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4. Flowmetering
Fluid characteristics and flow theory (including Bernoulli's theorem and Reynolds' numbers) are introduced and developed to
provide basic metering theory and techniques. Different meter types, instrumentation and installation practice are also
discussed.

1. Fluids and Flow

2. Principles of Flowmetering

3. Types of Steam Flowmeter

4. Instrumentation

5. Installation

Fluids and Flow

Introduction
'When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when
you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind'.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) 1824 - 1907

Many industrial and commercial businesses have now recognised the value of:
Energy cost accounting.
Energy conservation.
Monitoring and targeting techniques.
These tools enable greater energy efficiency.
Steam is not the easiest media to measure. The objective of this Block is to achieve a greater understanding of the
requirements to enable the accurate and reliable measurement of steam flowrate.
Most flowmeters currently available to measure the flow of steam have been designed for measuring the flow of various
liquids and gases. Very few have been developed specifically for measuring the flow of steam.
Spirax Sarco wishes to thank the EEBPP (Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme) of ETSU for contributing to some
parts of this Block..

Fundamentals and basic data of Fluid and Flow

Why measure steam?
Steam flowmeters cannot be evaluated in the same way as other items of energy saving equipment or energy saving
schemes. The steam flowmeter is an essential tool for good steam housekeeping. It provides the knowledge of steam usage
and cost which is vital to an efficiently operated plant or building. The main benefits for using steam flowmetering include:
Plant efficiency.
Energy efficiency.
Process control.
Costing and custody.

Plant efficiency

A good steam flowmeter will indicate the flowrate of steam to a plant item over the full range of its operation, i.e. from when
machinery is switched off to when plant is loaded to capacity. By analysing the relationship between steam flow and
production, optimum working practices can be determined.
The flowmeter will also show the deterioration of plant over time, allowing optimum plant cleaning or replacement to be
carried out.
The flowmeter may also be used to:
Track steam demand and changing trends.
Establish peak steam usage times.
Identify sections or items of plant that are major steam users.
This may lead to changes in production methods to ensure economical steam usage. It can also reduce problems associated
with peak loads on the boiler plant.

Energy efficiency

Steam flowmeters can be used to monitor the results of energy saving schemes and to compare the efficiency of one piece
of plant with another.

Process control

The output signal from a proper steam flowmetering system can be used to control the quantity of steam being supplied to a
process, and indicate that it is at the correct temperature and pressure.
Also, by monitoring the rate of increase of flow at start-up, a steam flowmeter can be used in conjunction with a control valve
to provide a slow warm-up function.

Costing and custody

Steam flowmeters can measure steam usage (and thus steam cost) either centrally or at individual user points. Steam can
be costed as a raw material at various stages of the production process thus allowing the true cost of individual product lines
to be calculated.
To understand flowmetering, it might be useful to delve into some basic theory on fluid mechanics, the characteristics of the
fluid to be metered, and the way in which it travels through pipework systems.

Fluid characteristics
Every fluid has a unique set of characteristics, including:
 Density.
Dynamic viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity.

Density

This has already been discussed in Block 2, Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer, however, because of its
importance, relevant points are repeated here.
Density () defines the mass (m) per unit volume (V) of a substance (see Equation 2.1.2).

The density of both saturated water and saturated steam vary with temperature. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.1.
Dynamic viscosity

This is the internal property that a fluid possesses which resists flow. If a fluid has a high viscosity (e.g. heavy oil) it strongly
resists flow. Also, a highly viscous fluid will require more energy to push it through a pipe than a fluid with a low viscosity.
There are a number of ways of measuring viscosity, including attaching a torque wrench to a paddle and twisting it in the
fluid, or measuring how quickly a fluid pours through an orifice.
A simple school laboratory experiment clearly demonstrates viscosity and the units used:
A sphere is allowed to fall through a fluid under the influence of gravity. The measurement of the distance (d) through which
the sphere falls, and the time (t) taken to fall, are used to determine the velocity (u).
The following equation is then used to determine the dynamic viscosity:
There are three important notes to make:
1. The result of Equation 4.1.1 is termed the absolute or dynamic viscosity of the fluid and is measured in pascal seconds.
Dynamic viscosity is also expressed as viscous force.
2. The physical elements of the equation give a resultant in kg/m, however, the constants (2 and 9) take into account both
experimental data and the conversion of units to pascal seconds (Pa s).
3. Some publications give values for absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity in centipoise (cP),e.g.: 1 cP = 10 -3 Pa s

Example 4.1.1

It takes 0.7 seconds for a 20 mm diameter steel (density 7 800 kg/m 3) ball to fall 1 metre through oil at 20C (density = 920
kg/m3).
Kinematic viscosity

This expresses the relationship between absolute (or dynamic) viscosity and the density of the fluid (see Equation 4.1.2).
Example 4.1.2

In Example 4.1.1, the density of the oil is given to be 920 kg/m 3 - Now determine the kinematic viscosity:

Reynolds number (Re)

The factors introduced above all have an effect on fluid flow in pipes. They are all drawn together in one dimensionless
quantity to express the characteristics of flow, i.e. the Reynolds number (Re).

Analysis of the equation will show that all the units cancel, and Reynolds number (R e) is therefore dimensionless.
Evaluating the Reynolds relationship:
For a particular fluid, if the velocity is low, the resultant Reynolds number is low.
If another fluid with a similar density, but with a higher dynamic viscosity is transported through the same pipe at the same
velocity, the Reynolds number is reduced.
For a given system where the pipe size, the dynamic viscosity (and by implication, temperature) remain constant, the
Reynolds number is directly proportional to velocity.

Example 4.1.3

The fluid used in Examples 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 is pumped at 20 m/s through a 100 mm bore pipe.
From looking at the above Reynolds number it can be seen that the flow is in the laminar region (see Figure 4.1.7).

Flow regimes

If the effects of viscosity and pipe friction are ignored, a fluid would travel through a pipe in a uniform velocity across the
diameter of the pipe. The velocity profile would appear as shown in Figure 4.1.3:

However, this is very much an ideal case and, in practice, viscosity affects the flowrate of the fluid and works together with
the pipe friction to further decrease the flowrate of the fluid near the pipe wall. This is clearly illustrated in Figure 4.1.4:

At low Reynolds numbers (2 300 and below) flow is termed laminar, that is, all motion occurs along the axis of the pipe.
Under these conditions the friction of the fluid against the pipe wall means that the highest fluid velocity will occur at the
centre of the pipe (see Figure 4.1.5).
As the velocity increases, and the Reynolds number exceeds 2 300, the flow becomes increasingly turbulent with more and
more eddy currents, until at Reynolds number 10 000 the flow is completely turbulent (see Figure 4.1.6).

Saturated steam, in common with most fluids, is transported through pipes in the turbulent flow region.
The examples shown in Figures 4.1.3 to 4.1.7 are useful in that they provide an understanding of fluid characteristics within
pipes; however, the objective of the Steam and Condensate Loop Book is to provide specific information regarding saturated
steam and water (or condensate).
Whilst these are two phases of the same fluid, their characteristics are entirely different. This has been demonstrated in the
above Sections regarding Absolute Viscosity ( ) and Density ( ). The following information, therefore, is specifically relevant
to saturated steam systems.

Example 4.1.4

A 100 mm pipework system transports saturated steam at 10 bar g at an average velocity of 25 m/s.
Determine the Reynolds number. The following data is available from comprehensive steam tables:
 If the Reynolds number (Re) in a saturated steam system is less than 10 000 (104) the flow may be laminar or transitional.
Under laminar flow conditions, the pressure drop is directly proportional to flowrate.
If the Reynolds number (Re) is greater than 10 000 (104) the flow regime is turbulent.
Under these conditions the pressure drop is proportional to the square root of the flow.
For accurate steam flowmetering, consistent conditions are essential, and for saturated steam systems it is usual to specify
the minimum Reynolds number (Re) as 1 x 105 = 100 000.
At the opposite end of the scale, when the Reynolds number (R e) exceeds 1 x 106, the head losses due to friction within the
pipework become significant, and this is specified as the maximum.

Example 4.1.5
Based on the information given above, determine the maximum and minimum flowrates for turbulent flow with saturated
steam at 10 bar g in a 100 mm bore pipeline.
Returning to Example 4.1.5, and inserting values into Equation 4.1.6:

Summary
The mass flow of saturated steam through pipes is a function of density, viscosity and velocity.
For accurate steam flowmetering, the pipe size selected should result in Reynolds numbers of between 1 x 10 5 and 1 x
106 at minimum and maximum conditions respectively.
Since viscosity, etc., are fixed values for any one condition being considered, the correct Reynolds number is achieved by
careful selection of the pipe size.
If the Reynolds number increases by a factor of 10 (1 x 105 becomes 1 x 106), then so does the velocity (e.g. 2.695 m/s
becomes 26.95 m/s respectively), providing pressure, density and viscosity remain constant.

Principles of Flowmetering
Terminology
When discussing flowmetering, a number of terms, which include Repeatability, Uncertainty, Accuracy and Turndown, are
commonly used.

Repeatability
This describes the ability of a flowmeter to indicate the same value for an identical flowrate on more than one occasion. It
should not be confused with accuracy i.e. its repeatability may be excellent in that it shows the same value for an identical
flowrate on several occasions, but the reading might be consistently wrong (or inaccurate). Good repeatability is important,
where steam flowmetering is required to monitor trends rather than accuracy. However, this does not dilute the importance of
accuracy under any circumstances.

Uncertainty

The term uncertainty is now becoming more commonly referred to than accuracy. This is because accuracy cannot be
established, as the true value can never be exactly known. However uncertainty can be estimated and an ISO standard
exists offering guidance on this matter (EN ISO/IEC 17025).

It is important to recognise that it is a statistical concept and not a guarantee. For example, it may be shown that with a large
population of flowmeters, 95% would be at least as good as the uncertainty calculated. Most would be much better, but a
few, 5% could be worse.

Accuracy

This is a measure of a flowmeters performance when indicating a correct flowrate value against a true value obtained by
extensive calibration procedures. The subject of accuracy is dealt with in ISO 5725.

The following two methods used to express accuracy have very different meanings:

Percentage of measured value or actual reading

For example, a flowmeters accuracy is given as 3% of actual flow.

At an indicated flowrate of 1 000 kg/h, the uncertainty of actual flow is between:

1 000 - 3% = 970 kg/h

And

1 000 + 3% = 1 030 kg/h

Similarly, at an indicated flowrate of 500 kg/h, the error is still 3%, and the uncertainty is between:

500 kg/h - 3% = 485 kg/h

And

500 kg/h + 3% = 515 kg/h

Percentage of full scale deflection (FSD)

A flowmeters accuracy may also be given as a percentage of full scale deflection FSD, which means that the measurement
error is expressed as a percentage of the maximum flow that the flowmeter can handle. Error stated in percentage FSD
tends to be smaller than the error as a percentage of actual reading. For this example a value of 0.3% FSD will be used.
As in the previous case, the maximum flow = 1 000 kg/h.

At an indicated flowrate of 1 000 kg/h, the uncertainty of actual flow is between:

1 000 kg/h - 0.3% = 997 kg/h

And

1 000 kg/h + 0.3% = 1 003 kg/h

At an indicated flowrate of 50 kg/h, the error is still 3 kg/h, and the actual flow is between:

50 kg/h - 3 kg/h = 47 kg/h an error of - 6%

And

50 kg/h + 3 kg/h = 53 kg/h an error of +6%

As the flowrate is reduced, the percentage error increases.

A comparison of these measurement terms is shown graphically in Figure 4.2.1

Figure 4.2.1 demonstrates why flowmeter manufacturers state their accuracy as a combination of both a percentage of FSD
and actual reading. In this example 3% of reading is more accurate below a flowrate of 100 kg/h, however, as the flowrate
increases beyond 100 kg/h, then 0.3% of FSD gives a more accurate result in terms of actual flowrate.

Turndown
When specifying a flowmeter, accuracy is a necessary requirement, but it is also essential to select a flowmeter with
sufficient range for the application.
Turndown or turndown ratio, effective range or rangeability are all terms used to describe the range of flowrates over
which the flowmeter will work within the accuracy and repeatability of the tolerances. Turndown is qualified in Equation 4.2.1.
Example 4.2.1

A particular steam system has a demand pattern as shown in Figure 4.2.2 The flowmeter has been sized to meet the
maximum expected flowrate of 1 000 kg/h.

The turndown of the flowmeter selected is given as 4:1. i.e. The claimed accuracy of the flowmeter can be met at a minimum
flowrate of 1 000 4 = 250 kg/h.
When the steam flowrate is lower than this, the flowmeter cannot meet its specification, so large flow errors occur. At best,
the recorded flows below 250 kg/h are inaccurate - at worst they are not recorded at all, and are lost.
In the example shown in Figure 4.2.2, lost flow is shown to amount to more than 700 kg of steam over an 8 hour period. The
total amount of steam used during this time is approximately 2 700 kg, so the lost amount represents an additional 30% of
total steam use. Had the steam flowmeter been specified with an appropriate turndown capability, the steam flow to the
process could have been more accurately measured and costed.
If steam flow is to be accurately metered, the user must make every effort to build up a true and complete assessment of
demand, and then specify a flowmeter with:
The capacity to meet maximum demand.
A turndown sufficiently large to encompass all anticipated flow variations.
Bernoullis Theorem
Many flowmeters are based on the work of Daniel Bernoulli in the 1700s. Bernoullis theorem relates to the Steady Flow
Energy Equation (SFEE), and states that the sum of:
Pressure energy,
Kinetic energy and
Potential energy
will be constant at any point within a piping system (ignoring the overall effects of friction). This is shown below,
mathematically in Equation 4.2.2 for a unit mass flow:
Friction is ignored in Equations 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, due to the fact that it can be considered negligible across the region
concerned. Friction becomes more significant over longer pipe lengths. Equation 4.2.3 can be further developed by removing
the 2nd term on either side when there is no change in reference height (h). This is shown in Equation 4.2.4:

Example 4.2.2

Determine P2 for the system shown in Figure 4.2.4, where water flows through a diverging section of pipe at a volumetric rate
of 0.1 m3/s at 10C.
The water has a density of 998.84 kg/m3 at 10C and 2 bar g.
Example 4.2.2 highlights the implications of Bernoullis theorem. It is shown that, in a diverging pipe, the downstream
pressure will be higher than the upstream pressure. This may seem odd at first glance; it would normally be expected that
the downstream pressure in a pipe is less than the upstream pressure for flow to occur in that direction. It is worth
remembering that Bernoulli states, the sum of the energy at any point along a length of pipe is constant.
In Example 4.2.2, the increased pipe bore has caused the velocity to fall and hence the pressure to rise. In reality, friction
cannot be ignored, as it is impossible for any fluid to flow along a pipe unless a pressure drop exists to overcome the friction
created by the movement of the fluid itself. In longer pipes, the effect of friction is usually important, as it may be relatively
large. A term, hf, can be added to Equation 4.2.4 to account for the pressure drop due to friction, and is shown in Equation
4.2.5.

With an incompressible fluid such as water flowing through the same size pipe, the density and velocity of the fluid can be
regarded as constant and Equation 4.2.6 can be developed from Equation 4.25 (P 1 = P2 + hf).

Equation 4.2.6 shows (for a constant fluid density) that the pressure drop along a length of the same size pipe is caused by
the static head loss (hf) due to friction from the relative movement between the fluid and the pipe. In a short length of pipe, or
equally, a flowmetering device, the frictional forces are extremely small and in practice can be ignored. For compressible
fluids like steam, the density will change along a relatively long piece of pipe. For a relatively short equivalent length of pipe
(or a flowmeter using a relatively small pressure differential), changes in density and frictional forces will be negligible and
can be ignored for practical purposes. This means that the pressure drop through a flowmeter can be attributed to the effects
of the known resistance of the flowmeter rather than to friction.
Some flowmeters take advantage of the Bernoulli effect to be able to measure fluid flow, an example being the simple orifice
plate flowmeter. Such flowmeters offer a resistance to the flowing fluid such that a pressure drop occurs over the flowmeter. If
a relationship exists between the flow and this contrived pressure drop, and if the pressure drop can be measured, then it
becomes possible to measure the flow.
Quantifying the relationship between flow and pressure drop
Consider the simple analogy of a tank filled to some level with water, and a hole at the side of the tank somewhere near the
bottom which, initially, is plugged to stop the water from flowing out (see Figure 4.2.5). It is possible to consider a single
molecule of water at the top of the tank (molecule 1) and a single molecule below at the same level as the hole (molecule 2).
With the hole plugged, the height of water (or head) above the hole creates a potential to force the molecules directly below
molecule 1 through the hole. The potential energy of molecule 1 relative to molecule 2 would depend upon the height of
molecule 1 above molecule 2, the mass of molecule 1, and the effect that gravitational force has on molecule 1s mass. The
potential energy of all the water molecules directly between molecule 1 and molecule 2 is shown by Equation 4.2.7.
Molecule 1 has no pressure energy (the nett effect of the air pressure is zero, because the plug at the bottom of the tank is
also subjected to the same pressure), or kinetic energy (as the fluid in which it is placed is not moving). The only energy it
possesses relative to the hole in the tank is potential energy.
Meanwhile, at the position opposite the hole, molecule 2 has a potential energy of zero as it has no height relative to the
hole. However, the pressure at any point in a fluid must balance the weight of all the fluid above, plus any additional vertical
force acting above the point of consideration. In this instance, the additional force is due to the atmospheric air pressure
above the water surface, which can be thought of as zero gauge pressure. The pressure to which molecule 2 is subjected is
therefore related purely to the weight of molecules above it.
Weight is actually a force applied to a mass due to the effect of gravity, and is defined as mass x acceleration. The weight
being supported by molecule 2 is the mass of water (m) in a line of molecules directly above it multiplied by the constant of
gravitational acceleration, (g). Therefore, molecule 2 is subjected to a pressure force m g.
But what is the energy contained in molecule 2? As discussed above, it has no potential energy; neither does it have kinetic
energy, as, like molecule 1, it is not moving. It can only therefore possess pressure energy.
Mechanical energy is clearly defined as Force x Distance,
so the pressure energy held in molecule 2 = Force (m g) x Distance (h) = m g h, where:
m = Mass of all the molecules directly between and including molecule 1 and molecule 2
g = Gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/s2
h = Cumulative height of molecules above the hole
It can therefore be seen that:
Potential energy in molecule 1 = m g h = Pressure energy in molecule 2.
This agrees with the principle of conservation of energy (which is related to the First Law of Thermodynamics) which states
that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change from one form to another. This essentially means that the loss
in potential energy means an equal gain in pressure energy.
Consider now, that the plug is removed from the hole, as shown in Figure 4.2.6. It seems intuitive that water will pour out of
the hole due to the head of water in the tank.
In fact, the rate at which water will flow through the hole is related to the difference in pressure energy between the
molecules of water opposite the hole, inside and immediately outside the tank. As the pressure outside the tank is
atmospheric, the pressure energy at any point outside the hole can be taken as zero (in the same way as the pressure
applied to molecule 1 was zero). Therefore the difference in pressure energy across the hole can be taken as the pressure
energy contained in molecule 2, and therefore, the rate at which water will flow through the hole is related to the pressure
energy of molecule 2.
In Figure 4.2.6, consider molecule 2 with pressure energy of m g h, and consider molecule 3having just passed through the
hole in the tank, and contained in the issuing jet of water.

Molecule 3 has no pressure energy for the reasons described above, or potential energy (as the fluid in which it is placed is
at the same height as the hole). The only energy it has can only be kinetic energy.
At some point in the water jet immediately after passing through the hole, molecule 3 is to be found in the jet and will have a
certain velocity and therefore a certain kinetic energy. As energy cannot be created, it follows that the kinetic energy in
molecule 3 is formed from that pressure energy held in molecule 2 immediately before the plug was removed from the hole.
It can therefore be concluded that the whole of the kinetic energy held in molecule 3 equals the pressure energy to which
molecule 2 is subjected, which, in turn, equals the potential energy held in molecule 1.
The basic equation for kinetic energy is shown in Equation 4.2.8:

If all the initial potential energy has changed into kinetic energy, it must be true that the potential energy at the start of the
process equals the kinetic energy at the end of the process. To this end, it can be deduced that:

Equation 4.2.10 shows that the velocity of water passing through the hole is proportional to the square root of the height of
water or pressure head (h) above the reference point, (the hole). The head h can be thought of as a difference in pressure,
also referred to as pressure drop or differential pressure.
Equally, the same concept would apply to a fluid passing through an orifice that has been placed in a pipe. One simple
method of metering fluid flow is by introducing an orifice plate flowmeter into a pipe, thereby creating a pressure drop relative
to the flowing fluid. Measuring the differential pressure and applying the necessary square-root factor can determine the
velocity of the fluid passing through the orifice.
The graph (Figure 4.2.7) shows how the flowrate changes relative to the pressure drop across an orifice plate flowmeter. It
can be seen that, with a pressure drop of 25 kPa, the flowrate is the square root of 25, which is 5 units. Equally, the flowrate
with a pressure drop of 16 kPa is 4 units, at 9 kPa is 3 units and so on.

Knowing the velocity through the orifice is of little use in itself. The prime objective of any flowmeter is to measure flowrate in
terms of volume or mass. However, if the size of the hole is known, the volumetric flowrate can be determined by multiplying
the velocity by the area of the hole. However, this is not as straightforward as it first seems.
It is a phenomenon of any orifice fitted in a pipe that the fluid, after passing through the orifice, will continue to constrict, due
mainly to the momentum of the fluid itself. This effectively means that the fluid passes through a narrower aperture than the
orifice. This aperture is called the vena contracta and represents that part in the system of maximum constriction, minimum
pressure, and maximum velocity for the fluid. The area of the vena contracta depends upon the physical shape of the hole,
but can be predicted for standard sharp edged orifice plates used for such purposes. The ratio of the area of the vena
contracta to the area of the orifice is usually in the region of 0.65 to 0.7; consequently if the orifice area is known, the area of
the vena contracta can be established. The subject is discussed in further detail in the next Section.
The orifice plate flowmeter and Bernoullis Theorem
When Bernoullis theorem is applied to an orifice plate flowmeter, the difference in pressure across the orifice plate provides
the kinetic energy of the fluid discharged through the orifice.

As seen previously, the velocity through the orifice can be calculated by use of Equation 4.2.10:

However, it has already been stated, volume flow is more useful than velocity (Equation 4.1.4):

In practice, the actual velocity through the orifice will be less than the theoretical value for velocity, due to friction losses. This
difference between these theoretical and actual figures is referred to as the coefficient of velocity (C v).

Also, the flow area of the vena contracta will be less than the size of the orifice. The ratio of the area of the vena contracta to
that of the orifice is called the coefficient of contraction
The coefficient of velocity and the coefficient of contraction may be combined to give a coefficient of discharge (C) for the
installation. Volumetric flow will need to take the coefficient of discharge (C) into consideration as shown in Equation 4.2.11.

Equation 4.2.12 clearly shows that volume flowrate is proportional to the square root of the pressure drop.
Note:
The definition of C can be found in ISO 5167-2003, Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices
inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full.
ISO 5167 offers the following information:
The equations for the numerical values of C given in ISO 5167 (all parts) are based on data determined experimentally.
The uncertainty in the value of C can be reduced by flow calibration in a suitable laboratory.

The Pitot tube and Bernoullis Theorem

The Pitot tube is named after its French inventor Henri Pitot (1695 1771). The device measures a fluid velocity by
converting the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid into potential energy at what is described as a stagnation point. The
stagnation point is located at the opening of the tube as in Figure 4.2.9. The fluid is stationary as it hits the end of the tube,
and its velocity at this point is zero. The potential energy created is transmitted though the tube to a measuring device.
The tube entrance and the inside of the pipe in which the tube is situated are subject to the same dynamic pressure; hence
the static pressure measured by the Pitot tube is in addition to the dynamic pressure in the pipe. The difference between
these two pressures is proportional to the fluid velocity, and can be measured simply by a differential manometer.
Bernoullis equation can be applied to the Pitot tube in order to determine the fluid velocity from the observed differential
pressure ( P) and the known density of the fluid. The Pitot tube can be used to measure incompressible and compressible
fluids, but to convert the differential pressure into velocity, different equations apply to liquids and gases. The details of these
are outside the scope of this module, but the concept of the conservation of energy and Bernoullis theorem applies to all;
and for the sake of example, the following text refers to the relationship between pressure and velocity for an incompressible
fluid flowing at less than sonic velocity. (Generally, a flow can be considered incompressible when its flow is less than 0.3
Mach or 30% of its sonic velocity).
From Equation 4.2.4, an equation can be developed to calculate velocity (Equation 4.2.13):

The fluid volumetric flowrate can be calculated from the product of the pipe area and the velocity calculated from Equation
4.2.13.

The effect of the accuracy of the differential cell upon

uncertainty
Example 4.2.3

In a particular orifice plate flowmetering system, the maximum flow of 1 000 kg/h equates to a differential pressure of 25 kPa,
as shown in Figure 4.2.10.
The differential pressure cell has a guaranteed accuracy of 0.1 kPa over the operating range of a particular installation.
Demonstrate the effect of the differential cell accuracy on the accuracy of the installation.
Figure 4.2.11 shows the effects over a range of flowrates:
Review of results:

At maximum flowrate, the 0.1 kPa uncertainty in the differential pressure cell reading represents only a small proportion of
the total differential pressure, and the effect is minimal.
As the flowrate is reduced, the differential pressure is also reduced, and the 0.1 kPa uncertainty represents a progressively
larger percentage of the differential pressure reading, resulting in the slope increasing slowly, as depicted in Figure 4.2.12.
At very low flowrates, the value of the uncertainty accelerates. At between 20 and 25% of maximum flow, the rate of change
of the slope accelerates rapidly, and by 10% of maximum flow, the range of uncertainty is between + 18.3% and -22.5%.

Conclusion
To have confidence in the readings of an orifice plate flowmeter system, the turndown ratio must not exceed 4 or 5:1.
Note:
Example 4.2.3 examines only one element of a steam flowmetering installation.
The overall confidence in the measured value given by a steam flowmetering system will include the installation, the
accuracy of the orifice size, and the accuracy of the predicated coefficient of discharge (C) of the orifice.
Using ultrasound to measure flowrate
Using ultrasound to measure flowrates in a pipe is becoming more popular as it requires no cutting or inserting
instrumentation into the pipework of the fluid being monitored. It also means that the flowmeter can be portable and used on
different parts of the system to analyse flowrates with minimal expense.
There are two types of ultrasonic flowmeter - the transit-time or Doppler-shift type. The most common ultrasonic flowmeters
tend to use the transit-shift principle of operation, which is described below:
Two transducers are strapped to the pipe of the fluid being measured where each transducer alternatively fires pulses of
ultrasound between each other as shown in Figure 4.2.13. The velocity of the fluid flowing through the pipe will have an
effect on the velocity of the ultrasonic pulse, which is calculated by measuring the time it takes for the pulses to reach each
transducer.

When flow velocity is zero, the time it takes for a pulse to travel from one transmitter to the other is:
By knowing the cross sectional area of the pipe and the fluid velocity, volumetric flow can be easily calculated, together with
mass flow, using the equations below:
Qv = V f x A
m = Qv x r
Where:
Qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3)
A = Cross sectional area of the pipe (m2)
Vf = Velocity of fluid (m/s)
r = Density of fluid (kg/m2)
Although ultrasound has some very significant benefits over other principles of flow metering, it can only be accurately used
on single phase fluids. Therefore the presence of flash steam or air, for example, in a condensate return line will significantly
affect the accuracy of the reading.

Types of Steam Flowmeter

There are many types of flowmeter, those suitable for steam and condensate applications include:

Orifice plate flowmeters.

Turbine flowmeters (including shunt or bypass types).

Variable area flowmeters.

Spring loaded variable area flowmeters.

Direct in-line variable area (TVA) flowmeters.

Ultrasonic flowmeters.

Vortex shedding flowmeters.

Each of these flowmeter types has its own advantages and limitations. To ensure accurate and consistent performance from
a steam or condensate flowmeter, it is essential that it is correctly matched to the intended application.

This Module will review the above flowmeter types, and discuss their characteristics, their advantages and disadvantages,
typical applications and typical installations.

Orifice plate flowmeters

The orifice plate is one in a group known as head loss devices or differential pressure flowmeters.In simple terms the pipeline
fluid is passed through a restriction, and the pressure differential is measured across that restriction. Based on the work of
Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 (see Module 4.2),

the relationship between the velocity of fluid passing through the orifice is proportional to the square root of the pressure loss
across it. Other flowmeters in the differential pressure group include venturis and nozzles.

With an orifice plate flowmeter, the restriction is in the form of a plate which has a hole concentric with the pipeline. This is
referred to as the primary element.

To measure the differential pressure when the fluid is flowing, connections are made from the upstream and downstream
pressure tappings, to a secondary device known as a DP (Differential Pressure) cell.
From the DP cell, the information may be fed to a simple flow indicator, or to a flow computer along with temperature and/or
pressure data, which enables the system to compensate for changes in fluid density.

In horizontal lines carrying vapours, water (or condensate) can build up against the upstream face of the orifice. To prevent
this, a drain hole may be drilled in the plate at the bottom of the pipe. Clearly, the effect of this must be taken into account
when the orifice plate dimensions are determined.

Correct sizing and installation of orifice plates is absolutely essential, and is well documented in the International Standard
ISO 5167.
Installation
A few of the most important points from ISO 5167 are discussed below:

Pressure tappings - Small bore pipes (referred to as impulse lines) connect the upstream and downstream pressure tappings
of the orifice plate to a Differential Pressure or DP cell.

The positioning of the pressure tappings can be varied. The most common locations are:

From the flanges (or carrier) containing the orifice plate as shown in Figure 4.3.3. This is convenient, but care needs to be
taken with tappings at the bottom of the pipe, because they may become clogged.

One pipe diameter on the upstream side and 0.5 x pipe diameter on the downstream side. This is less convenient, but
potentially more accurate as the differential pressure measured is at its greatest at the vena contracta, which occurs at this
position.
Corner tappings - These are generally used on smaller orifice plates where space restrictions mean flanged tappings are
difficult to manufacture. Usually on pipe diameters including or below DN50.

From the DP cell, the information may be fed to a flow indicator, or to a flow computer along with temperature and/or
pressure data, to provide density compensation.

Pipework - There is a requirement for a minimum of five straight pipe diameters downstream of the orifice plate, to reduce the
effects of disturbance caused by the pipework.

The amount of straight pipework required upstream of the orifice plate is, however, affected by a number of factors including:

The ratio; this is the relationship between the orifice diameter and the pipe diameter (see Equation 4.3.1), and would
typically be a value of 0.7.

The nature and geometry of the preceding obstruction. A few obstruction examples are shown in Figure 4.3.4:

Table 4.3.1 brings the ratio and the pipework geometry together to recommend the number of straight diameters of
pipework required for the configurations shown in Figure 4.3.4.

In particularly arduous situations, flow straighteners may be used. These are discussed in more detail in Module 4.5.

Advantages of orifice plate steam flowmeters:

 Simple and rugged.

Good accuracy.

Low cost.

No calibration or recalibration is required provided calculations, tolerances and installationcomply with ISO 5167.

Disadvantages of orifice plate steam flowmeters:

Turndown is limited to between 4:1 and 5:1 because of the square root relationship between flow and pressure drop.

The orifice plate can buckle due to waterhammer and can block in a system that is poorly designed or installed.

The square edge of the orifice can erode over time, particularly if the steam is wet or dirty. This will alter the characteristics
of the orifice, and accuracy will be affected. Regular inspection and replacement is therefore necessary to ensure reliability
and accuracy.

The installed length of an orifice plate flowmetering system may be substantial; a minimum of 10 upstream and 5
downstream straight unobstructed pipe diameters may be needed for accuracy.

This can be difficult to achieve in compact plants. Consider a system which uses 100 mm pipework, the ratio is 0.7, and the
layout is similar to that shown in Figure 4.3.4(b):

The upstream pipework length required would be = 36 x 0.1 m = 3.6 m

The downstream pipework length required would be = 5 x 0.1 m = 0.5 m

The total straight pipework required would be = 3.6 + 0.5 m = 4.1 m

Typical applications for orifice plate steam flowmeters:

Anywhere the flowrate remains within the limited turndown ratio of between 4:1 and 5:1.

This can include the boiler house and applications where steam is supplied to many plants, some on-line, some off-line, but
the overall flowrate is within the range.

Turbine flowmeters
The primary element of a turbine flowmeter consists of a multi-bladed rotor which is mounted at right angles to the flow and
suspended in the fluid stream on a free-running bearing. The speed of rotation of the turbine is proportional to the velocity,
and hence volumetric flowrate of the fluid being measured. By knowing the density of the fluid, mass flowrate can then be
calculated if required.
The speed of rotation of the turbine may be determined using an electronic proximity switch mounted on the outside of the
pipework, which counts the pulses, as shown in Figure 4.3.5.

Turbine flowmeters for liquids (condensate)

Turbine flowmeters for liquids, such as condensate, are typically designed with the diameter of the rotor slightly less than the
inside diameter of the flowmetering chamber.

In larger pipelines, to minimise cost, the turbine element can be installed in a pipework bypass, or even for the flowmeter
body to incorporate a bypass or shunt, as shown in Figure 4.3.6.

Bypass flowmeters comprise an orifice plate, which is sized to provide sufficient restriction for a sample of the main flow to
pass through a parallel circuit. Whilst the speed of rotation of the turbine may still be determined as explained previously,
there are many older units still in existence which have a mechanical output as shown in Figure 4.3.6.

Clearly, friction between the turbine shaft and the gland sealing can be significant with this mechanical arrangement.
Insertion turbine flowmeters for steam, gas and liquids:
Insertion type turbine flowmeters are becoming increasingly popular: their main advatage being that they can be installed
under full process conditions, without the need to shut down the process line. This is achieved through hot tapping. Their
principle of operation remains the same as for liquid turbine flowmeters where the rotational frequency of the rotor blades is
measured using a magnetic pick-up sensor.

The insertion turbine flowmeter measures the point velocity in a pipe and microprocessor electronics then uses a profile
factor to relate the point velocity to the average velocity in the pipe. The flow computer continuously updates this profile
factor based on the point velocity and diameter of the pipe. Once the average velocity is known, volumetric flowrate can be
calculated using the flow area of the pipe. Adding a temperature or pressure sensor allows the flowmeter to measure density
of the fluid and calculate mass flow.

Advantages of insertion turbine flowmeters:

Can be installed under full process conditions.

Relatively in-expensive on larger pipelines.

Can be used on all media.

Low induced pressure drop as there is minimal flow obstruction.

Moderate accuracy, typically 2% of reading (steam) and 1.5% (condensate).

Accurately measure flowrate up to a turndown of 25:1

Relatively compact installation lengths, typically requiring only 10D and 5D of straight pipework upstream and downstream
of the flowmeter respectively.

Can measure flowrate in large pipelines (> DN400)

Disadvantages of insertion turbine flowmeters:

Relatively expensive when used on smaller pipes.

Moving parts require regular maintenance.

Wet steam can damage the turbine and affect accuracy.

Typical applications for insertion turbine flowmeters:

Dry saturated steam.

Superheated steam.

Condensate return lines, however, care must be taken to remove air and flash steam prior to flowmetering.

Gas and air applications.

Variable area flowmeters

The variable area flowmeter (Figure 4.3.8), often referred to as a rotameter, consists of a vertical, tapered bore tube with the
small bore at the lower end, and a float that is allowed to freely move in the fluid. When fluid is passing through the tube, the
floats position is in equilibrium with:

The dynamic upward force of the fluid.

The downward force resulting from the mass of the float.

The position of the float, therefore, is an indication of the flowrate.

In practice, this type of flowmeter will be a mix of:

A float selected to provide a certain weight, and chemical resistance to the fluid.

The most common float material is grade 316 stainless steel, however, other materials such as Hastalloy C, aluminium or
PVC are used for specific applications.

On small flowmeters, the float is simply a ball, but on larger flowmeters special shaped floats are used to improve stability.

A tapered tube, which will provide a measuring scale of typically between 40 mm and 250 mm over the design flow range.

Usually the tube will be made from glass or plastic. However, if failure of the tube could present a hazard, then either a
protective shroud may be fitted around the glass, or a metal tube may be used.

With a transparent tube, flow readings are taken by observation of the float against a scale. For higher temperature
applications where the tube material is opaque, a magnetic device is used to indicate the position of the float.

Because the annular area around the float increases with flow, the differential pressure remains almost constant.

Advantages of variable area flowmeters:

Linear output.

Turndown is approximately 10:1.

 Simple and robust.

Pressure drop is minimal and fairly constant.

Disadvantages of variable area flowmeters:

The tube must be mounted vertically (see Figure 4.3.9).

Because readings are usually taken visually, and the float tends to move about, accuracy is only moderate. This is made
worst by parallax error at higher flowrates, because the float is some distance away from the scale.

Transparent taper tubes limit pressure and temperature.

Typical applications for variable area flowmeters:

Metering of gases.

Small bore airflow metering - In these applications, the tube is manufactured from glass, with calibrations marked on the
outside. Readings are taken visually.

Laboratory applications.

Rotameters are sometimes used as a flow indicating device rather than a flow measuring device.
Spring loaded variable area flowmeters
The spring loaded variable area flowmeter (an extension of the variable area flowmeter) uses a spring as the balancing
force. This makes the flowmeter independent of gravity, allowing it to be used in any plane, even upside-down. However, in
its fundamental configuration (as shown in Figure 4.3.10), there is also a limitation: the range of movement is constrained by
the linear range of the spring, and the limits of the spring deformation.
However, another important feature is also revealed: if the pass area (the area between the float and the tube) increases at
an appropriate rate, then the differential pressure across the spring loaded variable area flowmeter can be directly
proportional to flow.

To recap a few earlier statements

With orifice plates flowmeters:

As the rate of flow increases, so does the differential pressure.

By measuring this pressure difference it is possible to calculate the flowrate through the flowmeter.

The pass area (for example, the size of the hole in the orifice plate) remains constant.

With any type of variable area flowmeter:

The differential pressure remains almost constant as the flowrate varies.

 Flowrate is determine from the position of the float.

The pass area (the area between the float and the tube) through which the flow passes increases with increasing flow.

Figure 4.3.11 compares these two principles.

The spring loaded variable area principle is a hybrid between these two devices, and either:

The displacement of the float - Option 1

or

The differential pressure - Option 2

...may be used to determine the flowrate through the flowmeter.

In Option 1 (determining the displacement of the float or flap). This can be developed for steam systems by:

Using a torsion spring to give a better operating range.

Using a system of coils to accurately determine the angle of the flap that is displaced when the steam is flowing through
the flowmeter.

In Option 2 (Figure 4.3.13), namely, determining the differential pressure, this concept can be developed further by shaping
of the float to give a linear relationship between differential pressure and flowrate. See Figure 4.3.13 for an example of a
spring loaded variable area flowmeter measuring differential pressure. The float is referred to as a cone due to its shape.

Advantages of a spring loaded variable area (SLVA) flowmeter:

High turndown, up to 100:1.

Good accuracy 1% of reading for pipeline unit.

Compact a DN100 wafer unit requires only 60 mm between flanges.

Suitable for many fluids.

Disadvantages of a variable area spring load flowmeter:

Can be expensive due to the required accessories, such as the DP cell and flow computer.
Typical applications for a variable area spring load
flowmeter:
Boiler house flowmetering.

Flowmetering of large plants.

To ensure that a flowmeter achieves its optimal performance, correct installation is essential.

Figure 4.3.14 illustrates a typical steam flowmetering station using a SLVA flowmeter and identifies the other recommended
component parts that are required for optimal performance. It is worth noting that each application is different and that other
flowmeters may require alternative component parts to those illustrated in Figure 4.3.14.
Target Variable Area (TVA) flowmeter
The TVA flowmeter operates on the well established spring loaded variable area (SLVA) principle, where the area of an
annular orifice is continuously varied by a precision shaped moving cone.

This cone is free to move axially against the resistance of a spring.

However, unlike other SLVA flowmeters, the TVA does not rely on the measurement of differential pressure drop across the
flowmeter to calculate flow, measuring instead the force caused by the deflection of the cone via a series of extremely high
quality strain gauges. The higher the flow of steam the greater the force. This removes the need for expensive differential
pressure transmitters, reducing installation costs and potential problems (Figure 4.3.15).

The TVA has an internal temperature sensor, which provides full density compensation for saturated steam applications.

The TVA steam flowmeter (Figure 4.3.15) has a system uncertainty (accuracy) in accordance with EN ISO / IEC 17025, of:

2% of actual flow to a confidence of 95% over a range of 10% to 100% of maximum rated flow.

0.2% FSD to a confidence of 95% from 2% to 10% of the maximum rated flow.

As the TVA is a self-contained unit the uncertainty quoted is for the complete system. Many flowmeters claim a pipeline unit
uncertainty but, for the whole system, the individual uncertainty values of any associated equipment, such as DP cells, need
to be taken into account.

The turndown of a flowmeter is the ratio of the maximum to minimum flowrate over which it will meet its specified
performance, or its operational range. The TVA flowmeter has a high turndown ratio of up to 50:1, giving an operational
range of up to 98% of its maximum flow.
Flow orientations
The orientation of the TVA flowmeter can have an effect on the operating performance. Installed in horizontal pipe, the TVA
has a steam pressure limit of 32 bar g, and a 50:1 turndown. As shown in Figure 4.3.17, if the TVA is installed with a vertical
flow direction then the pressure limit is reduced due to the loss of the water seal protecting the electronics from the steam
temperature.

In addition, the turndown ratio will be reduced if the flow is vertically upward. This is because the weight of the cone causes it
to sit against the orifice at lower flows. Once the cone is at that point the sensor cannot accurately detect any further
reduction in flow.
Ultrasonic flowmeters
The principle of operation for a transit-time ultrasonic flowmeter is based on measuring the time it takes for ultrasound
pulses to pass between two transducers attached to the pipe of the fluid being monitored. (Figure 4.3.18). Each transducer
alternatively fires pulses of ultrasound where the time it takes for each pulse to reach the other transducer is affected by the
velocity of the fluid flowing through the pipe. By knowing this information, flow velocity can be calculated, leading to the
volumetric and mass flowrates of the fluid being monitored. This is covered in more detail in Module 4.2 Principles of
Flowmetering.
A typical application for ultrasonic flowmeters is energy monitoring, where Resistant Temperature Detectors (RTDs) form
part of the transducers assembly. The RTDs measure the temperature of the flowing liquid, allowing the rate of energy
flowing through the pipe to be calculated, using the equation below:

One of the greatest benefits of an ultrasonic flowmeter is that the transducers or RTDs are externally mounted. This means
that there is no invasive installation requiring pipeline genetration or pipeline shutdowns. In addition, with no moving parts or
components in the flow being measured, there are no issues concerning corrosion and erosion, so minimising maintenance
requirements. Any maintenance that is required can be carried out without the need to shutdown the pipeline.
Ultrasonic flowmeters are best suited to monitoring liquids, such as measuring condensate return. The fluid passing through
the pipe being measured must be single phase, in other words, the line must be flooded. Ultrasonic flowmeters cannot
accurately measure a mixture of water and steam or air, for example.

Advantages of ultrasonic flowmeters:

Quick and simple installation, requiring no plant downtime, as all components are externally mounted.
Bidirectional flow measurement.
Highly accurate (up to 1% of flowrate).
Can be used to measure energy flow.
Fluid conductivity not an issue.
Corrosive fluids not an issue.
A turndown of 30:1 is achievable with the correct installation.
Cost of unit is independent of pipeline size, making it commercially attractive for larger pipelines.

Disadvantages of ultrasonic flowmeters:

For single phase liquids only.

10-30D straight pipeline lengths required.
Not as accurate as in-line flowmeters.
Unreliable if there is more than 5% gas or vapour in the pipeline.

Typical applications for ultrasonic flowmeters:

Liquid flowmetering: As with all liquids, care must be taken to remove air and gases prior to them being metered. If the unit
is used for condensate flowmetering it is important that the line is flooded and no live or flash steam is present.
Energy monitoring for heating and cooling applications.
Every ultrasonic flowmeter operates within minimum and maximum signal strengths to provide accurate measurement
readings. If the signal strength is too weak the flowmeter will not detect flow and if the signal strength goes beyond the
maximum signal strength specified the pipeline will become flooded and the signal received will result in inaccurate flow
measurement. For optimum results the signal strength should be in the range specified by the manufacture.

Vortex shedding flowmeters

These flowmeters utilise the fact that when a non-streamlined or bluff body is placed in a fluid flow, regular vortices are shed
from the rear of the body. These vortices can be detected, counted and displayed. Over a range of flows, the rate of vortex
shedding is proportional to the flowrate, and this allows the velocity to be measured.
The bluff body causes a blockage around which the fluid has to flow. By forcing the fluid to flow around it, the body induces a
change in the fluid direction and thus velocity. The fluid which is nearest to the body experiences friction from the body
surface and slows down. Because of the area reduction between the bluff body and the pipe diameter, the fluid further away
from the body is forced to accelerate to pass the necessary volume of fluid through the reduced space. Once the fluid has
passed the bluff body, it strives to fill the space produced behind it, which in turn causes a rotational motion in the fluid
creating a spinning vortex.
The fluid velocity produced by the restriction is not constant on both sides of the bluff body. As the velocity increases on one
side it decreases on the other. This also applies to the pressure.
On the high velocity side the pressure is low, and on the low velocity side the pressure is high.
As pressure attempts to redistribute itself, the high pressure region moving towards the low pressure region, the pressure
regions change places and vortices of different strengths are produced on alternate sides of the body.
The shedding frequency and the fluid velocity have a near-linear relationship when the correct conditions are met.

The frequency of shedding is proportional to the Strouhal number (Sr), the flow velocity, and the inverse of the bluff body
diameter. These factors are summarised in Equation 4.3.3.
The Strouhal number is determined experimentally and generally remains constant for a wide range of Reynolds
numbers;which indicates that the shedding frequency will remain unaffected by a change in fluid density, and that it is directly
proportional to the velocity for any given bluff body diameter. For example:

Then the volume flowrate qv in a pipeline can be calculated as shown in Equation 4.3.4:

Advantages of vortex shedding flowmeters:

Reasonable turndown (providing high velocities and high pressure drops are acceptable).
No moving parts.
Little resistance to flow.

Disadvantages of vortex shedding flowmeters:

At low flows, pulses are not generated and the flowmeter can read low or even zero.
Maximum flowrates are often quoted at velocities of 80 or 100 m/s, which would give severe problems in steam systems,
especially if the steam is wet and/or dirty. Lower velocities found in steam pipes will reduce the capacity of vortex flowmeters.
Vibration can cause errors in accuracy.
Correct installation is critical as a protruding gasket or weld beads can cause vortices to form, leading to inaccuracy.
Long, clear lengths of upstream pipework must be provided, as for orifice plate flowmeters.

Typical applications for vortex shedding flowmeters:

Direct steam measurements at both boiler and point of use locations.
Natural gas measurements for boiler fuel flow.
 Instrumentation
A steam flowmeter comprises two parts:

1. The primary device or pipeline unit, such as an orifice plate, located in the steam flow.

2. The secondary device, such as a differential pressure cell, that translates any signals into a usable form.

In addition, some form of electronic processor will exist which can receive, process and display the information. This
processor may also receive additional signals for pressure and/or temperature to enable density compensation calculations
to be made.

Figure 4.4.1 shows a typical system.

Differential pressure cells (DP cells)
If the pipeline unit is a differential pressure measuring device, for example an orifice plate flowmeter or Pitot tube, and an
electronic signal is required, the secondary device will be a Differential Pressure (DP or P) cell. This will change the
pressure signal to an electrical signal. This signal can then be relayed on to an electronic processor capable of accepting,
storing and processing these signals, as the user requires.
A typical DP cell is an electrical capacitance device, which works by applying a differential pressure to either side of a metal
diaphragm submerged in dielectric oil. The diaphragm forms one plate of a capacitor, and either side of the cell body form the
stationary plates. The movement of the diaphragm produced by the differential pressure alters the separation between the
plates, and alters the electrical capacitance of the cell, which in turn results in a change in the electrical output signal.
The degree of diaphragm movement is directly proportional to the pressure difference.
The output signal from the measuring cell is fed to an electronic circuit where it is amplified and rectified to a load-dependent
4-20 mA dc analogue signal. This signal can then be sent to a variety of devices to:
Provide flowrate indication.
Be used with other data to form part of a control signal.
The sophistication of this apparatus depends upon the type of data the user wishes to collect.

Advanced DP cells
The advancement of microelectronics, and the pursuit of increasingly sophisticated control systems has led to the
development of more advanced differential pressure cells. In addition to the basic function of measuring differential pressure,
cells can now be obtained which:
Can indicate actual (as distinct from differential) pressure.
Have communication capability, for example HART or Fieldbus.
Have self-monitoring or diagnostic facilities.
Have on-board intelligence allowing calculations to be carried out and displayed locally.
Can accept additional inputs, such as temperature and pressure.

Data collection
Many different methods are available for gathering and processing of this data, these include:
Dedicated computers.
Stand alone PLCs (Programmable Logic Controller systems).
Centralised DCSs (Distributed Control Systems).
SCADAs (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition systems).
One of the easier methods for data collection, storage, and display is a dedicated computer. With the advent of the
microprocessor, extremely versatile flow monitoring computers are now available.
The display and monitoring facilities provided by these can include:
Current flowrate.
Total steam usage.
Steam temperature/pressure.
Steam usage over specified time periods.
Abnormal flowrate, pressure or temperature, and trigger remote alarms.
Compensate for density variations.
Interface with chart recorders.
Interface with energy management systems.
Some can more accurately be termed energy flowmeters since, in addition to the above variables, they can use time, steam
tables, and other variables to compute and display both the power (kW or Btu/h) and heat energy usage (kJ or Btu).
In addition to the computer unit, it is sometimes beneficial to have a local readout of flowrate.
Data analysis
Data collection, whether it is manual, semi-automatic or fully automatic, will eventually be used as a management tool to
monitor and control energy costs. Data may need to be gathered over a period of time to give an accurate picture of the
process costs and trends. Some production processes will require data on a daily basis, although the period often preferred
by industrial users is the production week.
Microcomputers with software capable of handling statistical calculations and graphics are commonly used to analyse data.
Once the measuring system is in place, the first objective is to determine a relationship between the process (for example
tonnes of product/hour) and energy consumption (for example kg of steam/hour). The usual means of achieving this is to plot
consumption (or specific consumption) against production, and to establish a correlation. However, some caution is required
in interpreting the precise nature of this relationship. There are two main reasons for this:
Secondary factors may affect energy consumption levels.
Control of primary energy use may be poor, obscuring any clear relationship.
Statistical techniques can be used to help identify the effect of multiple factors. It should be noted that care should be taken
when using such methods, as it is quite easy to make a statistical relationship between two or more variables that are totally
independent.
Once these factors have been identified and taken into account, the standard energy consumption can then be determined.
This is the minimum energy consumption that is achievable for the current plant and operating practices.
The diagram in Figure 4.4.3 plots a typical relationship between production and consumption.

Once the relationship between steam consumption and factory production has been established, it becomes the
basis/standard to which all future production can be measured.
Using the standard, the managers of individual sections can then receive regular reports of their energy consumption and
how this compares to the standard. The individual manager can then analyse his/her plant performance by asking:
How does consumption compare with the standard?
Is the consumption above or below the standard, and by how much does it vary?
Are there any trends in the consumption?
If there is a variation in consumption it may be for a number of reasons, including:
Poor control of energy consumption.
Defective equipment, or equipment requiring maintenance.
Seasonal variations.
To isolate the cause, it is necessary to first check past records, to determine whether the change is a trend towards
increased consumption or an isolated case. In the latter case, checks should then be carried out around the plant for leaks or
faulty pieces of equipment. These can then be repaired as required.
Standard consumption has to be an achievable target for plant managers, and a common approach is to use the line of best
fit based on the average rather than the best performance that can be achieved (see Figure 4.4.4).

Once the standard has been determined, this will be the new energy consumption datum line.
This increase in energy consciousness will inevitably result in a decrease in energy costs and overall plant running costs,
consequently, a more energy efficient system.

Special requirements for accurate steam flow

measurement
As mentioned earlier in Block 4, flowmeters measure velocity; additional values for cross sectional area (A) and density ( )
are required to enable the mass flowrate (qm) to be calculated. For any installation, the cross sectional area will remain
constant, the density ( ) however will vary with pressure and dryness fraction.
The next two sections examine the effect of pressure and dryness fraction variation on the accuracy on steam flowmeter
installations.

Pressure variation
In an ideal world, the pressure in process steam lines would remain absolutely constant. Unfortunately, this is very rarely the
case with varying loads, boiler pressure control dead-bands, frictional pressure losses, and process parameters all
contributing to pressure variations in the steam main.
Figure 4.4.5 shows the duty cycle for a saturated steam application. Following start-up, the system pressure gradually rises
to the nominal 5 bar g but due to process load demands the pressure varies throughout the day. With a non-pressure
compensated flowmeter, the cumulative error can be significant.
Some steam flowmetering systems do not have inbuilt density compensation, and are specified to operate at a single, fixed
line pressure. If the line pressure is actually constant, then this is acceptable. However, even relatively small pressure
variations can affect flowmeter accuracy. It may be worth noting at this point that different types of flowmeter may be affected
in different ways.

Velocity flowmeters
The output signal from a vortex shedding flowmeter is a function of the velocity of flow only. It is independent of the density,
pressure and temperature of the fluid that it is monitoring. Given the same flow velocity, the uncompensated output from a
vortex shedding flowmeter is the same whether it is measuring 3 bar g steam, 17 bar g steam, or water.
Flow errors, therefore are a function of the error in density and may be expressed as shown in Equation 4.4.1.

Example 4.4.1

As a basis for the following examples, determine the density ( ) of dry saturated steam at 4.2 bar g and 5.0 bar g.
Example 4.4.2

A vortex shedding steam flowmeter specified to be used at 5 bar g is used at 4.2 bar g. Use Equation 4.4.1 and the data from
Example 4.4.1 to determine the resulting error ( ).

Therefore, the uncompensated vortex flowmeter will over read by 14.42%

As one of the characteristics of saturated steam (particularly at low pressures up to about 6 bar g) is that the density varies
greatly for a small change in pressure, density compensation is essential to ensure accurate readings.
Equation 4.4.1 may be used to generate a chart showing the expected error in flow for an error in pressure, as shown in
Figure 4.4.6.
Differential pressure flowmeters
The output signal from an orifice plate and cell takes the form of a differential pressure signal. The measured mass flowrate
is a function of the shape and size of the hole, the square root of the differential pressure and the square root of the density
of the fluid. Given the same observed differential pressure across an orifice plate, the derived mass flowrate will vary with the
square root of the density.
As for vortex flowmeters, running an orifice plate flowmeter at a pressure other than the specified pressure will give rise to
errors.
The percentage error may be calculated using Equation 4.4.2.

Example 4.4.3.
An orifice plate steam flowmeter specified to be used at 5 bar g is used at 4.2 bar g. Use Equation 4.4.2 to determine the
resulting percentage error ( ).

The positive error means the flowmeter is overreading, in this instance, for every 100 kg of steam passing through, the
flowmeter registers 106.96 kg.
Equation 4.4.2 may be used to generate a chart showing the expected error in flow for an error in pressure, as shown in
Figure 4.4.7.
When comparing Figure 4.4.6 with Figure 4.4.7, it can be seen that the % error due to lack of density compensation for the
vortex flowmeter is approximately double the % error for the orifice plate flowmeter. Therefore, density compensation is
essential if steam flow is to be measured accurately. If the steam flowmeter does not include an inbuilt density compensation
feature then extra pressure and/or temperature sensors must be provided, linked back to the instrumentation system.
Dryness fraction variation
The density of a cubic metre of wet steam is higher than that of a cubic metre of dry steam. If the quality of steam is not
taken into account as the steam passes through the flowmeter, then the indicated flowrate will be lower than the actual value.
Dryness fraction ( ) has already been discussed in Module 2.2, but to reiterate; dryness fraction is an expression of the
proportions of saturated steam and saturated water. For example, a kilogram of steam with a dryness fraction of 0.95,
contains 0.95 kilogram of steam and 0.05 kilogram of water.

Example 4.4.4

As a basis for the following examples, determine the density ( ) of dry saturated steam at 10 bar g with dryness fractions of
1.0 and 0.95.
The effect of dryness fraction on flowmeters that measure
differential pressure
To reiterate earlier comments regarding differential pressure flowmeter errors, mass flowrate (q m) will be proportional to the
square root of the density ( ), and density is related to the dryness fraction. Changes in dryness fraction will have an effect
on the flow indicated by the flowmeter.
Equation 4.4.4 can be used to determine the relationship between actual flow and indicated flow:

All steam flowmeters will be calibrated to read at a pre-determined dryness fraction ( ), the typically value is 1. Some steam
flowmeters can be recalibrated to suit actual conditions.

Example 4.4.5

Using the data from Example 4.4.4, determine the percentage error if the actual dryness fraction is 0.95 rather than the
calibrated value of 1.0, and the steam flowmeter was indicating a flowrate of 1 kg/s.
Therefore, the negative sign indicates that the flowmeter under-reads by 2.46%. Equation 4.4.4 is used to compile the graph
shown in Figure 4.4.8.

The effect of dryness fraction on vortex flowmeters

It can be argued that dryness fraction, within sensible limitations, is of no importance because:
Vortex flowmeters measure velocity.
The volume of water in steam with a dryness fraction of, for example, 0.95, in proportion to the steam is very small.
It is the condensation of dry steam that needs to be measured.
However, independent research has shown that the water droplets impacting the bluff body will cause errors and as vortex
flowmeters tend to be used at higher velocities, erosion by the water droplets is also to be expected. Unfortunately, it is not
possible to quantify these errors.

Conclusion
Accurate steam flowmetering depends on:
 Taking pressure variations into account - Pressure will vary in any steam system, and it is clearly futile to specify a
flowmeter with an accuracy of 2% if pressure variations alone can give errors of 10%. The steam flowmetering package
must include density compensation.
Predictable dryness fraction - Measurement of dryness fraction is very complex; a much easier and better option is to install
a steam separator prior to any steam flowmeter. This will ensure that the dryness fraction is always close to 1.0, irrespective
of the condition of the steam supplied.
Superheated steam
With saturated steam there is a fixed relationship between steam pressure and steam temperature. Steam tables provide
detailed information on this relationship. To apply density compensation on saturated steam, it is only necessary to sense
either steam temperature or steam pressure to determine the density ( ). This signal can then be fed, along with the flow
signal, to the flow computer, where, assuming the computer contains a steam table algorithm, it will then do the calculations
of mass flowrate.
However, superheated steam is close to being a gas and no obvious relationship exists between temperature and pressure.
When measuring superheated steam flowrates, both steam pressure and steam temperature must be sensed and signalled
simultaneously. The flowmeter instrumentation must also include the necessary steam table software to enable it to compute
superheated steam conditions and to indicate correct values.
If a differential pressure type steam flowmeter is installed which does not have this instrumentation, a flow measurement
error will always be displayed if superheat is present.
This is best shown as an example.

Example 4.4.6

Consider a differential pressure flowmeter fitted with pressure reading equipment, but no temperature reading equipment.
The flowmeter thinks that it is reading saturated steam at 10 bar g with its corresponding temperature of 184C.
Unfortunately the steam being measured is superheated with a temperature of 220C.
Using equation 4.4.2 the error in reading can be calculated based on the lower than anticipated density for superheated
steam.

In this case the meter would over read by 5%

Using the same parameters as example 4.4.6, determine the actual flowrate if the flowmeter displays a flowrate of 250 kg/h.
Equation 4.4.5 can be used to calculate the actual value from the displayed menu.
 Installation
The manufacturer should always supply installation data with the product as this will lay down specific requirements such as
the minimum lengths of unobstructed pipe to be provided upstream and downstream of the flowmeter. It is usual for the
flowmeter supplier to be able to offer advice and relay recommendations regarding the installation requirements of his
particular flowmeter.
Statistics show that over a third of flowmeter problems are due to poor installation. No steam flowmeter, however good its
design and thorough its manufacture, can cope if little attention is paid to its installation and the layout of the steam system.

Steam quality
Dry steam

Steam should always be provided in as dry a condition as possible at the point of metering.
Module 4.4 has already demonstrated that wet steam will cause inaccuracies and can physically damage some types of
flowmeter.
A simple but effective method of drying wet steam is to install a separator upstream of the flowmeter.
Entrained moisture impinges on the baffle plates and the heavy droplets fall to the bottom and are drained away via a
properly sized and selected steam trap set. Independent tests show that it is possible to achieve a 99% dryness fraction over
a wide range of flows by use of a high efficiency separator as shown in Figure 4.5.1.
The separator has one other important benefit: Slugs of water impacting on any steam flowmeter (i.e. waterhammer) can
cause severe mechanical damage. Fitting a separator before a steam flowmeter will reduce the resulting impact pressure
from water slugs by up to 90%, affording considerable protection to any expensive flowmetering device.
The separator with its drain trap ensures efficient condensate removal ahead of the flowmeter.
But any low points where the steam main rises to a higher level should also have drain trap points that are adequately sized
and correctly selected.
It is also worthwhile ensuring that air and other entrained gases are removed by fitting an air vent in the steam line.
The separator shown in Figure 4.5.1 has a top connection suitable for an automatic air vent that will help to remove
incondensable gases prior to the flowmetering station. Figure 4.5.2 illustrates a combined drain trap point and venting station
at the end of a steam main.
Clean steam

A pipeline strainer (Figure 4.5.3) should be fitted ahead of the flowmeter. This will remove any larger pieces of scale, swarf or
other pipeline debris, which would other wise damage the primary device. The internal strainer device should be cleaned
periodically, particularly during the initial start-up of a new installation.

As with any steam pipeline strainer, the strainer should be installed with the body horizontal to avoid creating an
accumulation of condensate and hence a reduction in the screening area (Figure 4.5.4).
Maintenance
The provision of valves either side of the flowmeter should be considered for isolation purposes, since inspection,
maintenance and perhaps even removal for calibration will sometimes be necessary. Such valves should be of the fully
open or fully closed type, which present the least resistance to flow, such as full bore ball valves. In addition, a valved
bypass, or a make-up piece to act as a temporary replacement if the flowmeter is removed from the pipeline, will solve the
problem of interrupting the steam supply during maintenance procedures. Both pipework and flowmeter must be adequately
supported and properly aligned with a slight fall to the last drain point ahead of the flowmeter. Pipework should also be
properly and effectively insulated to minimise radiation losses and further condensation.

Installation recommendations

1. Ensure all pipework is adequately supported and properly aligned. - This will prevent waterlogging during shutdown
periods and possible problems on start-up.
2. Size the flowmeter on capacity rather than line size. - Where a pipe size reduction is necessary, use eccentric reducing
sockets.
3. Take care to observe the correct direction of flow. - An arrow on the flowmeter body should show this.
4. It is advisable to fit a check valve downstream of the transducer. - This will avoid possible damage by reverse flow.
5. Do not close-couple the flowmeter immediately downstream to a pressure reducing valve. - This comment is particularly
relevant to pilot operated self-acting pressure controllers with a narrow proportional band; these may cause pressure
oscillations leading to inaccuracies and/or possible damage of the primary unit.
As a general rule, a self-acting pressure control should be at least 10, and preferably 25 pipe diameters upstream of the
flowmeter.
6. Do not install the flowmeter downstream of a partially open stop valve. - This can lead to swirl, which may lead to
inaccuracies.
7. A separator should always be fitted upstream of the flowmeter. - This will remove entrained moisture from the steam. Dry
steam is required for accurate steam flowmetering. It will also provide some degree of protection against waterhammer
impact damage.
The separator should be drained using a float thermostatic steam trap.
8. A full line size strainer with 100 mesh stainless steel screen must be fitted. - This will prevent dirt and scale reaching the
transducer. This is especially advisable on old or dirty systems where dirt or corrosion is present.
9. Ensure gasket faces do not protrude into the pipeline.
10. A bellows sealed stop valve may be fitted upstream of the flowmeter.
11. Recommended lengths of clear, unobstructed pipe must be provided upstream and downstream of the flowmeter.
X + Y is known as the Flowmeter run (Figure 4.5.5).
The question of leaving sufficient length of clear, unobstructed pipework upstream and downstream of the flowmeter is most
important. This is to prevent the risk of swirl, which can be produced by bends and partially open valves.
Some types of flowmeter are more susceptible to swirl than others. Some manufacturers recommend the use of flow
straighteners to remove swirl (Figure 4.5.6). However, it is preferable to do all that is possible to prevent the risk of swirl by
providing an adequate flowmeter run since flow straighteners in steam systems can entrain surface water. It may even be
preferable to select a steam flowmeter that is less susceptible to the effects of swirl.

Correct sizing of the flowmeter is also essential and most manufacturers will recommend maximum and minimum flowrates
for each size of flowmeter.
If the flowmeter to be used is smaller than the pipeline into which it is to be fitted, reductions in pipe size should be achieved
by using eccentric reducers (Figure 4.5.7). This will prevent the collection of condensate at a lowpoint - as would be the
result if concentric reducers were used. The reduction in pipe size should be achieved at the nearest point to the flowmeter
consistent with maintaining the required flowmeter run.

System design considerations

Adopting a structured approach to steam flowmetering will help to ensure that:
The design objectives are achieved.
No elements of the design are omitted.
The benefits are maximised.
The financial outlay is minimised.
There are two main elements to such an approach:

1. Consideration of the existing steam supply system

The planner should identify any future changes to the plant or process that may affect the installation of steam flowmeters,
and should consider whether the installation of flowmeters is likely to act as a catalyst for such changes. Alterations to the
system, for example, may involve blanking off redundant sections of steam mains, rerouting pipework, or generally improving
the condition of pipe layout and / or insulation.

2. Identifying the aim of installing steam flowmetering

Typically, one or more of the following design criteria will be clearly defined:
To provide information for accounting purposes, such as departmental allocation of costs.
To facilitate custody transfer, for example where a central station sells steam to a range of clients.
To facilitate Monitoring and Targeting (M and T) policies and observe trends.
To determine and monitor energy utilisation and efficiency.
Each of the above criteria imposes different limitations on the design of the steam flowmetering system.
If flowmetering is to be used for accounting purposes or for custody transfer, it will be necessary to install a sufficient number
of flowmeters for consumption to be assigned to each of the cost centres. Also, if the product being sold is energy not steam,
flowmeters will also have to be installed on the condensate return lines, as this hot water will have a heat value. For both
applications, the highest possible standard of flowmetering will be required, particularly with respect to accuracy, turndown
ratio, and repeatability.
The system may also require check flowmetering so that consumption can be proven correct. It should be noted that
confidence in any monitoring system, once lost, is very difficult to restore. A system should also include measurement of the
system losses incurred as a result of supplying steam to a particular location. This implies that flowmeter positions should be
located as near to the boiler house as possible.
In M and T applications and in the determining of energy efficiency, the important flowmetering criterion is repeatability. The
user will be more interested in trends in consumption rather than absolute values.

Determining flowmeter arrangements

Once the system layout has been determined, and the data required to accurately measure the energy consumption of the
system / plant has been decided, the number and location of required flowmeters can be contemplated. This requires
consideration of the site as a whole including the steam main from the boiler house.
Figure 4.5.8 shows four possible layouts for the same system.
The four diagrams shown in Figure 4.5.8 illustrate how the connection of multiple steam flowmeters can affect the results
obtained and ultimately influence the data analysis.
Specifying a steam flowmeter

Some of the factors which need to be taken into account when selecting a steam flowmeter include:
Performance

Accuracy.
Repeatability.
Turndown.
Pressure drop.
Display unit facilities.

Maintenance

Reliability.
Calibration needs.
Spare parts requirement or service exchange scheme.
Ease of maintenance.

Cost

Cost of flowmeter.
Cost of associated instruments.
Cost of installation.
Overall lifetime costs.

Other factors

Reputation of manufacturer.
Back-up provided by the manufacturer.
Initial calibration requirements.
Density compensation.
Ability to interface.
Availability of associated equipment.
Quality of literature and information provided.
The above points should be considered collectively. For example, it can be a mistake to simply select a flowmeter on
accuracy when, often, there is a balance between accuracy and reliability.
The most accurate flowmeters are often the most delicate and can suffer badly when used with steam. A more sensible
approach will be to look for reasonable accuracy with good repeatability and proven reliability with steam.

Useful checklist to help in the selection of a steam flowmeter

The following is offered to help in the selection of a steam flowmeter and gives a useful check list and prompt for the
questions that need to be raised:
What is the application? (Boiler house flowmeter, departmental flowmeter, or plant flowmeter.)
What is the pipeline size and configuration?
What is the steam pressure and temperature?
What is the object of flowmetering? (Cost allocation, plant efficiency check, energy saving scheme monitor.)
What is the flowmeter required to indicate? (Flowrate, quantity, mass or volume.)
Is there a need to measure maximum, minimum, and/or average flowrates?
What accuracy, repeatability and turndown is needed?
 What is the purchase budget allowed?
How much of this is allocated to installation costs and ancillary equipment costs?
Who will install the flowmeter?
Who will commission the flowmeter?
Who will maintain the flowmeter?
Is there a need to interface the flowmeter with any local chart recorders or central energy management systems?
Is physical size a constraint?
Is the flowmeter designed for operation with steam?
Are any other features required, such as remote alarms on timers?
Once this evaluation has been completed, the Steps in Figure 4.5.9 need to be followed before making a final selection.

Conclusion
Difficulties in the energy management of steam arise from the fact that it is often perceived as a free (unmetered) service.

Measurement is essential if savings are to be made

Most plants have figures on the annual cost of fuel. However, even these figures can become doubtful when a supply
provides fuel to multi-users. Again, measuring the total fuel consumption of two or more perhaps dissimilar boilers can hide
useful information.
Gas or oil can be measured quite easily. Measurement of steam is more difficult - which explains why steam is often
perceived as being free. If steam is metered, then is the measurement accurate? Most flowmeters depend on a
measurement of volume, whilst steam is traditionally costed on a mass basis. To ensure the correct volumetric flowrate is
measured for conversion to mass flow, density compensation is essential.
It is easy to accept the instrument reading as shown by the integrator or chart. Most flowmeters, however, are calibrated on
media other than steam, with a correction factor to convert the scale reading to an actual amount. It is important the
manufacturer can provide test details if required.
Flowmeters should be checked from time to time to make sure that there is no erosion to any measuring orifice or any similar
change to an alternative type of primary device.
Although steam flowmetering is often confined to the boiler house, it can be extremely useful in other parts of the system. It
is essential where steam has to be costed. It is essential information for the plant manager charged with conserving energy
or improving production efficiency or quality.
Steam flowmeters will provide useful information on plant performance, fouling of heat transfer surfaces or the malfunction of
steam traps.
Flowmeter readings provide the only positive approach when schemes or improvements are introduced to save steam.