Rationale

Quantum mechanics (QM) is a branch of physics relating to the very small (Coolman
2014). In QM, objects tend to exist in a haze of probability; they have a certain chance of being
at point X, another chance of being at point Y, and so on (Coolman 2014). QM differs from
classical physics in the sense that energy, momentum and other quantities are restricted to dis-
crete values, objects can have characteristics of both particles and waves, and there are limita-
tions with which quantities can be known (Coolman 2014; Mayes 2004; Wikipedia 2017).
In the twentieth century, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrodinger, Max Born and others cre-
ated the theory now known as quantum mechanics (Cresser 2009; Robertson 1996). Quantum
mechanics (QM) was not developed logically; instead, a series of guesses stimulated by phys-
ical insight and mathematics was sewn together creating a theoretical edifice whose power is
such that quantum mechanics is considered the most successful construct of the human mind
(Cresser 2009). The history of QM can be broken into several different waves (Norton 2015).
The first idea in the formulation of QM was in 1900, with Max Planck and the problem of
black-body radiation. Physicists had been computing how much energy is found in each fre-
quency that encompass heat radiation. As a body that emits radiation passes from red to orange
to white heat, the frequencies change correspondingly. This information constituted a conun-
drum for the next 20 years. Consequently, a series of events occurred, culminating a scientific
revolution. In the three-year period from January 1925 to January 1928:
Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Pascual Jordan, discovered matrix mechanics, the
first version of quantum mechanics;
Erwin Schrodinger invented wave mechanics, a second form of quantum mechanics in
which the state of a system is described by a wave function, the solution to Schrding-
er's equation. Matrix mechanics and wave mechanics were shown to be equivalent;
electrons were shown to obey a new type of statistical law, Fermi-Dirac statistics;
Heisenberg enunciated the Uncertainty Principle;
Paul A.M. Dirac developed a relativistic wave equation for the electron that explained
electron spin and predicted antimatter;
Dirac laid the foundations of quantum field theory by providing a quantum description
of the electromagnetic field; and,
Bohr announced the complementarity principle, a principle that helped to resolve ap-
parent paradoxes of quantum theory, particularly wave-particle duality.
These events formulated the idea of QM that is now wildly accepted in the scientific commu-
nity.
The importance of QM is wide ranging (The Royal Society 2010). As shown by
Boundless (2016), QM has been enormously effective in explaining many of the features of
the world:
the behaviour of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter can often
be described only using QM;
 QM has also strongly influenced the concept of string theory1; and
QM is also critically important in the field of chemistry to make sense of how indi-
vidual atoms combine to form molecules. QM provides insight into ionic and cova-
lent bonding processes by showing which molecules are energetically favourable to
other molecules, in addition to the magnitudes of the energies involved. Further-
more, calculations performed in modern chemistry rely on QM.
But above all, a great number of modern technological inventions operate on a scale
where quantum effects are important. Examples of such include the laser, the transistor (and
consequently the microchip), the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging, which
is a major device used in the medical industry.

In terms of mathematical physics, the Schrodinger equation is the most fundamental

equation in quantum mechanics (Tao 2012). The Schrodinger equation has two different
forms: one in which time explicitly appears, and so describes how the wave function of a
particle evolves in time (Macquarie University n.d.). Since the wave function behaves like a
wave, the equation is often referred to as the time dependent Schrodinger wave equation. The
other equation is when the time dependence has been removed and hence is known as the
time independent Schrodinger equation (Macquarie University n.d.). It should be noted that
these are not two separate and independently derived equations.
Schrodinger Equation: The Time Dependent Schrodinger Wave Equation can be ex-
pressed in the form:

where x is position, t is time, m is mass and. h is Plancks constant (actually it is h/2) which
has dimensions of action = momentum length = energy time (Johnson 2014). The solution
to this equation is a wave that describes the quantum aspects of a system (Summons n.d.). The
equation is used throughout quantum mechanics, for everything from the Dirac equa-
tion to quantum field theory, by plugging in various complicated expressions for h.
To apply the Schrdinger equation in QM, h is set up for the system, accounting for the
kinetic and potential energy of the particles constituting the system, then substituted into the
Schrdinger equation (Kwong 2009). The resulting partial differential equation is solved for
the wave function, which is then used to determine information about the system.

1
String theory: a theoretical framework where point-like particles are replaced by one-dimensional objects
called strings (Wikipedia 2017).
 Quantum Mechanics Worked Example: the following question has been retrieved
from the Texas A&M University (2007):

Solution:
(a) It is known that the total area under the wave function must equal 1. Thus, to find areas under
standard functions, integration is applied.
+
1= ()

In this case, since the values of x lie between an interval, each integral is calculated on a sepa-
rate basis. Hence,


4 4 2
1 = 0 + 2 cos 2( ) + 0


4 4

The first and last integrals are 0, since they are outside the region which we are interested in.
The wave function has also been squared, which makes the integral easier to calculate. It can
therefore be reduced to

2
4
1 = cos2 (
2
)

4

After integrating, the function is left as

1 = 2 ,
4
which means that
4
2 =

(b) Now that the normalization constant has been found, the second part can be calculated. Thus,

the probability P(0, ) is given as
8

84 2
cos2 ( )
0

Again, though integration with respect to x, the equation becomes

4 (2 + )
(0, ) = ( )
8 16
 Which simplifies to
2+
0.41
4

The probability that the particle is between 0 and 8 is about 41%.

So, while it may sometimes seem like quantum mechanics is mysterious and remote from
other sciences, it is in fact absolutely essential to modern life. Semiconductor electronics, la-
sers, atomic clocks, and magnetic resonance scanners all fundamentally depend on our under-
standing of the quantum nature of light and matter, which originated from the somewhat silly
idea of the square root of negative one, i. Thanks to complex numbers, quantum mechanics is
made possible, which in turn assists in everyday life.

{Word count (excl. algebraic reasoning): 878}

Bibliography
Boundless 2016, Implications of Quantum Mechanics, Boundless Physics, viewed 14 March
2017, <https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks/boundless-physics-textbook/intro-
duction-to-quantum-physics-28/history-and-quantum-mechanical-quantities-182/implica-
tions-of-quantum-mechanics-669-6950/>.

Bray, H 2009, Quantum Mechanics, Duke University, viewed 3 March 2017, <http://peo-
ple.duke.edu/~cjf21/C_Flower%20-%20Quantum%20Mechanics%20and%20Com-
plex%20Functions.pdf>.

Coolman, R 2014, What is Quantum Mechanics, Live Science, viewed 15 March 2017,
<http://www.livescience.com/33816-quantum-mechanics-explanation.html>.

Cresser, J 2009, The Early History of Quantum Mechanics, Macquarie University, viewed 12
March 2017, <http://physics.mq.edu.au/~jcresser/Phys301/Chapters/Chapter2.pdf>.

Felix, M 2006, Why is quantum mechanics based on complex numbers, Science Direct,
viewed 3 March 2017, <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/arti-
cle/pii/S1071579705000687>.

Frege100 2012, Why are complex numbers used in quantum mechanics, July 26, viewed 3
March 2017, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9_ik6LxrkBE>.

Jenner, N 2014, Five Practical Uses for Spooky Quantum Mechanics, Smithsonian.com,
viewed 15 March 2017, <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/five-practical-
uses-spooky-quantum-mechanics-180953494/>.

Kwong, C 2009, The mystery of square root of minus one in quantum mechanics, and its de-
mystification, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, viewed 2 March 2017,
<https://arxiv.org/pdf/0912.3996.pdf>.

Matson, J 2010, What Is Quantum Mechanics Good For?, Scientific American, viewed 15
March 2017, <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/everyday-quantum-physics/>.

Mayes, K n.d., What is quantum mechanics, KeyBoard, viewed 15 March 2017,

<http://www.thekeyboard.org.uk/Quantum%20mechanics.htm>.

MIT 2009, Introductory Quantum Mechanics II, MIT Open Courseware, viewed 8 March
2017, <https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/chemistry/5-74-introductory-quantum-mechanics-ii-
spring-2009/lecture-notes/MIT5_74s09_lec12.pdf>.

Norton, J 2015, Origins of Quantum Theory, Department of History and Philosophy of Sci-
ence, University of Pittsburgh, viewed 17 March 2017,

Orzel, C 2015, What Has Quantum Mechanics Ever Done For Us?, Forbes, viewed 15 March
2017, <https://www.forbes.com/sites/chadorzel/2015/08/13/what-has-quantum-mechan-
ics-ever-done-for-us/#13ad60524046>.
Robertson, E 1996, A History Of Quantum Mechanics, University of St Andrews, viewed 12
March 2017, <http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/The_Quan-
tum_age_begins.html>.
Summons, D n.d., What is the Schrodinger equation, and how is it used?, PhysLink, viewed
16 March 2017, <www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae329.cfm>.

Texas A&M University 2007, Quantum Mechanics Solutions, Department of Mathematics &
Physics, viewed 17 March 2017, <http://people.physics.tamu.edu/syeager/teach-
ing/222/hw1solution.pdf>.
The Royal Society 2016, Why is Quantum Physics Important, The Royal Society, viewed 12
March 2017, <http://invigorate.royalsociety.org/ks5/the-best-things-come-in-small-pack-
ages/why-is-quantum-physics-important.aspx>.

Tuckerman, M 2011, Complex Numbers, New York University, viewed 13 March 2017,
<http://www.nyu.edu/classes/tuckerman/adv.chem/lectures/math_prelims/node3.html>.

Wertheim, M 2015, The art and beauty of general relativity, Conversation, November 26,
viewed 27 February 2017, <http://theconversation.com/the-art-and-beauty-of-general-rel-
ativity-51042>.

Wikipedia 2017, Schrodinger Equation, Wikipedia, viewed 17 March 2017, <https://en.wik-

ipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation#Time-dependent_equation>.
Wikipedia 2017, String Theory, Wikipedia, viewed 15 March 2017, <https://en.wikipe-
dia.org/wiki/String_theory>.