1.

Receptors: sense organs

Sensory receptors, in other words the receptors that perceive stimuli from the external environment,
can be grouped together and, along with other structures, form the sense organs. Humans have five
senses: smell, touch, taste, hearing and sight.

1.1 Smell

Smell receptor or olfactory cells are chemoreceptors that are sensitive to volatile or
gaseous substances in the air.

Our bodies contain a series of specialist cells, called receptors, which perceive stimuli and send the
information they detect to the coordination centres for processing.

How odours reach the brain

Odours are sensations that are created in three stages:

1) The volatile or gaseous substances in the air enter the nasal passages.

2) The olfactory cells, which are located in the upper lining of the nasal passages, called the
olfactory mucosa, perceive the substances. This lining also contains glands that secrete
mucus. We can only smell substances if they are dissolved in mucus and present in sufficient
concentration.

3) When the olfactory cells are stimulated, they send nerve impulses through the olfactory
nerve to the brain, which interprets the information and identifies the smell.
1.2 Touch

There are various kinds of touch receptors: thermoreceptors, which detect heat and
cold; mechanoreceptors, which detect contact and pressure; and nociceptors, which
perceive pain. Together, all these sensations constitute our sense of touch.

How tactile sensations reach the brain

Odours are sensations that are created in three stages:

Touch receptors are located in the skin and are not distributed in a uniform manner. This is why
some parts of our bodies are more sensitive than others. For example, pressure receptors are
concentrated on the palms of our hands and the soles of our feet.

When stimulated, touch receptors send nerve impulses through different nerves to the brain, where
they are interpreted and identified.

1.3 Taste

Taste receptors, known as gustatory cells, are chemoreceptors which are sensitive to
the chemical substances of food dissolved in saliva.

How tastes reach the brain

Gustatory cells (or taste cells as they are often called) are located inside a series of bulb-shaped
structures called taste buds. Taste buds are located on the palate, pharynx and, mainly, the tongue,
which contains a series of small bumps called papillae.

Gustatory cells are stimulated by the chemical substances in food and send nerve impulses through
the gustatory nerve to the brain, which interprets and identifies tastes.

1.4 Hearing
 The receptors in our ears are mechanoreceptors responsible for either hearing or
balance. Hearing receptors are called auditory cells and are sensitive to vibrations in
the air (sound waves); balance receptors are called balance cells and are sensitive to
movement.

The human ear

The human ear is divided into three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.

The outer ear is formed by the visible ear or auricle and the ear canal.
The middle ear is made of the eardrum and a chain of tiny bones called ossicles (malleus,
incus and stapes), which link the eardrum to the inner ear.
The inner ear is formed by the cochlea, which contains the hearing receptor cells, and the
semicircular canals and the cavities locates at their base, which house the balance cells. All
these structures are filled with fluid.

How our ears work: hearing and balance

Hearing. Sound waves enter the outer eat and reach the eardrum, which begins to vibrate.
This vibration is transmitted along the ossicles to the fluid inside the cochlea. The movement
of the fluid stimulates the hearing receptor cells which send nerve impulses through the
auditory or cochlear nerve to the brain, where they are transformed into sounds.

Balance. The sensory balance cells are located in the semicircular canals and the cavities
found at their base. When we move, the fluid inside these structures also moves and
stimulates the balance cells, which send nerve impulses through the vestibular nerve to the
brain, which provides us with information about our bodys position.
1.5 Sight

Sight receptors are located in the eyes and are photoreceptors that are sensitive to
variations in light intensity. They enable us to see.

The human eye

The human eye has two parts: the eyeball and the auxiliary structures.

The eyeball is a slightly flattened sphere filled with transparent fluids (the aqueous and vitreous
humours). It has three layers:
1) The sclera or outer layer, which is white. The front part of this layer is transparent and is
called the cornea. The cornea is covered by a thin protective membrane called the
conjunctiva.
2) The choroid or intermediate layer, which is darker and contain many blood vessels. The front
of this layer contains the iris, which has an orifice in it, known as the pupil. The pupil opens
or closes depending on the amount of light reaching the eye. Behind the iris is a lens which
changes shape in order to focus the image received onto the retina.
3) The retina is the internal layer of the eye. It contains two types of photoreceptors, rods and
cones.

The auxiliary structures are the eyebrows, eyelids, eye muscles and lacrimal glands. They
protect the eyeball and enable it to move.

How our eyes work: sight

Light reaches the cornea, which directs it towards the pupil. The pupil opens or closes depending on
the intensity of the light at that particular moment. The light then travels through the lens, which
focuses it onto the retina. In the retina, photoreceptor cells generate nerve impulses which they send
through the optic nerve to the brain, where they are converted into visual images.