequency
% Upper frequency limit of the spectrum of
lattice waves
v Peltier coefficient; Ratio of the circum-
ference of a circle to its diameter
f Electrical resistivity
la
external dimension of the specimen. It happens
particularly in dielectric crystals at low temperatures,
where the phonon mean free paths are long; it also
happens in transparent solids at high temperatures,
where photons contribute significantly to the heat
transport, provided the specimens are continuous
in their optical properties (i.e., single crystals or
vitreous solids, but not polycrystalline aggregates).
In thatcase, wecanspeakof a size-dependent thermal
conductivity, though this is only an approximation.
The effective thermal conductivity will depend not
only on the shortest linear dimension, but also on
whether this dimension is parallel or perpendicular
to the heat flow. It will also depend on the nature of
the external surface: in the former case, on the
degree of specularity of the reflection of the carriers,
in the latter case, on the ability of the surface to
absorb and emit carriers.
While in metals and alloys the free electrons
are important carriers of heat, and frequently
overshadow the thermal conductivity of the lattice
vibrations, the lattice vibrations are the most
important carriers in insulating crystals, and in
many cases the only carriers. The electrons become
important as carriers in semiconductors at higher
temperatures, though they may sometimes play a
role in other cases, not as carriers, but as a mechanism
limiting the mean free path of the lattice waves.
The theory of thermal conductivity of metallic-
solids, where both the electrons and the lattice
waves contribute significantly to the thermal con-
ductivity, has been reviewed in Volume 1.
For purposes of the theory of conduction
properties, we distinguish between three temperature
regimes: high, intermediate, and low, with rough
divisions at temperatures (on the absolute scale)
of 0 and /3, respectively, where d is the Debye
temperature. For our purposes this temperature is
related to the upper frequency limit vm of the
spectrum of lattice waves by hvm = 0, where /' and
'

4a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
K are the Planck and Boltzmann constants, res-
pectively. Roughly speaking, at high temperatures
each atom vibrates independently of its neighbors,
and the theories of lattice vibrations simplify. At
low temperatures the vibrations arc highly correlated
and are best described by elastic waves in a con-
tinuum, with corresponding simplification. The
intermediate temperatur; regime is somewhat awk-
ward, and theoretical results are obtained by
interpolation.
Most solids have \j\ bye temperatures 9 around
300 K, but atomically heavy solids have lower
d's (well below 200 K for solids containing gold or
lead), while light atom solids (diarrond, beryllia.
etc.) have much higher Debye temperatures. Another
group of solids with low 0's are the solidified rare
gases, where binding forces are unusually weak.
2. LATTICE WAVES
The thermal vibrations of atoms in a perfect
crystal can be described in terms of vibrations of
each atom about its equilibrium site. Although
such a simple description would suffice for many
purposes, it does not take account of the correlation
in the vibrations of neighboring atoms, or of the
transfer of vibrational energy from one atomic
site to ll?: next. A better description is to regard the
thermal vibrations as arising from a superposition
of progressive displacement waves (lattice waves),
which are the normal modes of the crystal and at
the same time the carriers of thermal energy.
The lattice waves occupy a spectrum of fre-
quencies, v, from ttie lowest frequencies to some
upper limit, vm, typically of the order of 10i:,Hz.
At low frequencies these waves are identical to
elastic waves in the corresponding elastic con-
tinuum; at higher frequencies the atomic structure
of the crystal lattice leads to dispersion effects. The
corresponding wavelengths range from long waves
down to waves of length comparable to atomic
dimensions.
The displacement of an atom from its equili-
brium site (at x) may thus be written as a super-
position of waves, i.e.,
u(x) = ^ e(q./)/)(q,y)exp(/q x - Ow/) (2)
where q is the wave vector, so that the wavelength
A = 2iTlq, q is the wave number, G is the number of
atoms in the crystal,y is an index denoting the possible
polarizations of a wave of given wave-vector, e is a
OtfflMfll
1
unit vector in the direction of polarization, and h
is the amplitude of each wave.
The density of q-values (usually derived in
terms of idealized boundary conditions) is such
that the number of q-values in an element d*q of
q-space is G{2iT)'id3q. There are three polarizations
to each value of q, and there is an upper limit to
the admissible values of q. The physically distinct
wave-vectors must lie in a region of q-space, called
the fundamental zone, which is defined in terms of
the crystal lattice, or rather in terms of the reciprocal
lattice of the crystal. It can be shown that the number
of physically distinct lattice waves is 3(7, equal to
the number of normal modes which a system of
G mutually bound atoms should have.
Under certain idealized conditions these dis-
placement waves, equation (2), are the normal
modes of the lattice, i.e., the energy content of each
wave would be preserved in time. These conditions
are:
(a) The interatomic forces are perfectly har-
monic (obey Hooke's law).
(b) The lattice is structurally perfect.
(c) The lattice has no external boundaries, or
the displacement of the atoms at the
boundaries satisfy certain artificial boundary
conditions.
Departures from these idealized conditions lead
to interchange of energy between these waves and
limit their effective mean free path. As seen from
equation (1), these processes control the lattice
thermal conductivity
*f - K.'/. (J)
where C, is the contribution of the lattice waves
to the specific heat per unit volume, and r is the
velocity of the lattice waves at low frequencies.
When A is large compared with the interatomic
spacing,is a linear function of 1/A and / is constant.
At higher frequencies or shorter wavelengths the
atomic structure leads to dispersion, i.e., to a
departure from the linear relation between v and
1/A. In that case the appropriate velocity describing
energy transport and entering equation (3) is the
group velocity dv/d(l).
In crystals of complex structure there arc also
lattice waves describing the relative motion of atoms
in the unit cell. These waves, the optical modes,
usually have a small group velocity and contribute
relatively little to the energy transport. They are
often disregarded for purposes of thermal con-
f
 r Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
ductivity; however, this neglect may not always be
justified.
Because there is some interaction between the
different lattice waves, they will tend to be randomly
excited, but with an average energy content given
by the considerations of statistical mechanics.
In thermal equilibrium at temperature 7", the
lattice specific heat of solids varies as 7"3 at very low
temperatures, and is independent of T at high
temperatures. The contribution to the specific heat
per unit volume from waves in the frequency interval
v and v + dv is given, to a first approximation, by
the Debye theory, and is of the form
/TV vV
C(^^ = 9/VK- -dx (4)
Xef (e' - I)3
when x = IIVIKT is the reduced frequency and N
the number of atoms per unit volume. This holds for
v < vm; for v > vm, C(v) = 0.
The Debye approximation disregards the dis-
persion of the high-frequency lattice wave, dis-
regards differences in polarization, and smears out
the crystal structure of the solid. It is thus a better
approximation at low temperature, when ill the
important waves are long, than at intermediate and
high temperatures. The only concession it makes to
the discreteness of the lattice is the choice of a
cutoff frequency vm or the corresponding minimum
wavelength Am = vlvm, where is an average sound
velocity. The cutoff is chosen so that the total
number of waves corresponds to the correct number
of normal modes (3/V per unit volume) which this
assembly of atoms ought to have.
The lower limit Am of the wavelength is related
to a3, the volume per atom, by 4jra3 = 3Am3.
In spite of the obvious inadequacy of the
Debye approximation, it is frequently chosen as a
basis for discussing thermal conductivity because
the theoretical uncertainties in the phonon mean
free path usually overshadow errors introduced into
the specific heat by the Debye approximation.
3. LATTICE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Since the phonon mean free path is usually a
function of frequency v (it may, of course, also
depend on polarization and in extreme cases even
on the direction of the wave vector q), the expression
(3) for the lattice thermal conductivity has to be
generalized to
W)-r OHMM* (5)
3J n
L -
5a
where C(v) is given by equation (4). The lattice
thermal conductivity is thus governed both by the
magnitude and the frequency dependence of the
mean free path.
The mean free path is limited by several pro-
cesses which cause interchange of energy among
the lattice waves, or scatter phonons from one mode
into another. These are broadly grouped into
processes due to anharmonicities of the interatomic
forces, i.e., departures from Hooke's law, into
scattering due to the various kinds of lattice imper-
fections, and, as a special case of the last, into
scattering of phonons by the external boundaries.
The effective scattering probabilities or recipro-
cals of the mean free path of each group of lattice
waves is composed additively of contributions from
each process, so that
I ^ 1 (6)
Fr^rn
'(O (o) '
where a denotes the various processes. If two
interaction processes have the same dependence on
frequency (v), then it follows from equations (5)
and (6) that the corresponding thermal resistivities
follow an additive resistance rule, i.e..
1=^ = 2 w(t (7)
"l (o)
where Wia) is the lattice thermal resistivity if only
one process (a) were to act. However, if two or more
processes have different frequency dependences of
/(a,(v), then in general
w, > 2 w'<o (7a)
The bigger the difference in frequency dependence,
the more pronounced will be the deviation from the
additive resistance rule.
The interactions due to anh?rmonicities, which
may also be viewed as the sea '.ering by thermal
vibrations, lead to a mean free path which depends
both on T and v. The other interactions lead to a
mean free path which depends on v only, since the
imperfection structure is practically independent of
7". except possibly at very high temperatures.
At high temperatures, kg(T) is mainly a reflection
of the temperature dependence of /, but at low
temperatures it depends also on the i-dependence of
l(v). This follows because in equation (5)
Qv) az T3x*ex{e'~ \)'2 (8)
and if l(v) ac -
K " OC
n n
T~ x' , it follows from equa-

Theory, Estimation, und Measurement
tion (5) that
k, oc r3-' (9)
Since different imperfections lead, in the low-
frequency limit, to different frequency dependences,
or different values of the exponent n. the temperature
dependence of the thermal conductivity at low
temperatures will differ from case to case and
depend upon the nature of the principal imper-
fections.
For point defects n = 4; for long but thin
defects (cylin LTS) n = 3; for thin sheets n = 2.
Dislocations, by virtue of their long-range strain
field, do not act as thin cylinders, but scatter with
an exponent n - \. Scattering by boundaries, both
external boundarie- and internal grain boundaries,
scatter independently of frequency, with n = 0.
Generally speaking, the more extended imper-
fections have a scattering cross section which varies
less strongly with frequency, and which is relatively
more important at low frequencies, and thus more
important at low temperatures.
Relation (9) does not hold, strictly speaking,
for point defects (w = 4) or line defects (n = 3), for
the integral (5) would then diverge at low frequencies,
where C(v) of equation (8) varies as v2. Relation (9)
is then only a rough rule. Point defects or line defects
must always be considered in conjunction with
another resistive process, such as boundary scattering
or intrinsic (anharmonic) scattering.
General reviews of lattice thermal conductivity
are given in references [I 4]. Individual research
papers on the theory of lattice thermal conductivity
include [13-53).
4. INTRINSIC RESISTIVITY AT HIGH
TEMPERATURES
At elevated temperatures in good crystals, the
major source of thermal resistance is the interchange
of energy, or scattering of phonons, due to departures
from Hooke's law. A local strain < introduces a
fractional change yt in the local value of the ound
velocity. This local change scatters the lattice wave.
The coefficient y, a measure of the anharmonicity,
is of order unity (frequently y ~ 2). At high tem-
peratures the thermal ; train at neighboring atomic
sites is practically uncorrclated. Scattering from
each atomic site is thus proportional to 2">, the
mean square thermal strain, which in turn is pro-
portional to T. The intrinsic mean free path thus
varies as
ltcc\/T (10)
mm
so that at high temperatures, where C, is independent
of temperature, kt varies as l/T. This theoretical
result, explaining early data on the temperature
dependence of the thermal conductivity of insulating
crystals [13-15], was derived by Debye [16].
There is, however, a serious theoretical difficulty.
The lattice waves have a continuous spectrum of
frequencies, all contributing to the specific heat
and the thermal conductivity. At high temperatures,
the major contribution to the specific heat, according
to equation (4), come- from the upper range of the
pho. -ii spectrum. However, if l(v) increases suffi-
ci ntly rapidly with decreasing frequency, the major
contribution to k would come from lower frequencies,
i.i the Debye model, where every atomic site
scatters independently from each other. I^v) cc v~*
and the expression for k diverges at low frequencies.
Debye's model, while correctly describing l((v) at
high frequencies, and even producing a good
quantitative estimate, fails at low frequencies, where
correlations between the displacements of neighbor-
ing atomic sites become increasingly important.
To avoid this difficulty. Peierls [17] set up a
theory of the anharmonic interaction between
lattice waves, which recognizes that the thermal strain
which scatters a lattice wave is itself the consequence
of other lattice waves. This theory thus treats in
detail the interchange of energy which, as a result
of cubic anharmonicities (terms in the Hamiltonian
which are not quadratic in strain, as Hooke's
law would indicate, but cubic), leads to an inter-
change between groups of three lattice waves. The
interchange is such that a phonon in a mode q
combines with a phonon in mode q to form a
phonon in mode qa, satisfying certain interference
conditions between the frequencies and wave vectors
of the participating modes. The frequency conser-
vation condition is
and can also be regarded as energy conservation
between the participating phonons. The wave
vectors satisfy conservation conditions
q, + q2 = q3 (11a)
or
qi +<h = q3 b (Hb)
when b is one of the inverse lattice vectors of the
crystal lattice. The three-phonon processes are
accordingly divided into lormal" processes (11a).
or "Umklapp" processes (lib), the latter word
being derived from the German for "flip-over."
vT '
I
The conservation condition (I la) corresponds
roughly to momentum conservation among the
phonons. Umklapp processes must be regarded as a
combination of three-phonon processes and Bragg
reflection. In an elastic continuum only normal
processes would occur.
The Peierls' theory is the basis of all subsequent
theoretical work. The theory is quite complicated,
and has been put into a form suitable for detailed
work only by subsequent authors. At low tempera-
tures there is a rigid distinction between the roles
of normal and I'mklapp processesonly the latter
produce thermal resistance, though the former can
indirectly influence the effectiveness of other pro-
cesses. At higher temperatures the distinction between
the two types of processes becomes blurred. The
theory, since it involves the inverse lattice vector,
and thus the details of the crystal structure, becomes
quite complicated: however, some rough estimates
have been made [3, 27].
The intrinsic phonon mean free path, with some
approximations, takes the following form at high
temperatures
!//,(.-) oc'r (12)
so that the diveigence difficulties are avoided [3],
The intrinsic thermal resistivity is of the form [3, 27]
^ = U
$
'1
Ma (*'
(13)
where M is the atomic mass and a3 the atomic
volume. The numerical coefficient V, typically of
the order 1/3, is somewhat uncertain, and depends
on nc details of the crystal structure.
The major factor controlling the intrinsic
lattice conductivity is the Debye temperature 0:
solids of high 9 will in general have higher values
of k,. Another factor is the crystal structuresolids
of complex crystal structure have more inverse
lattice vectors and zone boundaries and a greater
variety of Umklapp processes; such solids will
have a lower thermal conductivity. However, the
effect of crystal structure on the intrinsic thermal
conductivity is still not well understood from a
theoretical point of view.
While the theory predicts the intrinsic thermal
resistivity to vary as T at high temperatures, small
deviations could arise from several causes. Quartic
anharmonicities, i.e., terms in the potential energy
qjiartic in the strain, would lead to foui-phonon
processes and a contribution to the resistivity pro-
portional to T2. Onewould expect the T2 term tobe of
-
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
lower magnitude by a factor of order <a>, which
in most solids is about 1 percent at room temperature.
A similar effect, also leading to a T2 term, results
from thermal expansion. This would lower the
effective value of 8 with increasing T, and since Wl
varies as I/o3, it would lead to an increase in thermal
resistivity roughly proportional to T2. This effect
should also be small.
Besides the general review articles, other
pertinent references to the theory of intrinsic
thermal resistivity at high temperatures are [20, 21,
23, 45, 54 58].
5. INTRINSIC RESISTIVITY AT LOW
TEMPERATURES
At low temperatures the vibrations of the
lattice cannot be represented as independent vibra-
tions of individual atoms, but the representation of
these vibrations in terms of a superposition of
lattice waves becomes essential. At this point, the
Peierls' theory must be used. The thermal resistance
arises from Umklapp processes of type (lib).
Since the important thermal waves at low tempera-
tures have low frequencies, these processes occur
only as a result of the occasional encounter with a
high-frequency wave, of wave vector q comparable
to b/2, where b is an inverse lattice vector. Such a
wave has a frequency vj, when is some parameter,
usually of the order of 2, which depends on the
details of the zone structure and on the dispersion
of the ligh-frequency phonons. The probability
of findi ig such a phonon decreases exponentially
with deceasing temperature, so thai
M^x -'" (i4)
and the intrinsic thermal conductivity increases
sharply with decreasing temperature, i.e.,
MDxf'7" for T<0/6 (14a)
Although there are theoretical expressions for the
precxponential factor [1, 3, 17], these are somewhat
uncertain, and in practice this factor is unimportant
in comparison with the theoretical uncertainty
relating to the exponent BI.
In anisotropic crystals both the preexpcnential
factor and exponent BI can depend on the direction
of heat flow. Since B/ depends on the zone structure,
it can also be changed by phase transition , with
important consequences to the thermal conductivity.
In spite of the theoretical uncertainties, wc
can clearly expect, as Peierls had originally predicted
, ~- ^ _
8a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
[17], that the thermal conductivity of perfect
crystals, which varies roughly as 1/7" at intermediate
and high temperatures, should increase much more
rapidly with decreasing temperature at low tempera-
tures, until the phonon mean free path attains
macroscopic dimensions. At this point k attains a
maximum, and at lower temperatures k decreases
as T is fuither decreased, since / is kept fixed and
k(T) is now controlled by the specific heat.
However, this presupposes a structurally perfect
crystal. Near the conductivity maximum the thermal
conductivity is particularly sensitive to all kinds of
crystal imperfections. In some cases, even the mass
variation due to the naturally occurring isotopic
distribution is enough to appreciably depress the
thermal conductivity around its maximum.
In the exponential region also, crystals of
higher Debye temperature 6 generally have higher
thermal conductivities.
The role of normal processes in the low-tempera-
ture thermal resistivity has been discussed in [11. The
phonon mean free path for the normal processes
has been given in [22, 59. 60].
6. BOUNDARY RESISTANCE
At sufficcntly low tempcratuies, the phonon
mean free path is limited by the external boundaries.
Under those conditions
Arm = JC(7>Z. (15)
where L is of the order of the shortest linear dimen-
sion of the specimen. The temperature dependence
of thermal conductivity would then parallel the
temperature dependence of the specific heat due to
lattice waves, and k{T) would vary as T"3 at lowest
temperatures.
In many cases C(T) is not only due to lattice
waves, but there arc additional thermal excitations
which contribute to the specific heat, and cause
substantial deviations from the T"3 dependence
expected for lattice waves. Those excitations would
have to be treated as separate carriers according to
equation (I). In many cases they have either a lew
group velocity, or :i short mean free path, or both.
It is thus possible that crystals having substantial
deviations from a 7"3 dependence of C(7") may still
have a 7"3 variation of)!:(/") at low temperatures.
In a polycrystalline aggregate the phonon
mean path L would he given not by the external
dimensions, but by the size of the individual crystal-
lites or grains. Such grain sizes, typica'ly of the
oiC.tx of tens of microns, would resi in a corres-
ponding depression of k(T), and the extension of the
region where k(T) oc C(7") to higher temperatures
than in the case of single crystals. !n that case, the
temperature nnge where boundary scattering domi-
nates would include a temperature range where
C(T) varies more slowly than T3. Such casr, have
been reviewed by Berman [5].
The effective value of L has been cal.ulated by
Casimir [61] for the case of heat flow along the
axis of a narrow cylinder with perfectly rough
surfaces. He assumed that phonons are diffusively
scattered at the surface and that there is no effect
from the end surfaces. In this case, L depends
entirely on the geometry. In many cases, however,
phonons arriving at the surfaces may be scattered
with a forward biasthis would lengthen the
effective values of L correspondingly. This forward
bias (often crudely expressed as a fraction specularly
reflected) may be a function of phonon frequency.
This would make l(v) dependent on frequency, and
lead to corresponding deviations from the T3
dependence of the therinal conductivity. Casimir's
theory has been extended to apply to short cylinders
with smooth surfaces [1,62.63]. The factors con-
trolling the degree of specularity of real surfaces
for phonons of the relevant wavelength (typically
several hundred angstroms) are at present not
understood.
The long cylinder is not the only important
geometry. Another extreme case is the thin slab,
with conduction across the slab. In this case, L is
of the order of the slab thickness, and is governed
by the acoustic emissivity and reflectivity, res-
pectively, of the surfaces.
Since boundary resistance is a resistive process
which is not uniformly distributed throughout the
volume of the specimen, one should not really use the
additivity relation (6) to obtain the combined effect
ofboundary scattering and other scattering processes.
Deviations from (6) are likely to be significant, but
will not change the order of magnitude of the
corresponding resistances.
An interesting case, first discussed in reference
[3], is the case when the important processes are
boundary scattering and "normal" three-phonon
processes (Ila). The normal processes actually
decrease the resistivity by slowing down the rate at
which phonon "momentum" is brought to the
surface and obliterated. One can define an effective
viscosity of the phonon gas in terms of the normal-
process mean free path. The heat transport or
; r

phonon flow is then analogous to Poiseuille flow in
a pipe, while the more usual boundary resistance,
as discussed by Casimir [61], corresponds to
Knudsen flow. This phenomenon occurs only in
very perfect crystals near the conductivity maximum.
7. THERMAL RESISTANCES DIE TO
LATTICE IMPERFECTIONS
Nearly all imperfections scatter lattice waves
and reduce the lattice thermal conductivity, particu-
larly at low and intermediate temperatures, where
the intrinsic phonon mean free path is long. In all
cases, one can regard the imperfection as a local
change in the velocity of the lattice wave, either
because of a change in mass or density, or because
of a change in the elastic properties. These local
changes in wave velocity act as a perturbation, and
scattering is usually calculated by perturbation
theory [3, 71], though in the simpler defects it has
been possible to arrive at a more self-consistent
solution of the wave equation in the presence of a
defect through Green's function techniques [87, 88].
According to the simplest perturbation tech-
nique, the Born approximation, the perturbation,
which is a function of position, can be Fourier
analyzed, and the scattering of a wave or phonon
from mode q into q' involves the (q - q')th Fourier
component of the perturbation. The amplitude of the
scattered wave q' is proportional to that Fourier
component, the intensity oi'scattering to the square
of the perturbation, so that total scattering cross
section i are generally proportional to the square of
the perturbation. This has been reviewed by several
authors [1,3,4,7]. The theory bears close resem-
blance to other theories describing scattering of
waves by obstacles.
It follows that, for waves of a particular
wavelength, the most important obstacles are those
having dimensions comparable to the wavelength.
At intermediate and high temperatures, the important
defects are thus mainly point defects, while extended
defects are more important at lower temperatures.
Another factor to be considered, particularly
when the defect scattering cross section varies
rapidly with frequency (e.g., point defects and
concentrated line defects, where 1// varies as t4 and
v3, respectively), is the interplay with other interaction
processes. Not only is it essential to consider other
interaction processes such as boundary or Enhar-
monic scattering to remove the low-frequency
divergence, but one must consider in detail the
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 9
role of the "normal" three-phonon processes.
These do not reduce the momentum or heat flow
of the phonon gas, but they can move momentum
from one group of lattice waves to another, and by
moving momentum to a group of modes for which
the defect scattering is highly effective (such as
modes of higher frequency), these processes can
contribute indirectly to the thermal resistivity.
The exact description of this interplay of processes
is mathematically complicated; approximations have
been given by Klemens [25] and Callaway [32]; for
a recent review see reference [1].
Point defects will depress k, near the thermal
conductivity maximum and. less spectacularly, at
higher temperatures. They will tend to obliterate the
exponential dependence expected for the intrinsic
thermal conductivity (I4a). and lead to a thermal
conductivity roughly proportional to 1/7".
At high temperatures, however, point delects
will lead to a slower temperature dependence of the
thermal conductivity; furthermore, the resistivity
due to point defects will not increase linearly with
concentration. This is a consequence of the properties
of the integral of equation (5). with C(v) given by
the high-temperature limit of equation (8). i.e..
C(i') a v2. and \ll(v) being additively composed of
point-defect scattering, proportional to A and
intrinsic scatterint given by equation (12). In the
limit of hijjh le iperatures and high defect con-
centration c, one can show [65]
Af ac[f(l -c)] -i/2T-i;a (16)
Quantitative estimates of the strength of point
defect scattering can be made in terms of the
difference between the mass of a normal site and a
defect site [25] and in terms of the volume misfit [1, 7],
The magnitude and frequency dependence of
the scattering by point defects is also sensitive to
short-range order or other types of correlation. The
formal theory [122] is analogous to the theory of
x-ray scattering, however, there is little information
about such correlations in nonmetals and no detailed
calculations have been made.
Extended defects which have been treated
theoretically include dislocations and stacking faults.
In the simple theory the dislocations are treated as
fixed "l position, scattering because of their long-
range strain fields. In nonmetals, where dislocation
densities are usually lower, this may not be an
adequate model. Whether one must seek a solution
in terms of the flutter of dislocations under the
applied stress of a low-frequency lattice wave, or in
10a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
terms of electrostatic interactions between a charged
core and other charges in the solid is not clear at
present.
Pertinent references to the theory of thermal
resistance due to lattice imperfections at high tem-
peratures are [64 69] and at low temperatures include
(70 120], of which the references [92 120] deal with
point defects of the general type and explain the
thermal resistance in terms of phonon-defect
resonant scattering processes.
8. AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
In amorphous solids, the mean free path of
lattice waves is short; in fact, it is questionable
whether one may describe the thermal vibrations in
terms of lattice waves. Kittel [121] suggested that
the thermal conductivity can be described by
equation (3) with a mean free path which is quite
short (typically of the order of 10 angstroms) and
independent of temperature. This seems to hold at
high and intermediate temperatures. At low tem-
peratures, however, when the wavelength of the
lattice waves becomes longti, the amorphous solid
resemblo more and more an elastic continuum, and
the randomness of the underlying atomic structure
becomes less important. This means that, at low
temperatures. /, should increase with decreasing
temperature, as is indeed found. A formal theory of
the scattering of elastic waves in such random
structures has been given [122]. One interesting
consequence is that the role of order is reversed
from what one would expect intuiti\ely. The role of
order or structural coherence is now to reinforce
the scattering process. However, our knowledge of
the structure of amorphous material is so rudimentary
that we have at the moment no predictive theory.
Other references to the theory of the thermal
conductivity of amorphous solids include [123 126].
9. RESONANT SCATTERING
So far we have considered defects which scatter
passive!) that is. scattering is due to local variations
in the wave velocity. There are geometrical inter-
ferences, leading to reinforcement or destructive
interference of the scattered wave. However, it is
also possible to have dynamic or time-like inter-
ferences. The defect may have internal mechanical
resonance frequencies [92 120], or it may have an
electronic level structure [127 136]. Lattice waves at
or near the corresponding resonance frequencies will
be scattered much more strongly than one would
expect from passive defects of comparable size. This
leads to changes in the temperature dependence of
the thermal conductivity, in extreme cases to dips
in the conductivity. The theory of mechanical
resonances is not well understood. In the case of
some paramagnetic impurities whose electronic level
structure is strongly strain dependent, the resonant
scattering of lattice waves can be calculated from the
spin-lattice relaxation. Effects of this type are clearly
important in many crystals at low temperatures,
particularly in the case of semiconductors with
donor or acceptor impurities or radiation damage.
10. OTHER CASES
We have so far discussed the contribution of
lattice waves (or phonons) to the thermal con-
ductivity of ordinary nonmetallic solids and the
various scattering mechanisms which reduce the
phonon mean free path and cause thermal resistances.
For other special kinds gf solids such as magnetic
insulators, solids partially transparent to infrared
radiation, and semiconductors which are practically
insulators for purposes of thermal conductivity, we
have to consider other mechanisms of heat transfer
and other mechanisms of resistivity.
In a magnetic insulator at low temperatures,
cooperative effects between the magnetic moments
arranged in a regular lattice, leading to the concept
of spin waves or magnons, can act both as a new
mechanism of heat transport and at the same time
as a resistive mechanism of phonon transport
[137 164]. The exchange energy between neighboring
spins of atoms is probably a rough criterion of the
upper limit of temperature at which these effects need
to be considered. At very low temperatures the spin-
wave thermal conductivity of a ferromagnetic
insulator is roughly proportional to T2. Consequently,
at sufficiently low temperatures where the mean free
paths of both magnons and phonons become
boundary limited, frequency independent, and of
equal magnitude, the magnon conductivity, varying
as r2, should exceed the phonon conductivity, which
varies as T"3 under these conditions. The total
thermal conductivity is the sum of the magnon and
phonon conductivities.
It is well known that the apparent thermal
conductivity of glasses increases very rapidly at high
temperatures and that the thermal conductivity
versus temperature curves for many translucent
crystals turn up at high temperatures after steady
,1..^.^"

decrease and thus exhibit minima in the curve. This
is due to the enhanced radiative (photon) heat
transfer through the material at high temperatures
in addition to the lattice (phonon) thermal con-
duction. If the material is completely transparent to
infrared radiation, there is no interaction between
radiation and material. If the material is opaque,
heat transfer is entirely by conduction processes.
Only for the intermediate case where the material is
partially transparent to infrared radiation one can
speak of a radiative component of thermal con-
ductivity, which has been the subject of numerous
investigations (165 178].
In a material which is partially transparent to
infrared radiation, each volume element absorbs a
part of the incident radiation and also reradiates
radiant energy. A certain amount of energy is
therefore transmitted through the material by these
radiation and reradiation processes in addition to
that conducted by lattice waves. The apparent total
thermal conductivity is the sum of the lattice and
radiative conductivities. In the limiting case, where
the sample is optically thick, i.e.. the thickness of the
sample is much larger than the mean free path of the
photons, the apparent radiative thermal conductivity
is proportional to Tl and inversely proportional to
the Rosseland mean extinction coeftkient of the
material. In the opposite limiting case where the
sample is optically thin, the apparent radiative
thermal conductivity is proportional to the thickness
of the sample as well as to T3, and is therefore not
an intrinsic property of the material.
Finally we must consider the thermal conduct-
ivity of semiconductors. In many semiconductors
the lattice thermal conductivity is predominant and
the electronic component is small enough to be
neglected. There are. however, a few cases where the
electronic component of thermal conductivity is not
negligible at higher temperatures. At sufticiently
low temperatures, a typical semiconductor is
extrinsic, with only one band, either the conduction
or valence band, making a contribution to con-
I -r-
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 11a
duction. At sufficiently high temperatures, it becomes
intrinsic and both the conduction and valence bands
make comparable contributions. This leads to the
ambipolar diffusion of electrons and holes [179-181]
and gives rise to the transport of ionization energy
in addition to the normal direct transport of energy
by the carriers. In the ambipolar diffusion process,
electron hole pairs are created at the hot end of the
specimen and absorb energy from the heat source.
They move down to the cold end of the specimen
under the influence of the temperature gradient and
recombine there at the cold end, giving up the
ionization energy to the surroundings. The enhance-
ment of the Lorenz function of an intrinsic semi-
conductor associated with the ambipolar diffusion
process can be very significant.
In certain semiconductors the additional heat
transport at high temperatures, which cannot be
explained in terms of the conduction processes so
far mentioned, has been attributed to the exciton
contribution to thermal conductivity [182 184].
Excitons arc bound electron hole pairs which remain
associated so that they are electrically neutral and
can transport excitation energy but no electrical
charge. However, the exciton contribution to heat
transport is only a rather remote possibility and the
experimental evidence is conflicting. The exciton
contribution could be significant only if the excitons
have sufficiently low excitation energy.
In semiconductors the lattice thermal resistances
are caused by the same factors as those for dielectric
crystals except for scattering of phonons by electrons
[185 194]. However, this phonon electron scattering
is important only at very low temperatures. In the
case of semiconductors having high carrier con-
centrations, the phonons are scattered by electrons
(or holes) free to move in some sort of band which is
not full [185,186]. For low carrier concentrations, the
phonons are scattered by bound electrons [189 191].
The thermal conductivity of semiconductors
has been comprehensively reviewed in [I I]. Some less
extensive reviews are also available [195 201].
~

Experimental Determination of Thermal
Conductivity
1. INTRODUCTION
In the experimental determination of the thermal
conductivity of solids, a number of different methods
of measurement are required for different ranges of
temperature and for various classes of materials
having different ranges of thermal conductivity
values. A particular method may thus be preferable
over the others for a given material and temperature
range, and no one method is suitable for all the
required conditions of measurement. The appro-
priateness of a method is further determined by such
considerations as the physical nature of the material,
the geometry of samples available, the required
accuracy of results, the speed of operation, and the
time and funds entailed.
The various methods for the measurement of
thermal conductivity fall into two categories: the
steady-state and the nonsteady-state methods. In the
steady-state methods of measurement, the test
specimen is subjected to a temperature profile which
is time invariant, and the thermal conductivity is
determined directly by measuring the rate of heat
flow per unit area and temperature gradient after
equilibrium has been reached/in the nonsteady-state
methods, the temperature distribution in the speci-
men varies with time, and measurement of the rate
of temperature change, which normally determines
the thermal diffusivity. replaces the measurement of
the rate of heat flow. The thermal conductivity is
then calculated from the thermal diffusivity with a
further knowledge of the density and specific heat
of the test material.
The primary concern in most methods of
measurement is to obtain a controlled heat flow in a
prescribed direction such that the actual boundary
conditions in the experiment agree with those
assumed in the theory. Theoretically, the simplest
method to obtain a controlled heat flow is to use a
specimen in the form of a hollow sphere with a
i 13a
u
heater in the center. The heat supplied by the
internal heater passes through the specimen in a
radial direction without loss. However, in reality it is
very difficult to fabricate a spherical heater which
produces uniform heat flux in all radial directions.
It is also difficult to fabricate spherical specimens and
tomeasurethcheat input and the temperature gradient
in this experimental arrangement.
A more commonly used method of controlling
heat flow in the prescribed direction is the use of
guard heaters (combined with thermal insulation in
most cases) so adjusted that the temperature
gradient is zero in all directions except in the direc-
tion of desired heat flow. In most methods of
measuring thermal conductivity, a cylindrical speci-
men geometry ranging from long rod to short disk
is utilized, and the heat flow is controlled to be in
either the longitudinal (axial) or the radial direction.
Thus most methods can be subdivided into longi-
tudinal and radial heat flow methods, as discussed in
more detail later.
Experimental study of the thermal conductivity
of solids was started in the eighteenth century.
Benjamin Franklin in 1753 [202] seems to have been
the first to point out the different ability of different
materials "to receive and convey away the heat."
He observed materials such as metal and wood to be
good or poor conductors of heat bv the degree of
coldness felt when touched. Kordyce [203] pioneered
in 1787 to make some experiments on the "conduct-
ing powers" of pasteboard and iron. The first steady-
state comparative method for the measurement of the
thermal conductivity of solids was suggested by
I ranklin and carried out by Ingen-Hausz as reported
in 1789 [204]. This method was improved by Des-
pretz as reported in 1822 [205]; Despretz's method
was later used by Wiedemann and Kranz as reported
in 1853 [206] to determine the relative thermal con-
ductivity of a number of metals leading to the
postulation of the Wiedemann-Franz law. Since the
 14a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
first steady-state absolute method was reported in
1851 by Forbes (207, 208] (see also (209, 210]) and
the first nonsteady-state absolute method was re-
ported in 1861 by Angstrom (211], a number of
different methods and their variants have been
developed over the years. Several general surveys
(212 222] are available for the experimental develop-
ments of the methods. The mathematical theories of the
methods have been reviewed in several books (223 227].
In the sections that follow, the major method *
and the extent of their applicability will be briefly
described and discussed. For finer details of experi-
mental designs and techniques, the reader is referred
to the references given to the individual methods.
In the category of steady-state methods, we will
discuss the longitudinal heat flow method, the
Forbes" bar method (which is a quasi-longitudinal
heat flow method), the radial heat flow method, the
direct electrical heating method, the thermoelectrical
method, ajid the thermal comparator method. In the
longitudinal and radial heat flow methods, a distinc-
tion is made between absolute and comparative
methods according to the means of measuring the
heat flow. In an absolute method, the rate of heat
flow into a specimen is directly determined, usually
by measuring the electrical power input to a heater
at one end of the specimen. The rate of heat flow out
of a specimen may be measured with a flow calori-
meter or boil-off calorimeter. With the latter the
rate of heat flow is determined by the boil-off rate
of a liquid, such as water, of known heat of vapor-
ization, while with the former it is determined by the
flow rate and temperature rise of a circulating liquid,
such as water, of known heat capacity. In a com-
parative method the rate of heat flow is calculated
usually from the temperature gradient over a refer-
ence sample of known thermal conductivity which is
placed in series with the specimen and in which
hopefully the same heat flow occurs. The methods
are subdivided further according to the various
specimen geometries.
In the category of nonsteady-state methods, we
will discuss the periodic and the transient heat flow
methods. According to the direction of heat flow,
each of them is also subdivided into longitudinal and
radial heat flow methods. Within the transient heat
flow methods, we will discuss also the flash method
(which is a variant of the longitudinal heat flow
method), the line heat source and probe methods
(which are variants of the radial heat flow method),
the moving heat source method, and two comparative
methods.
'
2. STEADY-STATE METHODS
A. Longitudinal Heat Flow Methods
In the longitudinal heat flow methods, the ex-
perimental arrangement is so designed that the flow
of heat is only in the axial direction of a rod (or
disk) specimen. The radial heat loss or gain of the
specimen is prevented or minimized and evaluated.
Under steady-state conditions and assuming no
radial heat loss or gain, the thermal conductivity is
determined by the following expression from the
one-dimensional Fourier Biot heat-conduction equa-
tion (228, 229]:
k = (17)
A\T
where k is the average thermal conductivity corres-
ponding to the temperature ^(7", -I- T2), AT" =
7"2 - Tj, </ is the rate of heat flow, A is the cross-
sectional area of the specimen, and A.\r is the distance
between points of temperature measurements for
7", and T^. The different variants of this method are
discussed separately below.
a. /bsolute Methods
(/) Rod Method. This method is suitable
for good conductors such as beryllium oxide and
for all temperatures except for very high tempera-
tures. In fact, this method has been used for most
measurements below room temperature. The speci-
men used is in the form of a relatively long rod so as
to produce an appreciable temperature drop along
the specimen for precise measurement. A source of
heat at a constant temperature is supplied at one end
of the rod and flows axially through the rod to the
other end where a heat sink at a lower constant
temperature is located. The radial heat loss or gain
of the rod should be negligible. In order to calculate
the thermal conductivity from equation (17), it is
necessary to measure the rate of heat flow into and/or
out of the rod, the cross-sectional area, the tempera-
tures of at least two points along the rod, and the
distance between points of temperature measure-
ments.
For measurements at cryogenic temperatures,
radial heat loss does not constitute a serious prob-
lem, and thermal insulation and guard heaters are
normally not necessary. The measurement is usually
made under high vacuum to prevent gas conduction
and convection, and a radiation shield surrounding
the specimen may be used to minimize radiation
losses. The heat is supplied to one end of the specimen
by a heating coil of fine resistance wire (which may
 ^~
be wound directl> onto the specimen to eliminate
contact resistance between heater and specimen) or
by a carbon resistor attached to the end. The tem-
peratures may be measured by gas thermometers,
vapor-pressure thermometers, thermocouples, re-
sistance thermometers, or magnetic-susceptibility
thermometers. General reviews of the low-tempera-
ture measurements and experimental techniques have
been presented by White (230, 231]. For details of
some of the useful low-temperature apparatus the
reader may consult references [232-243].
For measurements at high temperatures, heat
loss becomes a serious problem because radiant heat
transfer increases rapidly with temperature. To pre-
vent radial heat losses, a guard tube surrounding the
specimen with controlled guard heaters may be
utilized. Insulating powder is usually used to fill the
space between the rod specimen and the guard tube,
which should have the same temperature distribution
along it as does the rod specimen. In fact, as early as
1887, Berget [244, 245] started the use of a guard ring
surrounding and with the same temperature distri-
bution as the specimen to prevent heat losses.
The rate of heat flow into the specimen may be
determined by measuring the power input to a
guarded electrical heater at the free end of the rod
specimen [246 248] or by measuring the heat flow
out of the specimen with a water-flow calorimeter at
the low-temperature end [249], or by both [250 252].
Temperature measurements are made usually with
thermocouples. In order to get correct temperature
measurements and to minimize heat conduction
along thermocouple leads, the thermocouples should
be made of fine wires of low-conductivity alloys and
the leads from the junction should be along iso-
thermal lines.
This method, as used for measurements at high
temperatures, has been comprehensively reviewed
and discussed by l.aubitz [253] and Flynn [254].
Systematic errors in measurements caused by the
effects of heat losses, thermal contact resistance, poor
thermocouple contacts, and temperature drift have
been analyzed by Bauerle [255].
A variation of this method has been used [256-
258) in which the specimen heater is located in a
cavity at the center of the rod specimen and a heat
sink is at each end. A mean value of the temperature
gradient established toward the two ends is used for
the thermal conductivity calculation.
(/(') Plate {or Disk) Method. This method is suitable
for poor conductors and insulators. It is similar to
iin Ti i
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 15
the rod method except for the specimen length-to-
width ratio being greatly reduced to a small fraction.
This specimen geometry is favorable for measuring
poor conductors because the smaller the length to
width ratio, the smaller is the ratio of lateral heat
losses to the heat flow through the specimen, and the
shorter is the equilibrium time. The size of specimen
used in various apparatus designed for different
kinds of materials varies greatly. For apparatus
designed to measure semiconductors, the specimen
used may be about I cm wide [259], while the
apparatus for measuring less homogeneous insulating
or refractory materials may require a specimen of
over one foot in width [260].
In this method, the thermal conductivity is also
given by equation (17). The rate of heat flow may be
determined by the electrical power input to a guarded
heater [260 262], by a guarded water-flow calori-
meter [263], by a boil-off calorimeter [264 267], or
by a heat flow meter [268]. Temperature measure-
ments are made generally with thermocouples in-
serted in the specimen or embedded in grooves on the
specimen surfaces depending on the materials tested.
Lateral heat losses may be prevented either by utiliz-
ing guard heaters or by using a large specimen, of
which only a relatively small central area is used for
measurement. In the first detailed mathematical
analysis of the plate method reported in 1898, Peirce
and Willson [269] found already that, if the radius of
the specimen is five times larger than that of the
central test section whose thickness equals its radius,
the temperature at any point within the central test
section would not sensibly differ from the tempera-
ture at the corresponding point in an infinite disk of
the same thickness and same face temperatures.
Further mathematical analyses of the errors due to
lateral heat loss in guarded hot plate apparatus have
been given in [270-272].
Detailed descriptions of recent apparatus for
measurements at cryogenic temperatures can be
found in the articles collected in [273], and for
measurements at high temperatures in [274]. A com-
prehensive review of the plate method has been given
in [275]. A description of the NBS steam calorimeter
apparatus and some useful discussions on this
method have also been given in [254].
Therearetwomain kinds of experimental arrange-
ments for the absolute plate (or disk) method: the
single-plate system and the twin-plate system. The
single-plate system [259, 262-269] requires only one
specimen, which is placed between a hot plate and a
cold plate, while the twin-plate-system [260-261]
 16a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
requires two similar specimens to be sandwiched
between a hot plate in the middle and two cold plates
on the outside. The plate method employing the
single-plate system was probably first used by
Clement, whose experiment on copper was quoted by
Pdclet [276] in 1841. Peclet also used this method to
measure the thermal conductivity of copper, and
both of them obtained erroneous results. Later im-
provements on this method have been made by
Peirce and Willson (269] and Lees [277] among
others. The idea of a twin-plate system was devel-
oped by Lees [277] in 1898, but he did not actually
adopt the twin-plate system for his plate method
in the series of measurements reported in [277].
However, he used the twin-plate system in his
experiments on the effect of pressure on thermal
conductivity reported in 1899 [278]. Great improve-
ment on the plate method employing the twin-plate
system was made by Poensgen [261] in 1912, who
introduced the guard-ring heater to the system as the
prototype of the modern guarded hot-plate appara-
tus.
b. Comparatire Methods
In the earliest steady-state comparative method
suggested by Franklin and carried out by Ingcn-
Hausz [204] as reported in 1789, rods of various
metals were coated with wax and heated at one end
to a common temperature in a bath of hot water or
oil. The wax melted over a greater distance on a rod
of better conducting material, and under steady-
state conditions the ratio of the conductivities of the
rods is roughly proportional to the squares of these
distances. The modern comparative methods are the
divided-rod (or cut-bar) method and the comparative
plate method as discussed below.
(/) Divided-Rod (or Cut-Bar) Method. The
divided-rod method was originated by Lodge [279]
in 1878 and later used by Berget [280], Lees [281],
and many others. In this method a reference sample
(or samples) of known thermal conductivity is placed
in series with the unknown specimen with hopefully
the same rate of heat flow through both the reference
and the specimen. Under such ideal conditions, the
thermal conductivity of the specimen is given by
/MA77Ax)r
it =Ar (18)
A{AT/x)
where the subscript r designates the reference sample.
This method may be divided into two distinct
groups: the "long-specimen" type [280, 282, 283]
in -lifi V\i
for measuring the thermal conductivity of good
conductors, and the "short-specimen" type [279,
281, 284-287] for measuring poor conductors.
Comparative methods have the advantages of
simpler apparatus, easier specimen fabrication, and
easier operation. Their disadvantages include addi-
tional measurement errors due to the required
additional measurementsof temperatures and thermo-
couple separations, difficulty in matched guarding,
and lower accuracy due to the additional uncertainty
in the conductivity of the reference sample, due to
the conductivity mismatch between specimen and
reference sample, and due to the interfacial thermal
contact resistance. These have been carefully
analyzed by Laubitz [253] and Flynn [254]. Flynn
[254] has pointed out that the ASTM standard cut-
bar method C408-58 [286] is not well designed and
the data obtained by using this method can be sub-
ject to large errors.
(;;) Plate (or Disk) Method. This comparative
method is suitable for poor conductors and insulators
and is similar to the divided rod method in principle
except that the specimen and the reference samples
are now flat plates (or disks) sandwiched between a
hot and a cold plate. Christiansen [288] was the first to
report in 1881 the use of this type of comparative
method in which he compared the thermal conducti-
vity of liquids with that of air. Peirce and Willson
[269] used this method to measure the thermal con-
ductivity of marble slabs with glass plates as refer-
ence material for comparison. Sieg [289] employed
the guard ring in his apparatus to prevent lateral heat
loss.
c. Combined Method
In using a "combined" method, the apparatus
combines the features of both absolute and compara-
tive methods. The rate of heat flow is determined
both through a reference sample placed in series with
the specimen and simultaneously by a water-flow
calorimeter [290-292] or by measuring the electrical
power input to a heater [293]. In the measurements
reported in [293], a "dual combined" method was
employed in which a heater is located at the center
of the divided rod between two short specimens with
two longer reference samples at the two ends which
are cooled by flowing water.
B. Forbes1 Bar Method
Forbes' original method [207 210] consists of
two separate experiments. The first was termed by
Forbes the statical, and the second the dynamical, or

cooling, experiment. In the statical experiment a
square wrought iron bar with 1.25-inch side and
8 feet long was heated at one end by molten lead or
solder at a fixed high temperature, and the steady-
state temperature distribution along the bar was
determined with the surface of the bar losing heat by
convection and radiation to a constant-temperature
environment. In the thnamical or cooling experi-
ment a sir '.ilar bar, but only about 20 inches long, was
cooled in the same environment from a high uni-
form temperature and the rate of heat loss was
determined. From these two experiments, the thermal
conductivity may be computed as follows.
Replacing Ax/AT" in equation (17) by dxjdT,
diflerentiating the resulting equation with respect to
x and rearranging gives
1 dq 1
*=--!2 (19)
Adxd Tldx2
The statical experiment provides values for d2Tjdx2,
and the heat loss per unit time per unit length of the
bar in the cooling experiment is
dq dT
= AC (20)
dx dt
where dTjdt is the measured cooling rate and C the
specific heat per unit volume.
Hogan and Sawyer [294] have improved this
method so that it is not necessary to know the specific
heat of the material. They used a thin long rod en-
closed in an isothermal furnace. Radial heat loss
from the specimen was determined by passing an
electric current through the specimen and measuring
the electric power required to maintain it at a tem-
perature slightly above that of the furnace. This re-
places Forbes' cooling experiment, and it is not
necessary to know the specific heat since a steady-
state condition is prevailing.
Hogan and Sawyer's method was further im-
proved by Laubitz [295]. In his comprehensive
review Laubitz [253] has discussed in detail the
generalized Forbes' bar method, including the other
major variants currently in use [296 298].
C. Radial Heat Flow Methods
There are several different types of apparatus all
employing radial heat flow. The classification is
mainly based upon specimen geometry. In the fol-
lowing we will briefly describe the cylindrical,
spherical, ellipsoidal, concentric sphere, concentric
cylinder, and plate methods. The reader is referred
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 17
to the references given for individual methods for
finer details. A comprehensive review of radial heat
flow methods has been made by McElroy and
Moore [299].
a. Absolute Methods
(0 Cylindrical Method. The cylindrical method
uses a specimen in the form of a right circular cylin-
der with a coaxial central hole, which contains either
a heater or a heat sink, depending on whether the
desired heat flow direction is to be radially outward
or inward. The use of this method was first reported
by Callendar and Nicolson [300] in \?,-)l for measur-
ing the thermal conductivity of cast iron and mild
steel. The cylindrical specimens used were 5 inches
in diameter and 2 feet long with I-inch coaxial holes
heated by steam under pressure. The outside of the
cylinder was cooled by water circulating rapidly in a
spiral tube. Niven [301] in 1905 also used the radial
heat flow method for measurements on wood, sand,
and sawdust. His method is close to the so-called
hot-wire method developed by Andrews [302] in
1840 and Schleiermacher [303] in 1888 for measure-
ments on gases. Kannuluik and Martin [304] used
the hot-wire method for measurements on powders
as well as on gases.
In the early experiments and also in many later
designs [305 308], end guards are not employed. The
effect of heat losses from the ends of the specimen is
minimized by using a long specimen and monitoring
the electric power within only a small section of the
specimen away from the ends.
The guarded cylindrical method employing end
guards at both ends of the specimen to prevent axial
heat losses was developed by Powell [309] and first
reported in 1939 for measurements on Armco iron at
high temperatures. In the guarded cylindrical method
the specimen is generally composed of stacked disks
with a coaxial central hole containing either a heater
or a heat sink. Temperatures within the specimen
are measured either by thermocouples or by an
optical pyrometer. For details of some of the useful
apparatus employing the guarded cylindrical method,
the reader may consult references [299, 309 314].
The thermal conductivity is calculated from the
expression
q ta(Vi)
k m (21)
2W(r1 - T2)
where / is the length of the central heater and Tj and
T2 are temperatures measured at radii r, and
respectively.
--' ~
18a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
Hoch ei al. [315] have developed a quasi-radial
heat flow method in which a metallic specimen in the
form of a disk or short cylinder is heated at its con-
vex cylindrical surface in high vacuum by means of
high frequency induction and is losing heat from its
flat circular end faces by radiation. In this method
the inward flow of heat from the cylindrical surface,
at which the heat generation is localized, into the
interior of the specimen is, of course, not strictly
radial, and the temperature gradient of the flat
circular end faces along the radius is related to the
thermal conductivity. For measurements on non-
metallic solids such as AljOg [316], the convex sur-
face of the specimen is covered with a metallic
envelope. The theory of this method is improved by
Vaidi and Lemlich [317], and some of the previously
published data are revised.
(//) Spherical and Ellipsoidal Methods. In a
spherical method, the heater is completely enclosed
inside the specimen which is in the form of a hollow
sphere. The heat supplied by the internal heater
passes through the specimen radially without loss.
Theoretically, this method is ideal. Howe\er, there
are a number of practical difficulties such as difficult
fabrication of a spherical heater which produces uni-
form heat flux in all radial directions, difficult fabri-
cation of spherical specimen, difficult positioning of
thermocouples along spherical isotherms, etc., which
have prevented this method from being popular.
Laws. Bishop, and McJunkin [318] seem the first
to have used this method on solids (not loose-filled
materials). A detailed description of a modern design
may be found in [305]. The thermal conductivity
is calculated trom the expression
gOAi - l/ra)
k = (22)
4n{ T, - T2)
The ellipsoidal method is similar, but has some
advantages over the spherical method. It was
developed by a group of researchers at MIT [319
321]. The major advantage of using a specimen in
the form of an ellipsoid instead of a sphere is that the
isothermal surfaces near the plane of the minor
axes of an ellpsioid are rather flat so that straight
thermocouple wires can be used without ill effect.
If a is half the focal length of the ellipsoid and 7",
and r2 are temperatures measured at respectively
two radii r, and r2 on the minor axis, the thermal
conductivity is determined by the expression
k =
8M( r, - r2)
(23)
vV + 7) " a Via3 + r,3) + a
x In
y/ia2 + r22) f a yV 7? + 'i") ~ d
Despite the aforementioned advantage, the ellip-
soidal method is also rarely used due to the other
experimental difficulties common to both the ellip-
soidal and spherical methods.
(1/7) Concentric Sphere and Concentric Cylinder
Methods. Concentric sphere and concentric cylinder
methods are used mainly for measurements on
powders, fibers, and other loose-filled materials.
The specimen is filled in the space between two
concentric spherical (or cylindrical) shells, with the
inner sphere (or cylinder) being a heater or a heat
sink. In a concentric cylinder apparatus, end guards
are usually used to prevent axial heat flow.
A concentric sphere method was first used by
Peclet [322] and reported in 1860 with the inner
sphere filled with hot water as heater. However, a
steady-state condition was not achieved in his
pioneering measurements. Later Nusselt [323] suc-
ceeded in using this method for measurements on
insulating materials with an electric heater installed
inside the inner spherical shell. A modern apparatus
using a boil-off calorimeter in the inner sphere was
described in [324].
A concentric cylinder method was used by
Stefan [325] and reported in IS"^ for the measure-
ments on gases. It was later adopted for measuring
loose-filled materials. Reference [326] describes ^a
modern apparatus employing a guarded boil-off
calorimeter inside the inner cylinder. Recently,
Flynn and Watson [327] used a concentric cylinder
method to measure the high-temperature thermal
conductivity of soil.
(/'') de Senarmont's Plate Method, de Senarmont
[328-332] in 1847-48 used a radial heat flow
plate method to determine the anisotropy in
thermal conductivity of crystalline substances.
However, this method does not yield absolute
values of thermal conductivity, and furthermore
the axial heat loss is not prevented.
In his method, a thin plate of the sample was
coated with a thin film of white wax; and heat was
applied at a central point by means of a hot, thin
silver tube tightly fitted in a hole at the center of the
plate. The wax melted around the region where
heat was supplied and the bounding line of the
melted wax was the visible isotherm, the shape of

which indicated the variation of thermal conductivity
in the different directions.
It the substance is Isotropie, the bounding
curve of the melted wax is a circle, whereas for
anisotropic substances, this curve is elliptical,
in such a case, the ratio of the two thermal con-
ductivities jta and kh along the two axes o and h
of the ellipse is given by the expression
(24)
Ar.
A,, W of decrease depends on the thermal conductivity
Powell [333] has modified the method in his
simple test for anisotropic materials. In testing
gallium, he cooled a slice of crystal locally by means
of a piece of solid carbon dioxide and observed the
contours of the dew and frost areas which formed
around the cooled zone. For testing graphite, he
followed de Senarmont's original method, but the
surface of the plate used was covered with frost by
precooling instead of being coated with wax.
b. Comparative Methods
(I) Concentric Cylinder Method. This method has
been used for measurements on some special materials
such as those that are radioactive or reactive [334
336] and not for ordinary materials, because it does
not have any major advantage over the absolute
method. A typical apparatus of this kind consists
of a cylindrical specimen which is surrounded by a
concentric cylindrical reference sample of known
thermal conductivity. A coaxial central hole in the
specimen contains a heat source, which produces
heat flowing radially through both the specimen and
the reference sample. The advantage of using this
method for measuring ladioactive or reactive
materials is that the reference sample which encloses
the specimen serves also as a means of containment.
The thermal conductivity is determined from the
expression
(T3- r) InQ-a//-!)
k =kr (25)
(r, - ra)In(r4/r3)
where T^ and T2 are two temperatures measured in
the specimen at two radii r, and r-^, respectively, and
Tj and TA in the reference sample respectively at
r3 and r4.
(/';') Disk Method. Robinson [337] developed a
method, which he termed the "conductive-disk
method,'" for comparative measurements on insu-
lators. This method employs inward radial heat flow
1
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 19t
from a heater at the circular edge of a disk of suitable
conductive reference material sandwiched between
two like specimens, which are in turn sandwiched
between two circular cold plates at a constant lower
temperature. However, the heat flow in this case is
not strictly radial, since, P.S the heat flows radially
in the conductive disk toward the center, it flows
also from the disk through the specimens to the
cold plates. As a result, the steady-state temperature
of the disk decreases toward its center, and the rate
of the specimens. Robinson obtained an expression
for calculating the thermal conductivity of the
specimens from the known thermal conductivity and
thickness of the disk and from the temperatures of
the cold plates and of the disk at its center and at a
suitable radius.
D. Direct Electrical Heating Methods
In direct electrical heating methods, the speci-
men is heated directly by passing an electric current
through it. These methods are therefore limited to
measurements on reasonably good electrical con-
ductors. Furthermore, they usually yield thermal
conductivity in terms of electrical conductivity
rather than directly. However, direct electrical heat-
ing methods also have certain advantages over other
methods, and at high temperatures an increasing
number of materials become sufficiently good
electrical conductors. Direct electrical heating offers
a means of easily attaining very high temperatures,
uses simpler apparatus and experimental techniques
than other methods at high temperatures, uses
relatively small specimens, requires relatively short
time to reach equilibrium, and also offers the
possibility of con. nrrent determinations of a number
of physical properties on the same specimen.
According to specimen geometry, these methods
fall into two major categories: cylindrical rod and
rectangular bar. They will be briefly discussed below.
Comprehensive reviews [338-340] on direct elec-
trical heating methods are available.
The thermoelectrical method to be discussed
later involves also the direct passage of an electric
current through the specimen. However, in that
method the specimen is heated (and cooled) by the
Peltier effect which is totally different from the
Joulean heating responsible for maintaining the
specimen temperature in the direct electrical heating
methods discussed here. It is therefore preferable
to discuss the thermoelectrical method separately
in another section.
-T : r-Tj
 20 Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
a. Cylindrical Rod Methods
The direct electrical heating methods in this
category involve heating specimens in the form of
rods, thin wires, or tubes by the passage of regulated
electric current and measuring potential drops and
temperatures for the calculation of thermal con-
ductivity.
There are many different techniques and variants
that have been employed over the years since Kohl-
rausch (341 344] first developed this method. The
different variants may be divided into three categories
as discussed below.
(/) Longitudinal Heat Flow Method. I n this method
the rod is well insulated or guarded to prevent radial
heat losses, so that the Joule heat generated in the
specimen flows to the two ends. This is the method
originally developed by Kohlrausch [341 344]. If the
two ends of the rod are held at the same temperature
and assuming that in a small temperature range the
thermal and electrical conductivities are independent
of temperature, the thermal conductivity is given
by the simple relation
k = (26)
%P{T2- T,)
where p is the electrical resistivity, K, and V^ are
the electrical potentials at locations I and 3 on the
specimen which are at equal and opposite distances
from the midpoint 2, and 7", and r2 are temperatures
at locations I and 2. This method was first used for
actual measurements by Jaeger and Diesselhorst
[345]. A variant of it has been used by Mikryukov
[338]. The socalhd "necked-down-sample method"
[346] may also be considered as a longitudinal heat
flow method.
(//) Radial Heal Flow Method. This method uses
a thick rod or tube and allows radial heat transfer.
Under steady-state conditions the Joule heat gen-
"ated in the specimen at regions remote from the
eni's flows radially to the surface and is then trans-
ferred by convection and radiation to the surround-
ings. This method was first suggested by Mendenhall
and applied by Angell [347]. In the case of a cylin-
drical rod specimen and assuming that in a small
temperature range the thermal and electrical con-
ductivities an independent of temperature, the
thermal conductivity is given by the simple relation
El
k = (27)
Mn-ia
.
where / is the electric current, E is the electrical
potential drop over a length / at the central region
of the specimen, and 7"i and 7"2 are the ;emperatures
at the axis and surface, respt-ctively, of the rod at
the central region. These temperatures wete too
small for precise measurements on metais, but
Powell and Schofield [348] used it for poorer con
ducting carbon and graphite, and they a! o took
account of the variation of thermal and electrical
conductivities with temperature.
(///) Thin-Rod- Approximation Method. The general
form of the present met.'iod uses a long thin filament
heated electrically in vacuum and allows both longi-
tudinal heat conduction and lateral heat transfer
by radiation. The "thin-rod approximation" involves
the assumption that the temperatures and potentials
in all planes normal to the specimen axis are uniform,
i.e., their iifferences in the radial direction are
negligible. Worthing [349] first employed this method
fo. measurements on U-shaped filaments at incan-
descent temperatures. There are many variants
[350-364] of this method, all with more or less
different experimental designs, mathematical assump-
tions, and/or computational techniques.
Taylor, Powell, and co-workers [360, 362-364] at
TPPX have made improvements and advancements
on this method. They have taken the Thomson
effect into account, which had never been done
before, and have included the temperature dependence
of various physical properties. They used the general
equation directly, and their advanced computational
techniques have eliminated the need for mathematical
approximations and for matching certain experi-
mental conditions.
It seems appropriate to mention the considerable
discrepancies which have resulted from the data
obtained by various workers, all of whom used
different variants of the direct electrical heating
method. One of the most recent of the TPRC papers
[364] contains an interesting graphical presentation
of all the determinations made on tungsten by these
methods for the temperature range 1600 to 2800 K.
Six of the fourteen groups of workers obtained
results lying well above the recommended curve of
Powell, Ho, and Liley [365], and one was well below
it; the spread being of the order of 50 percent,
80 percent, and 70 percent at 1800, 2200, and
2600 K, respectively. The other seven had results
within about 10 percent of the recommended curve,
while the curve fitting the new results of [364] was
some 3 to 5 percent below the recommended curve.

Earlier reports [339. 362] had contained examples of
similar discrepancies for other high-melting-point
metals, such as molybdenum, stainless steel, and
platinum. The main reasons for these differences
include failure to measure accurately small tempera-
ture gradients at high temperature, failure to match
boundary conditions, errors resulting from simplify-
ing mathematical approximations, and the use of
temperature regions in which the thermal conduction
term is s..iall compared with the Joulean heating and
radiation loss terms.
These have been quoted as examples of current
experimental work at the TPRC, which became
necessary because of the need to resolve some
seriously discordant data and to gain further insight
into their muses. The impression must not be given,
however, that such discrepancies are confined to
metals or to direct electrical heating methods.
This is by no means the case, and the literatui- of
heat conduction contains many examples of dis-
cordant results for all types of methods used.
Titanium carbide, one of the materials dealt with
in this volume may be mentioned. The first deter-
minations reported on titanium carbide by Vasilos
and Kingery [366] to high temperatures showed
the thermal conductivity to decrease from about
0.2Wcm C1 at 200 C to O.IWcm'C1 at
500C and 0.04 W cm1 C1 at I000C. Two
methods had been used : the divided-rod comparative
method for a cube sample up to about 800 C and an
ellipsoidal radial-flow ncthod from about 500 to
1100 C. The former method gave results which were
greater by 20 percent to 30 percent over their
common temperature range. In 1961 Taylor [367]
used a better-substantiated radial heat flow method
for cylindrical samples of titanium carbide, and
found the thermal conductivity to increase linearly
from0.38 Wem ' C ' at 600 C to 0.47 W cm1 C1
at 1600 C.
These two sets of values, differing at about
1000 C by about one order of magnitude and
having temperature coefficients of opposite sign
naturally aroused interest, and subsequent con-
tributions by Laubitz [368], Hoch and Vardi [369].
Powell [370. 371], and the nonsteady-state measure-
ments of Taylor and Morreale [372] all supported
the higher values of Taylor [367]. It would seem that
the higher thermal conductivity of titanium carbide
led to serious enors being associated with the method
of Vasilos and Kingery, which were not apparent
for substances of lower thermal conductivity.
Incidently, had the much simpler measurement of
Theory, Estimoiion, and Measurement 21a
electrical resistivity also been made, the unusually
low resultant Lorenz function should have provided
warning that abnormal data were being obtained.
It might well be added that the inclusion of electrical
resistivity measurements on all possible occasions
is a simple extra measurement which also serves to
provide very useful information about the properties
of the material under test and its behavior on temp-
erature cycling.
The foregoing example also indicates that users
of the data tables of these volumes should, in the
absence of any analysis that has produced a curve
of recommended values, tend to be critical of the
values presented, until these are seen to be well
supported by independent experiments, correlations,
or by additional checks such as that of a reasonable
Lorenz function.
An additional outcome of the current TPRC
investigation has been the development of a method
and of equipment capable of determining a large
number of high-temperature physical properties [373].
Their multiple-purpose apparatus is the first opera-
tional model that can accurately measure the thermal
conductivity, electrical resistivity, total and spectral
hemispherical emittance. Thomson coefficient, and
Loienz function on one and the same specimen.
This apparatus can also measure the specific heat,
enthalpy, thermal diffusivity, thermal expansion.
Seebeck coefficient, Peltier coefficient, and Richard-
son coefficient. The merit of obtaining many different
physical properties from one and the same specimei
so as to permit meaningful quantitative cross-
correlations between properties need not be em-
phasized here.
b. Rectangular Bar Method
This method was developed by Longmire [374]
and is a geometrically-deformed variant of the radial
heat flow method. The specimen used is in the form
of a long rectangular bar. This special specimen
geometry enables all temperature measurements to
be made on the surface of the specimen. As the
specimen is heated electrically in vacuum, the heat
loss by radiation establishes a radial temperature
gradient, and the temperature at the center line of
the wider surface of the rectangular bar will be
higher than that at the center line of the narrower
surface. From measurements of these two tem-
peratures, the electrical conductivity, and total
hemispherical emittance of the bar, the thermal
conductivity can be calculated using the equation
derived by Longmire.
7% ^-7
 22a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
Longmire's method was improved by Pike and
Doar [375-377] both in mathematical analysis and in
experimental techniques. They further extended his
method to the determination of anisotropy in thermal
conductivity.
E. Thermoelectrical Method
The thermoelectrical method was developed
by Borelius [378] and reported in 1917 for the
combined measurement of the Peltier heat and thermal
conductivity of he same material, and is particularly
applicable to the measurements on thermoelectric
materials.
In this method, the specimen is held between
metallic contacts through which a small direct electric
current is passed. Peltier heating thus occurs at one
end of the specimen and Peltier cooling at the other
end, which establishes a temperature gradient along
the specimen. Under steady-state conditions, the
rate of Peltier heat generation at the hot end is just
balanced by the rate of heat conduction from the
hot to the cold end. Thus the thermal conductivity
can be calculated from the rate of Peltier heat
production W {n being the Peltier coefficient), the
temperature dilference between the ends AT, the
cross-sectional area A, and the length / by the
expression
k =
nil
(28)
Since n = 57, S being the Seebeck coefficient, n
can be determined by measuring the Seebeck
coefficient from the potential diiTerence between the
ends after the temperature difference AT is estab-
lished.
When the direct electric current is passed through
the specimen, Joulean heating will occur, of course.
However, the Joulean heating effect can be made
negligibly small in a good thermoelectric material
by choosing the current small enough, because the
Joule heat production is proportional to /2 while the
Peltie^ heat production is proportional to /. The
Thomson heat effect is generally small
Borelius' met!.">d was used by Sedstrm [379,
380] for measurements on alloys. Some forty years
later, Putley [381] and Harman [382. 383] reinvented
this method. A recent apparatus is described in [384].
A transient thermoelectrical method was devel-
oped by Herinckx and Monfils [385]. in this method
a direct electric current is passed through the speci-
men and the time dependence of the resulting
potential drop across the specimen is observed.
I
The thermal conductivity can be derived from the
shape and asymptote of this potential drop versus
time curve provided that the Seebeck coefficient is
known.
F. Thermal Comparator Method
The thermal comparator method was developed
by Powell [386 389] and is a simple comparative
method for the rapid, easy measurement of thermal
conductivity.
The essential part of the thermal comparator is
an insulated probe with a projecting tip. The probe
is integral with a thermal reservoir held at a tempera-
ture about 15 to 20 degrees above room tem-
perature. A surface thermocouple is mounted at the
tip of the probe and is differentially connected to the
thermal reservoir for the measurement of the tem-
perature difference between the reservoir and the tip.
In operation, the probe is gently placed on the
surface of the test material. Upon contact of the
probe tip of known thermal conductivity A^ and
originally at temperature 7"i with the surface of the
test material of thermal conductivity ^ and al
room temperature. 7"2, the temperature of the probe
tip drops quickly to an intermediate temperature,
T. giving the expression
r.-r-^-r.)^ (29)
This temperature difference is registered by the emf
reading of the differential thermocouple after a brief
transient period (I to 2 seconds) has elapsed.
From the emf readings of tests on a series of
reference samples of known thermal conductivity, a
calibration curve is obtained, and the thermal con-
ductivity of an unknown specimen can thus be
determined from the emf reading through the
calibration curve.
Powell [390] has made a compreher.jive review
on this method. Some subsequent developments arc
discussed in [391]. The thermal comparator has been
developed by TPRC as an instrument [391] for the
rapid determination of the thermal conductivity of
solids and liquids and is commercially available from
The McClure Park Corp., West Lafayette, Indiana.
3. NONSTEADY-SFATE METHODS
In nonsteady-state methods, the temperature
distribution in the specimen varies with time. The
rate of temperature change at certain positions along
the specimen is measured in the experiment, and no

measurement of the rate of heat flow is required.
These methods normally determine the thermal
diffusivity, from which the thermal conductivity
can be calculated with an additional knowledge of
the density and specific heat of the test material.
Nonsteady-state methods fall into two major cate-
gories, the periodic and the transient heat flow
methods, as briefly discussed below. These methods
have been comprehensively reviewed by Danielson
and Sidles [392], and will be dealt with in Volume 10
of the present TPRC Data Series.
A. Periodic Heat Flow Methods
In periodic heat flow methods, the heat supplied
to the specimen is modulated to have a fixed period.
The resulting temperature wave which propagates
through the specimen with the same period is
attenuated as it moves along. Consequently, the
thermal diffusivity can be determined fiom measure-
ments of the amplitude decrement a.id/or phase
difference of the temperature waves between certain
positions in the specimen, in most of the periodic
heat flow methods, heat flow is in the longitudinal
(axial) direction. However, methods with heat flow
in the radial direction have also been used.
a. Longitudinal Heat Flow Method
The periodic heat flow method was first develop-
ed by Angstrom [211, 393] and reported in 1861.
In his method a variable heat source capable of
producing a sinusoidal temperature variation was
attached to the center of a long thin rod specimen,
and the temperatures as a function of time at two
positions / apart towards the ends of the rod, were
measured. From these temperature time measure-
ments, the velocity, i, and the amplitude
decrement, 8, of the temperature wave can be
determined for the calculation of thermal diffusivity.
This method has been modified and improved by
King [394] and others [395-397]. The thermal
iffusivity may be calculated from the expression
[396]
vl
D = (30)
2ln8
The Angstrm method, which uses a long rod.
has its limitations. In some cases, specimens in the
korm of long rods may not be available, and in other
cases, sulh as in the measurements on poor conduc-
tors at high temperatures, heat guarding to prevent
lateral heat losses from a long rod may be difficult.
||
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 23a
Consequently, methods using specimens in the form
of a small plateordisk havebeendeveloperf[398 400].
b. Radial Heal Flow Method
In this method, the specimen in the form of a
cylinder is heated by a heat source capable of
producing a periodical temperature variation either
at the axis or at the circumference, and the radial
temperature variations with time are measured.
The thermal diffusivity may be calculated from
iJ*e phase change of the temperature oscillations,
or T'om the amplitude variation of the oscillations
with Kequency.
Tinasawa [401] used this method in 1935 for
the measurements on humid materials. In his method,
a sinusoidal temperature was produced on the
surface of a cylindrical specimen, and the tempera-
tures at different radial distances were measured for
the calculation of thermal diffusivity.
Filippov and his co-workers have further
developed a method of this type [402] and used it
for the measurements on metals [403] and molten
metals [404, 405] at high temperatures.
The nonsteady-state radial heat flow method
has also been employed for measurements on
insulators [406, 407],
B. Transient Heat Flow Methods
Transient heat flow methods, both longitudinal
and radial, were first used by Neumann [408, 409]
and reported in 1862. In his method, one end of a
bar was heated by a flame until the temperature
attained the equilibrium state. The flame was then
suddenly removed and the temperatures at two
positions along the bar were measured as a function
of time. Thermal diffusivity can then be calculated
from these measurements. For the measurements on
poor conductors he used another method in which
a cube or sphere was heated uniformly to a high
temperature and then was allowed to cool in the air.
The temperatures at the surface and at the center
were measured as a function of time.
Tht modern transient heat flow methods have
a wide variety. In the following a number of the
major variants are briefly discussed
a. Longitudinal Heat Flow Method
Similar to the longitudinal periodic heat flow
method, the longitudinal transient heat flow method
can also be subdivided into two major categories:
those ising a long rod and those using a small plate
(or disk)
1
.-/-.i" - '^1
24a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
Methods in which one end of a long rod, which
is initially atAunilor.n temperature, is subjected to a
short heating pulse have been developed [410, 411 ].
There are also methods in which steady heating is
provided at one end of a rod and the temperatures
as a function of time at two or more positions along
the rod are observed [412 414).
Transient heat flow methods in which the
specimen used is in the form of a small plate or disk
have been developed by a number of workers
[415-418].
b. Flash Method
Although the flash method is a variant of the
longitudinal transient heat flow method using a
small thin disk specimen geometry, it has a very
special feature which makes it a class of its own.
In the "flash" method, a flash of thermal energy
is supplied to cne of the surfaces of a disk specimen
within a time ii "rval that is short compared with
the time required for the resulting transient flow of
heat to propagate through the specimen. This
method was developed by Parker, Jenkins, Butler,
and Abbott [419] and reported in 1961.
In use, a heat source such as flash tube or laser
supplies a flash of energy to the front face of a
thin disk specimen and the temperature as a function
of time at the rear face is automatically recorded.
The thermal ditfusivity is given from the thickness of
the specimen, /, and a specific time, ri,2, at which the
back face temperature reaches half its maximum
value by the expression
D = 1.37 //'tiii (31)
Other expressions for the calculation of thermal
diffusivity have also been used.
Subsequent improvements on this method have
been made [420,421] by the application of corrections
for the finite pulse-time effect and the radiation-loss
effect,
c. Radial Heat Flow Method
As mentioned before, a radial heat flow method
was used by Neumann [408, 409] for measurements
on poor conductors. His specimens were of spherical
shape.
In modern apparatus, specimens in the form of
cylinders are used. A long cylindrical ;pecimen,
hollow or solid, which is initially at uniform tem-
perature, is heated either at the axis or at the outer
surface and the temperatures as a function of time
at different radial distances are measured. In the
methods developed by Ginnmgs [422] and by Cape,
Lehman, and Nakata [423], cylindrical specimens
were continuously heated at the outer surface.
Specimens in the form of hollow disks stacked
on an axial heater with outer disks as end guards
have been used by Carter, Maycock, Klein, and
Danielson [424].
Although the line heat source and probe methods
are also radial transient heat flow methods, they are
quite different from other methods and will be
discussed in a separate section below.
</. Line Heal Source and Probe Methods
The line heat source method was originally
developed by Stalhane and Pyk [425] in 1931 and
used for measurements on ceramic materials
[426]. This method is suitable for the measure-
ments on loose-tilled materials such as powders.
In this method, a long thin heater wire which
seives as a line heat source was embedded in a large
specimen initially at uniform temperature. The
heater is then turned on, which produces constant
heat, q. per unit length and time, and the temperature
at a point in the specimen is recorded as a function
of time. The thermal conductivity is given by the
expression
In- (32)
4AT2 - T,)
where {T.2 - 7",) is the temperature difference at
two times /, and t2. Subsequently, this method was
also de\clopcd by van der Held and his co-workers
[427, 428] and others.
The probe method is a more practical line heat
source method in which the heat source is enclosed
inside a probe for protection and for easy insertion
into a sample. This method was developed by Hooper
and his co-workers [429, 430] md others. Blackwell
[431, 432] has derived theoretical treatments for
practical departures from a true line source, and in
the discussion of a paper [433] dealing with the use
of a probe method in connection with the routing
of electric power cables, he advocated the use of
very small thermistors as an alternative to thermo-
couples.
e. Mating Heat Source Method
The moving heat source method was developed
by Rosenthal and his co-workers [434 436] and
involves the establishment of a quasi-steady-state
-*- "T^
 -:
r
temperature distribution in a long tubular-shaped
specimen heated by a moving localized heat source
of constant intensity. As the heat source approaches
and moves away, each point in the specimen is
subjected to a temperature rise and fall. When the
heat source passes over the specimen, the tempera-
ture at a point remote from the ends is recorded as
a function of time. From this record, a curve of the
logarithm of the temperature variation with time is
made. The thermal diffusivity is given from the
velocity of the heat source, v, and the slopes Pr and
P, on the rising and falling portions of the curve at
the same temperature by the expression
D = (33)
Pr + P,
/. Comparatite Mvtlwd
A comparative method employing transient heat
flow was developed by Hsu [437,438]. In this method.
two identical sets of composite blocks are used.
Each set consists of a test specimen and a reference
I
k, _
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 25
sample whose properties are known. Initially the
two sets are heated separately to uniform but
different temperatures, and then they are suddenly
brought into contact, with the two test specimens
touching each other. The transient temperature at
the contact plane between the test specimen and
reference sample corresponding to a certain time is
measured, and from this the thermal diffusivity
of the specimen can be calculated.
Another transient-heat-flow comparative method
has been used by Deem el al. [439] for the measure-
ments on irradiated materials. The method of
measurement is to place the lower ends of a specimen
and a reference sample, which are of the same size
and initially at room temperature, in molten tin
maintained at a constant elevated temperature and
then measure ihe times required for the tops of them
to reach a predetermined intermediate temperature.
The ratio ol the thermal diffusivities is assumed
directly proportional to the ratio of the two times
measured for the specimen and the reference
material.
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complete specification published 7 December I960.
387. Powell, R. W., "Experiments Using a Simple Thermal
Comparator for Measurement of Thermal Conductivity,
Surface Roughness and Thickness of Foils or of Surface
Deposits," J. Sei. Instrum., 34, 485-92, 1957.
388 Powell, R. W., "Thermal Conductivity as a Non-
destructive-Testing Technique," in Progress in Non-
Destructive Testing, Vol. 1, Messrs. Heywood & Co. Ltd.,
199-226, 1958.
389 Powell, R. W., "Single-End Probe, or Modified Thermal
Comparator," British Patent No. I 036 124, application
dale 19 January 1962, complete specification published
13 July 1966.
390. Powell, R. W., "Thermal Conductivity Determinations
by Thermal Comparator Methods." in Thermal Con-
ductivity (Tye, R. P., ed.), Voi. 2, Chap. 6, Academic
Press, London, 275-338, 1969.
391. Powell, R. W.. DeWitt, D. i'., Wolfla, L. H., and Finch,
R. A., "An Instrument Embodying the Thermal Com-
parator Technique for Thermal Conductivity Measure-
^77
38a Theory, Estimation, and Measurement
mcnts," in Temperature 4easuremenls SocietySixth
Conference and Exhibit, Western Periodicals, Co , North
Hollywood, Calif., 233-44, 1969.
392. Danielson, G. C. and Sidles, P. H., "Thermal Diffusivity
and Other Nonsteady-State Methods," in Thermal
Conductivity (Tye, R. P., ed.). Vol. 2, Chap. 3, Academic
Press, London, 149-201, 1969.
393. Ans strm, A. J., "New Method of Determining the
Thermal Conductivity of Bodies," Phil. Mag., 25, 130-
42, 1863.
394. King, R. W., "A Method of Measuring Heat Con-
ductivities," Phys. Rev., 6(6) 437-45, 1915.
395. Starr, C, "An Improved Method for the Determination
of Thermal Diffusivities," Rev. Sei. Instrum.. 8(1),
61-4, 1937.
396. Sidles. P. H. and Danielson, G. C, "Thermal Diffusivity
of Metals at High Temperature," J. Appl. fhy., 25(1).
58-66, 1954.
397. Abeles, B., Cody, G. D., and Beers, D. S., "Apparatus
for the Measurement of the Thermal Diffusivity of
Solids at High Temperatures." /. Appl. Phys., 31(9),
l!)85-92, 1960.
398 Cowan, R. D., "Proposed Method of Measuring
Thermal Diffusivity at High Temperatures," J. Appl.
n^i, 32(7) 1363-70, 1961.
399. Hirschman, A., Dennis, J., Derksen, W., and Monahan,
T., "An Optical Method for Measuring the Thermal
Diffusivity of Solids," in International Developments in
Heat Transfer. Part IV, ASME, New York. 863-9, 1961.
400. Wheeler. M. J., "Thermal Diffusivity at Incandescent
Temperatures by a Modulated Electron Beam Tech-
nique," Brit.J. Appl. Phys., 16(3), 365-76, 1965.
401. Tanasawa, T., "A New Method for the Measurement
of the Thermal Constan.s of Wet Substance (The
Second Report)," Trans. Soc. Mech. Engrs. Japan,
1(3) 217-26, 1935.
402. Filippov, L. P. and Pigal'skaya, L. A., "Measurement
of the Thermal Diffusivity of Metals at High Tempera-
tures," High Temperature, 2(3), 351-8, 1964.
403. Pigal'skaya, L. A. and Filippov, L. P., 'Measurement of
the Thermal Diffusivity of Metals at High Temperataic;.
Part 2. Experimental Method of Alternating Heating in
a High-Frequency Furnace," High Temperature, 2(4),
501-4, 1964.
404. Yurchak, R. P. aod Filippov, L. P., "Measuring the
Thermal Diffusivity of Molten Metals," TVp.'o/Sr. Vysokikh
Temperatur, 2(5), 696-704, 1964; English translation:
High Temperature, 2(5), 628-30, 1964.
405. Y urchak, R. P. and Filippov, L. P., "Thermal Properties
of Molten Tin and Lead," Teplofii. Vysokikh Tem-
peratur, 3(2), 323-5, 1965, English translation: High
Temperature, 3(2), 290-1. 1965.
406. van Zee. A. F. and Babcock. C. L.. "A Method for the
Measurement of Thermal Diffusivity of Molten Glass,"
J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 34, 244-50, 1951.
407. Kirichenko, Yu. A., Oleinik, B. N.. and Chadovich,
T. Z , "Thermal Properties of Polymers," Inzh-Fiz. Zh.,
7(5), 70-5. 1964.
408. Neumann, F., "Experiments on the Thermal Conduc-
tivity of Solids," Ann. Chim. Phys., 3. 66. 183-7, 1862.
409. Neumann, F., "Experiments on the Calorific Con-
ductibility of Solids," Phil. Mag.. 25, 63-5, 1863.
410 Oualid, J., "Determination of the Diffusivity Coefficient
of Metals and Semi-Conductors," J. Phys. Radium, 22,
124-6, 1961.
411. Woisard, E. L., "Pulse Method for the Measurement of
Therm'i Diffusivity of Metals." J. Appl. Phys., 32(1).
40-5. 1961.
412 Butler, C P. and Inn. E. C. Y., "Thermal Diffusivity
of Metals at Elevated Temperatures," in Thermo-
dynamic and Transport Properties of Gases. Liquids and
Solids, (Touloukian, Y. S., ed.). Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.
Symp. Thermal Prop., McGraw-Hill, NY., 377-90,1959.
413. Kennedy, W. L.. Sidles. P. H.. and Danielson. G. C.
"Thermal Diffusivity Measurements on Finite Samples."
Adv. Energy Com:, 2, 53-8. 1962.
414 Penniman, F. G.. "A Long-Pulse Method of Determining
Thermal Diffusivity," Sol. Energy, Pt. II, 9(3), 113-6,
1965.
415. Fitch, A. L., "A New Thermal Conductivity Apparatus,"
Am. Phys. Teacher, 3, 135-6. 1935.
416. Joffe. A. V. and Joffe. A. F.. "Measurement of Thermal
Conductivity of Semi- onductors in the Vicinity of
Room Temperatures." Soviet Phys.Tech. Phys., 3(11).
2163-8. 1958.
417. Plummer. W. A , Campbell, D. E., and Comstock,
A. A., "Method of Measurement of Thermal Diffusivity
to 1000 C'V. Am. Ceram. Sor., 45(7), 310-6, 1962.
418. Culler, M. and Cheney, G. T., "Heat-Wave Methods for
the Measurement of Thermal Diffusivity," J. Appl.
Phys., 34(7), 1902-9, 1963.
419. Parker, W. J.. Jenkins, R. J., Buller, C. P., and Abbott,
G. I... "Flash Method of Determining Thermal Dif-
fusivity. Heat Capacity, and Thermal Conductivity,"
/ Appl. Phys., 32(9), 1679-84, 1961.
420. Cape, J. A. and Lehman, G. W., "Temperature and
Finite Pulse-Time Effects in the Flash Method for
Measuring Thermal Diffusivity," J. Appl. Phys., 34(7),
1909-13, 1963.
421. Taylor. R. E. and Cape, J. A.. "Finite Pulse-Time Effect
in the Flash Diffusivity Technique," v<pp/. PAyi. Z.e/'*rj;,
5(10), 212-23, 1964.
422. Ginnings, D. C, "Standards of Heat Capacity and
Thermal Conductivity," in Thermoelectricity {huU, P. H.,
ed.). Chap. 20, John Wiley & Sons., New York, 320-^1,
I960.
423. Cape, J. A., Lehman, G. W., and Nakata, M. M
"Transient Thermal Diffusivity Technique for Refractory
Solids," J. Appl. Phys., 34(12), 3550-5, 1963.
424. Carter, R. L Maycock, P. D., Klein, A. H., and
Danielson, G. C, "Thermal Diffusivity Measurements
with Radial Sample Geometry," J. Appl. Phys., 36(8),
2333-7. 1965.
425. Stalhane, B. and Pyk, S , "New Method for Measuring
the Thermal Conductivity Coefficients," Tekn. Tidskr.,
61(28), 389-93. 1931.
426. Stalhane, B. and Pyk, S.. "Determination of the Thermal
Conductivity of Ceiamic Bodies at High Temperature."
Tekn. Tidskr., 64(48). 445-8. 1934.
427. van der Helrt. E. F and van Drunen. F. G., "A Method
of Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of Liquids,"
Pfivsica, 15(10). 865-81. 1949
428. van der Held. E. F.. Hardebol. J., and Kalshoven. J..
"The Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of
~ -TP! r,
f
Liquids by a Nonstationary Method." Physica, 19(3)
208-16, 1953.
429. Hooper, F. C. and Lepper, F. R., "Transien! Heat Flow
Apparatus for the Determination of Thermal Con-
ductivities," Healing. Piping and Air Conditioning,
ASHVE J. Sect 22(8), 129-34, 1950.
430. Hooper, F. C. and Chang, S. C, '"Development of the
Thermal Conductivity Probe," Heating. Piping, and
Air Conditioning, ASHVE J. Sect. 24(10), 125-9,
1952.
431. Blackwell, J. H.. 'Radial-Axial Hsa' Flow in Regions
Bounded Internally by Circular Cylinders." Can. J.
Phys., 31(4), 472-9, 1953.
432. Blackwell, J. ".. "A Transient-Flow Method for
Determination of Thermal Constants of insulating
Materials in Bulk. I. Theory." 7. Appl. Phys.. 25. 137-44.
1954
433. Makowski, M. W. and Mochlinski, K., "An Evaluation
of Two Rapid Methods of Assessing the Thermal
Resistivity of Soil." Proc. Insln. Elect. Engrs.. I03A(11).
453 70, 1956.
Theory, Estimation, and Measurement 39
434. Rosenthal, D. and Ambrosio, A.. "A New Method of
Determining Thermal Diffusivity of Solids at Various
Temperatures," Trans. ASME 73(7), 971-4, 1951.
435. Rosenthal, D. and Friedmann. N. E., "Thermal Dif-
fusivity of Metals at High Temperatures," J. Appl.
Phys., 25(8). 1059-60, 1954.
436. Rosenthal. D. and Friedmann, N. E., "The Determina-
tion of Thermal Diffusivity of Aluminum Alloys at
Various Tempe-atures by Means of a Moving Heat
Source," Trans. ASME, 78(8), 1175-80, 1956.
437. Hsu, S. T.. "Theory of a New Apparatus for Determining
the Thermal Conductiv-lies of Metals." Rev. Sei. Instr.,
28(5). 333-6, 1957.
438. Hsu. S. T., "Determination of Thermal Conductivities
of Metals by Measuring Transient Temperatures in
Semi-Infinite Solids," Trans. ASME, 79, 1197-1203.
1957.
439. Deem, H. W., Pobereskin. M., Lusk, E. C, Lucks.
C. F , and Calkins, G. D.. "Effect of Radiation on the
Thermal Conductivity of Uranium1.6 Wt.0 Zir-
conium," USAEC Rept. BMI-986, 1-19, 1955.
- - -
 Data Presentation and Related General
Information
1. SCOPE OF COVERAGE
Presented in this volume are the thermal con-
ductivity data for 5 elements, over 100 different
grades of graphites, 53 oxides and oxide compounds,
82 systems of oxide mixtures, 83 nonoxide com-
pounds, 7 systems of mixtures of oxides and non-
oxides. 15 organic compounds, 22 kinds of cermets,
10 groups of systems, 8 kinds of refractory materials,
over 40 different kinds of glasses, 24 minerals, 16
polymers, 26 animal and vegetable natural sub-
stances. 30 processed composites and processed
natural and mineral substances, and 10 aggregate
mixes, slags, scales, and residues. These data are
obtained by processing over 1260 research docu-
ments on the thermal conductivity of nonmctallic
solids dated from around 1800 to 1967. of which
about 590 contain usable data. Materials within
each group are arranged in alphabetical order by
name, as listed in the Grouping of Materials and
Us> of Figures and Tables in the front of the volume.
Totally, this volume reports 4627 sets of data on 812
materials, which are listed in the Material Index at
the end of the volume. The Material Index lists also
the materials contained in the companion volumes
(Volumes I and 3) on thermal conductivity.
The ranges of temperatures covered by the
thermal conductivity data for some materials are
from near absolute zero to past the melting point,
though, for most high-temperature materials, the
available data are limited to the solid range.
The data for the elements and a number of
oxides have been critically evaluated, analyzed, and
synthesized, and recommended reference values arc
presented. This procedure involves critical evaluation
of the validity of available data and related informa-
tion, resolution and reconciliation of disagreements
of conflicting data, correlation of data in terms of
various affectinj; parameters, and comparison of the
resulting values with theoretical predictions, or with
i
results derived from semi-:heoretical relationships,
or from generalized empirical correlations. Besides
critical evaluation and analysis of the existing data,
thermodynamic principles and semi-empirical tech-
niques are employed to fill in gaps and to extrapolate
existing data so that the resulting recommended
values are internally consistent and cover as wide a
range of the controlling parameters as possible.
Future editions of this volume will contain recom-
mended values for an increasing number of materials.
2. PRESENTATION OF DATA
The thermal conductivity data and information
on test specimens for each material are generally
presented in three sections arranged in the following
order; Original Data Plot, Specification Table, and
Data Table. For the elements and a number of
oxides. Graph and Table of Recommended Values
is added as a fourth section. Furthermore, for a
number of materials for which there exists only a
small amount of data, the original data plot may be
omitted.
The Original Data Plot is a full-page log-log-
scale graphical presentation of the original thermal
conductivity data as a function of temperature.
When several sets of data are coincident, some of the
data sets may be omitted from the plot for the sake
of clarity. They are, however, invariably reported in
the Data Tabk and Specification Table.
The Specification Table provides in a concise
form the comprehensive information on the test
specimens for which the data are reported. The
curve numbers in the Specification Table correspond
exactly to the numbers which also appear in the
Original Data Plot and in the Data Table. The
Specification Table gives for each set of data the
reference number which corresponds to the number
in the list of References to Data Sources, the year of
publication of the original data, the method of
42a Numerical Data

measurement, the temperature range, the reported identify the materials for which their data are re-
estimate of error of the data, the specimen designa- ported. This is particularly true for the authors of
tion, and the specimen characterization and test earlier investigations. Consequently, the amount of
conditions. The information of the last category, information on specimen characterization reported
which is reported to the extent provided in the in the Specification Tables varies greatly from
original source document, includes the following: specimen to specimen.
In the Data Table, tabular presentation is given
(1) Purity, chemical composition;
for all the data described in the Specification Table
(2) Type of crystal, crystal axis orientation,
and shown or not shown in the Original Data Plot.
typo and concentration of crystal defects;
Many tabular data which are not presented in the
(3) Microstructure. grain size, pore size and
original source documents are obtained directly
shape, inhomogeneity. additional phases;
from the authors through private communications.
(4) Specimen shape and dimensions, method
Attempts have often been made to contact the authors
and procedure of fabrication;
of recent publications for tabular data whenever the
(5) Thermal history, heat treatment, mechan-
original data are given in the research paper only in
ical, inadiative. and other treatments;
a figure too small to warrant accurate data extraction
(6) Manufacturer and supplier, stock number,
compatible with the reported accuracy of the
and catalog number;
measurement. The thermal conductivity data are
(7) Test environment, degree of vacuum or
given in watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin, and
pressure, heat flow direction, strength and
the temperatures in degrees Kelvin. For data con-
orientation of the applied magnetic tield;
version, the reader is referred to the Conversion
(8) Pertinent physical properties, such as _ , T-I , ^ J , ,
. . hi tnn*^i*ntkmrrAMtstFactors for Thermal Conductivity Units given later.
,a
* lt'fiwi'ty w ** The recommended thermal conductivity values
(9) Reference materiallAToryv tor a 'comparative . . , L . . . ,
for a material are reported in a separate graph and
method of measurement;
table following the Data Table. The estimated
(10) Form in which the extracted data arc
accuracy of the recommended values and special
presented in the original source document
remarks on material characterization and identifi-
other than raw data points;
cation are also noted in the table.
(11) Additional information obtained directly
from the author.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Unfortunately, in the majority of cases the authors
do not report in their research papers all the necessary The classification scheme as shown in the table
pertinent information to fully characterize and for nonmetallic elements, compounds, and mixtures

( lassitication of Materials

Limits of composition (weight percent)*

Classification
X, X X.

I. Elements ^.S 0.2 0.2

A. Binary >99.5 0.2 <0.2
2. Mixtures (or solutions) of 99.5 >0.2 >0.2
elements or of elements 99.5 >0.2 <0.2
and compounds B. Multiple 99.5 >0.2 0.2
_<99.5 0.2 0.2

3. Compounds -^9 JO <2.0 <2.0

A. Binary 95.0 >2.0 <2.0

4. Mixtures (or solutions) of _ >95.0 -2.0 >2.0
compounds - B. Multiple 95.0 >2.0 <2.0
95.0 -2.0 2.0
<95.0 2.0 2.0

X, 2: X, > X, > X, >

 Numerical Data 43

contained in this volume is based strictly upon the Curve number

chemical composition of the material. This scheme is Single data point number
mainly for the convenience of material grouping and
data organization, and is not intended to be used as
basic definitions for the various material groups. 5. CONVENTION FOR BIBLIOGRAPHIC
CITATION
For the following types of documents the bib-
4. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED
liographic information is cited in the sequences
IN THE FIGURES AND TABLES
given below.
In the .Specification Tables, the code designa-
tions used for the experimental methods are as Journal Article:
follows: a. Author(s)The names and initials of all
C Comparative method authors are given. The last name is written
E Direct electrical heating method first, followed by initials.
F Forbes' bar method b. Title of articleIn this volume, the titles of
L Longitudinal heat flow method the journal articles listed in the References to
P Periodic or transient heat flow method Text are given, but not of those listed in the
R Radial heat flow method References to Data Sources.
T Thermoelectrical method c. Journal titleThe abbreviated title of ihe
journal as used in Chemical Abstracts is
Other symbols and abbreviations used in the given.
figures and/or tables are as follows: d. Series, volume, and numberIf the series is
b.c.c. Body-centered cubic designated by a letter, no comma is used
c. Cubic between the letter for series and the numeral
c.p.h. Close-packed hexagonal for volume, and they are underlined together.
d Density In case series is also designated by a numeral,
d. Diamond (crystal structure) a comma is used between the numeral for
Decomp. Decomposition series and the numeral for volume, and only
f.c.c. Face-centered cubic the numeral representing volume is under-
f.c.t. Face-centered tetragonal lined. No commaisused between the numerals
h. Hexagonal representing volume and number. The nume
I.D. inside diameter ral for number is enclosed in parentheses.
k Thermal conductivity PagesThe inclusive page numbers of the
M.P. Melting point article.
monocl. Monoclinic YearThe year of publication.
NTP Normal temperature and pressure
O.D. Outside diameter Report:
orthorh. Orthorhombic a. Author(s)
r. Rhombohedral b. Title of reportIn this volume, the titles of
s.c. Superconducting the reports listed in the References to Text
Subl. Sublimation are given, but not of those listed in the
T Temperature References to Data Sources.
t. Tetragonal Name of the responsible organization.
Temp. Temperature Report, or bulletin, circular, technical nv'.c,
T.P. Transition point etc.
Vit Vitreous Number
t> Electrical resistivity Part
/' Micro Pages
> Greater than Year
< Less than ASTlA's AD numberThis is given in
~ Approximately square brackets whenever available.

^I 'l
 44a Numerical Data

-. i.
v T
f i -
?
I
--

L t

^'i I i ;^~
 Numerical Data 45

Books: The subscripts "th" and "IT" designate "ther-

a. Author(s) mochemical" and "International Steam Table,"
b. Title respectively.
c. Volume
d. Edition
e. Publisher
f. Place of publication 7. CRYSTAL STRUCTURES, TRANSITION
g- Pages iEMPERATURES, AND OTHER
h. Year PERTINENT PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF
THE ELEMENTS
6. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR THERMAE The table on the following pages contains
CONDUCTIVITY UNITS information on the crystal structures, transition
The conversion factors given in the table on temperatures, and certain other pertinent physical
page 44a are based upon the following basic defini- constants of the elements. This information is very
tions: useful in data analysis and synthesis. For example,
the thermal conductivity of a material generally
1 in. = 0.0254 (exactly) m*
changes abruptly when the material undergoes any
1 lb = 0.45359237 kg*
transformation. One must therefore be extremely
1 calth = 4.184 (exactly) J*
cautious in attempting to extrapolate the thermal
1 cal1T = 4.1868 (exactly) J*
conductivity values across any phase, state, magnetic,
1 Btujb F1 - I calthg c-
or superconducting transition temperature, a; given
I Btu.Jb F1 = 1 calITg ic
in the table.
National Bureau of Standards, "New Values for the Physical No attempt has been made to critically evaluate
Constants Recommended by NAS-NRC," NBS Tech. News the temperatures/constants given in the table, and
B//., 47(10). 175-7, 1963.
tMueller, E. F. and Rossini, F. D., "The Calory and the
they should not be considered recommended values.
Joule in Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry," Am. J. This table has an independent series of numbered
Phys., 12(1). 1-7, 1944, referencs which immediately follows the table.

1
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REFERENCES
(Crystal Structure, Transition Temperaturea. and Other I-ertlnent Iliyslcal ConsUnts of the Element)

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 1
Numerical Data

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L- r^ r,


Numerical Data SS

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103. *rM,-4-^, vtK xRrfitut. Ttw r\e Uw.V., po^t 0v SAEC
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