Shri K J Polytechnic, Bharuch

EXPERIMENT NO: 7 DATE: ____________

Pressure Measuring Devices.

AIM: To study about the various pressure measuring devices.

THEORY: Pressure measurement is important in many fluid mechanics related applications.

From appropriate pressure measurements velocity, aerodynamic forces and moments can
be determined. Pressure is measured by the force acting on unit area. Measuring devices
usually indicate differential pressure i.e. in relation with atmospheric pressure. This is called
gauge pressure. The measured pressure may be positive or negative with reference to the
atmospheric pressure .A negative gauge pressure is referred to as vacuum.

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Piezometer Tube
The direct proportional relation between gauge pressure and the height h for a fluid of
constant density enables the pressure to be simply visualized in terms of the vertical height.

The height h is termed as pressure head corresponding to pressure p. For a liquid without a
free surface in a closed pipe, the pressure head at a point corresponds to the vertical height
above the point to which a free surface would rise, if a small tube of sufficient length and
open to atmosphere is connected to the pipe.

Such a tube is called a piezometer tube, and the height h is the measure of the gauge
pressure of the fluid in the pipe. If such a piezometer tube of sufficient length were closed at
the top and the space above the liquid surface were a perfect vacuum, the height of the
column would then correspond to the absolute pressure of the liquid at the base. This
principle is used in the well known mercury barometer to determine the local atmospheric
pressure.

The Barometer
Barometer is used to determine the local atmospheric pressure. Mercury is employed in the
barometer because its density is sufficiently high for a relative short column to be obtained.
and also because it has very small vapour pressure at normal temperature. High density
scales down the pressure head(h) to repesent same magnitude of pressure in a tube of
smaller height.

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Even if the air is completely absent, a perfect vacuum at the top of the tube is never
possible. The space would be occupied by the mercury vapour and the pressure would be
equal to the vapour pressure of mercury at it existing temperature. This almost vacuum
condition above the mercury in the barometer is known as Torricellian Vacuum. The
pressure at point A equal to that of point B which is the atmospheric pressure p atm since A
and B lie on the same horizontal plane. Thus we can write:

Manometers for measuring Gauge & Vacuum Pressure

Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference in pressure between two points or between a certain point and the atmosphere.
Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is basicaaly the modified form
of the piezometric tube.

One of the ends is connected to a pipe or a container having a fluid (A) whose pressure is to
be measured while the other end is open to atmosphere. The lower part of the U-tube
contains a liquid immiscible with the fluid A and is of greater density than that of A. This
fluid is called the manometric fluid.
Inclined Tube Manometer
For accurate measurement of small pressure differences by an ordinary u-tube manometer,
it is essential that the ratio rm/rw should be close to unity. This is not possible if the working
fluid is a gas; also having a manometric liquid of density very close to that of the working
liquid and giving at the same time a well defined meniscus at the interface is not always
possible. For this purpose, an inclined tube manometer is used.

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If the transparent tube of a manometer, instead of being vertical, is set at an angle to the
horizontal, then a pressure difference corresponding to a vertical difference of levels h gives
a movement of the meniscus h = L*sin along the slope.

Micromanometer
When an additional gauge liquid is used in a U-tube manometer, a large difference in
meniscus levels may be obtained for a very small pressure difference.

Bourdon Tube
Bourdon tube pressure gages are extensively used for local indication. This type of pressure
gages were first developed by E. Bourdon in 1849. Bourdon tube pressure gages can be used
to measure over a wide range of pressure: form vacuum to pressure as high as few
thousand psi. It is basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and
connected to the pressure tapping, the other end free, as shown in fig. 4. The cross section
of the tube is elliptical. When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube tries to acquire a
circular cross section; as a result, stress is developed and the tube tries to straighten up.
Thus the free end of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting
and indicating mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer. The materials
used are commonly Phosphor Bronze, Brass and Beryllium Copper. For a overall diameter of
the C-tube the useful travel of the free end is approximately 1/8. Though the C-type tubes
are most common, other shapes of tubes, such as helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in
use.

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Diaphragm Type Pressure Measurement

Diaphragms may be of three types: Thin plate, Membrane and Corrugated diaphragm. This
classification is based on the applied pressure and the corresponding displacements. Thin
plate (fig. 1(a)) is made by machining a solid block and making a circular cross sectional area
with smaller thickness in the middle. It is used for measurement of relatively higher
pressure. In a membrane the sensing section is glued in between two solid blocks as shown
in fig. 1(b). The thickness is smaller; as a result, when pressure is applied on one side, the
displacement is larger. The sensitivity can be further enhanced in a corrugated diaphragm
(fig. 1(c)), and a large deflection can be obtained for a small change in pressure; however at
the cost of linearity. The materials used are Bronze, Brass, and Stainless steel.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 12 DATE: ____________

Refrigeration Methods

AIM: To study about various types of refrigeration methods.

INTRODUCTION:
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to
another. The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work, but
can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means.
Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to: household
refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat pumps may
use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be
reversible, but are otherwise similar to refrigeration units.

METHODS OF REFRIGERATION
Methods of refrigeration can be classified as non-cyclic, cyclic, thermoelectric and
magnetic.

NON-CYCLIC REFRIGERATION
In non-cyclic refrigeration, cooling is accomplished by melting ice or by subliming dry
ice (frozen carbon dioxide). These methods are used for small-scale refrigeration
such as in laboratories and workshops, or in portable coolers.
Ice owes its effectiveness as a cooling agent to its melting point of 0 C (32 F) at sea
level. To melt, ice must absorb 333.55 kJ/kg (about 144 Btu/lb) of heat. Foodstuffs
maintained near this temperature have an increased storage life. Solid carbon
dioxide has no liquid phase at normal atmospheric pressure, and sublimes directly
from the solid to vapour phase at a temperature of -78.5 C (-109.3 F), and is
effective for maintaining products at low temperatures during sublimation. Systems
such as this where the refrigerant evapourates and is vented to the atmosphere are
known as "total loss refrigeration".

CYCLIC REFRIGERATION
This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature
space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external
work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is
supplied from a high-temperature

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source to the engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being
rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of thermodynamics.
A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it
alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also
applied to HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant flow through an
HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system.
Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space or
storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher
temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy needed to
achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the cooled space. The operating
principle of the refrigeration cycle was described mathematically by Sadi Carnot in
1824 as a heat engine.
The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle, although absorption are used in a minority of
applications.
Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as:
Vapour cycle, and
Gas cycle

Vapour cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:

Vapour-compression refrigeration
Vapour-absorption refrigeration

VAPOUR-COMPRESSION CYCLE
The vapour-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in
many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a
schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapour-compression refrigeration
system.

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All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a thermal

expansion valve (also called athrottle valve or metering device), and an evaporator.
Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as
a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher
temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state
known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can
be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or
tubes. This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the
rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air (whichever may be the
case).
The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated
liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt
reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash
evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the
adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor
refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space
to be refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan
circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the
cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of
the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating air is cooled and thus
lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the desired temperature. The
evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is
subsequently rejected in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the water or
air used in the condenser.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is
again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.

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VAPOUR ABSORPTION CYCLE

The above figure shows the schematic diagram of a vapor absorption system.
Ammonia vapor is produced in the generator at high pressure from the strong
solution of NH3 by an external heating source. The water vapor carried with
ammonia is removed in the rectifier and only the dehydrated ammonia gas enters
into the condenser. High pressure NH3 vapor is condensed in the condenser. The
cooled NH3 solution is passed through a throttle valve and the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant are reduced below the temperature to be maintained
in the evaporator. The low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator and
absorbs the required heat from the evaporator and leaves the evaporator as
saturated vapor. Slightly superheated, low pressure NH3 vapor is absorbed by the
weak solution of NH3 which is sprayed in the absorber as shown in the figure above.
Weak NH3 solution (aquaammonia) entering the absorber becomes strong solution
after absorbing NH3 vapor and then it is pumped to the generator through the heat
exchanger. The pump increases the pressure of the strong solution to generator
pressure. The strong NH3 solution coming from the absorber absorbs heat form high
temperature weak NH3 solution in the heat exchanger. The solution in the generator
becomes weak as NH3 vapor comes out of it. The weak high temperature ammonia
solution from the generator is passed to the heat exchanger through the throttle
valve. The pressure of the liquid is reduced to the absorber pressure by the throttle
valve.

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Vapour Absorption Cycle Vapour Compression Cycle

Uses low grade energy like heat.
Therefore, may be worked on exhaust
systems from I.C engines, etc.
Moving parts are only in the pump, which
is a small element of the system. Hence
operation is smooth.
The system can work on lower
evaporator pressures also without
affecting the COP.
No effect of reducing the load on
performance.
Liquid traces of refrigerant present in
piping at the exit of evaporator
constitute no danger.
Automatic operation for controlling the
capacity is easy.
Using high-grade energy like mechanical
work.
Moving parts are in the compressor.
Therefore, more wear, tear and noise.
The COP decreases considerably with
decrease in evaporator pressure.
Performance is adversely affected at
partial loads.
Liquid traces in suction line may damage
the compressor.
It is difficult.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 13 DATE: ____________

Various Controllers.

AIM: To study about various types of controllers & control loops.

THEORY:
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
The proportional controller produces an output signal (pressure in the case of a
pneumatic controller, current or voltage for an electronic controller) that is
proportional to the error E. This action may be expressed as

P = Kc + ps

Where,
p = output signal from controller, psig or ma
Kc, = gain, or sensitivity
= error = set point - measured variable
ps = a constant

The error E, which is the difference between the set point and the signal from the
measuring element, may be in any suitable units. However, the units of set point and
measured variable must be the same, since the error is the difference between these
quantities.

In a controller having adjustable gain, the value of the gain K, can be varied by
moving a knob in the controller. The value of ps is the value of the output signal
when E is zero, and in most controllers ps can be adjusted to obtain the required
output signal when the control system is at steady state and = 0.

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER

This mode of control is described by the relationship

Where,
Kc = gain
i = integral time, min
ps = constant

In this case, we have added to the proportional action term, Kc, another term that is
proportional to the integral of the error. The values of Kc, and i may be varied by
two knobs in the controller. To visualize the response of this controller, consider the

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response to a unit step change in error, as shown in figure below. This unit-step
response is most directly obtained by inserting = 1 into above equation, which
yields

PROPORTIONAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

This mode of control may be represented by

In this case, we have added to the proportional term another term, K cD ,

which is proportional to the derivative of the error. The values of Kc, and D may be
varied separately by knobs on the controller. Other terms that are used to describe
the derivative action are rate control and anticipatory control.

The action of this controller can be visualized by considering the response to a linear
change in error as shown in Fig. 10.6. This response is obtained by introducing the
linear function e(t) = At into above equation to obtain:

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PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

This mode of control is combination of the previous modes and is given by the
expression

CONTROL LOOPS
The following represents the typical feedback control systems which are often
encountered in chemical industry:

Flow Control
Two feedback control system are shown in the figure below which are meant for flow
control by controlling the flow rate F at desired value Fsp.

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Pressure Control
A feedback control system are shown in the figure below which is meant for pressure
control in a tank by controlling the pressure P at desired value Psp.

Liquid Level Control

Two feedback control system are shown in the figure below which are meant for
controlling the level of the liquid in a tank.

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Temperature Control
A typical temperature control system is shown as below in which the temperature T
is made to be kept constant at Tsp.

Composition Control
Composition is the controlled variable in the blending system. The desired value is
Csp.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 14 DATE: ____________

DCS.

AIM: Prepare chart of various components of DCS System

A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a

manufacturing system process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller
elements are not central in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout
the system with each component sub-system controlled by one or more controllers.
DCS (Distributed Control System) is a computerized control system used to control
production in various industries. The entire system of controllers is connected by
networks for communication and monitoring. DCS is a very broad term used in a
variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment.

AREAS OF APPLICATIONS
Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants
Environmental control systems
Traffic signals
Radio signals
Water management systems
Oil refining plants
Metallurgical process plants
Chemical plants
Pharmaceutical manufacturing
Sensor networks
Dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships

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DCS STRTUCTURE

A DCS typically uses custom designed processors as controllers and uses both
proprietary interconnections and communications protocol for communication.
Input and output modules form component parts of the DCS. The processor receives
information from input modules and sends information to output modules. The input
modules receive information from input instruments in the process (or field) and the
output modules transmit instructions to the output instruments in the field.
Computer buses or electrical buses connect the processor and modules through
multiplexer or demultiplexers. Buses also connect the distributed controllers with the
central controller and finally to the Humanmachine interface (HMI) or control
consoles. See Process automation system.
The elements of a DCS may connect directly to physical equipment such as switches,
pumps and valves and to Human Machine Interface (HMI) via SCADA. The difference
between a DCS and SCADA is often subtle, especially with advances in technology
allowing the functionality of each to overlap.

APPLICATIONS
Distributed control systems (DCSs) are dedicated systems used to control
manufacturing processes that are continuous or batch-oriented, such as oil refining,
petrochemicals, central station power generation, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, food
and beverage manufacturing, cement production, steelmaking, and papermaking.
DCSs are connected to sensors and actuators and use set point control to control the
flow of material through the plant. The most common example is a set point control
loop consisting of a pressure sensor, controller, and control valve. Pressure or flow

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measurements are transmitted to the controller, usually through the aid of a signal
conditioning input/output (I/O) device. When the measured variable reaches a
certain point, the controller instructs a valve or actuation device to open or close
until the fluidic flow process reaches the desired set point. Large oil refineries have
many thousands of I/O points and employ very large DCSs. Processes are not limited
to fluidic flow through pipes, however, and can also include things like paper
machines and their associated quality controls (see quality control system QCS),
variable speed drives and motor control centers, cement kilns, mining operations,
ore processing facilities, and many others.
A typical DCS consists of functionally and/or geographically distributed digital
controllers capable of executing from 1 to 256 or more regulatory control loops in
one control box. The input/output devices (I/O) can be integral with the controller or
located remotely via a field network. Todays controllers have extensive
computational capabilities and, in addition to proportional, integral, and derivative
(PID) control, can generally perform logic and sequential control. Modern DCSs also
support neural networks and fuzzy application.
DCSs are usually designed with redundant processors to enhance the reliability of the
control system. Most systems come with canned displays and configuration software
which enables the end user to set up the control system without a lot of low level
programming. This allows the user to better focus on the application rather than the
equipment, although a lot of system knowledge and skill is still required to support
the hardware and software as well as the applications. Many plants have dedicated
groups that focus on this task. These groups are in many cases augmented by vendor
support personnel and/or maintenance support contracts.
DCSs may employ one or more workstations and can be configured at the
workstation or by an off-line personal computer. Local communication is handled by
a control network with transmission over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable. A
server and/or applications processor may be included in the system for extra
computational, data collection, and reporting capability.

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