Formation Damage MechanismSkin

Formation Damage
Mechanisms
FARUK CIVAN, Ph.D.

Alumni Chair Professor
Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological
Engineering
The University of Oklahoma
Copyright 2006 by Faruk Civan - 1

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Presentation Outline
How is formation damage defined?
What does formation damage do?
How does formation damage occur?
What are the common formation
damage mechanisms?
How can we control formation
damage?

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Formation Damage
An expensive headache
(Amaefule et al. 1988)
Requires interdisciplinary
knowledge and expertise

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Damage Mechanisms
(Butler et al., 2000)
Formation damage:
Impairment of reservoir permeability
by adverse processes
Completion damage:
Hinderence of well productivity by
deposition and flow modification at
and around well bore

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Mechanical Skin (Formation
Damage (Yildiz, 2003)
Porosity and permeability variation by

Fines migration and deposition
Mud filtrate and fines invasion
Rock compression
Scales
Acidizing

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Near Wellbore Damage
Damaged Region Non-damaged Region

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Effect of Anisotropy and Stress on
Damage Zone
KH > KV KH < KV
Well
Invasion Zone

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Formation Damage
Indicators
Permeability impairment
Skin damage
Decrease of well
performance.

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Pressure Profile and Skin
t >0,s<0
t = 0, s = 0
P Pw
t >0,s>0
Pwo
Pw
rw ro
r
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Formation Damage
Measure- Skin Factor
s
(rw ) apparent = e (rw ) actual
re
Damaged Non-
Region rw rd
Damaged
Region

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Consequence of
Formation Damage
Reduction of reservoir
productivity
Non-economic operations

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Formation Damage
Not necessarily reversible
(Porter, 1989)
What gets into porous media does
not necessarily come out (Porter,
1989)
Avoid formation damage than to
restore it
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Potential Sources of Formation
Damage During History of Well
1. Drilling (emulsion block,

wettability change, mud
damage, mechanical damage)
2. Cementing (pH change, scale
formation)
3. Perforating
4. Completion
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Potential Sources of Formation
Damage During the History of
the Well
5. Workover
6. Gravel packing
7. Production
8. Stimulation
9. Fluid injection
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Common Formation
Damage Mechanisms
(Bennion, 1999, Bennion and Thomas, 1991, Bishop, 1997)
1. Fluid-fluid incompatibility
(emulsion generation, etc.)
2. Rock-fluid incompatibility (clay
swelling, etc.)
3. Fines invasion and migration
(particles, etc.)
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Common Formation
Damage Mechanisms
(Bennion, 1999, Bennion and Thomas, 1991, Bishop, 1997)
4.Phase trapping and blocking (water

entrapment in gas reservoirs)
5. Adsorption and wettability alteration
6. Biological activity (bacteria, slime
production).

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What do Rocks contain?
(Bucke & Markin,1971, Ezzat,1990, Mancini,1991)
1. Mineral oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, etc.)

2. Swelling and non-swelling clays
(detrital and authigenic)
3. Other substances (mud, cement,
and debris)

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Clay Minerals
Crystalline minerals described
as hydrous aluminum silicates
1. Kaolinite group (breaks apart
into fine particles)
2. Smectite or montmorillonite
group (water sensitive and
expandable)
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Clay Minerals
3.Illite group (plugs pore throats)
4.Mixed-layer clay minerals
(breaks apart in clumps and
form bridges across pores)

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Extraneous Materials
Foreign materials introduced
during:
Drilling and completion of
wells
Workover operations
Enhanced recovery processes

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Externally Introduced
Particles
Fluid loss control materials
Bentonite
Clays
Mud weighting materials
Calcium carbonate
Barite
Hematite

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Externally Introduced
Particles
Pore bridging materials
Fibers
Resins
Silica
Calcium carbonate
Injection water materials
Bacteria
Sand, clay, silt, asphaltene, wax, polymers
Materials produced by corrosion of tubing
Particulate matter produced by drilling
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Porous Media Realization
Leaky-tube Model
Network Model (Civan, 2003)

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Bundle-of-Leaky-Capillary-
Tubes Model of Porous Media

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Porosity-Permeability Alteration
1.0E-11
1.0E-12
1.0E-13
Permeability, K, mD
1.0E-14
1.0E-15
1.0E-16
1.0E-17
1.0E-18
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Porosity, , fraction

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Formation Damage Causing
Rock-Fluid Interactions
(Bennion and Thomas, 1994)
1. Mobilization, migration, and

deposition of fine particles
(internal or external)
2. Alteration of porous media and
particle surface (absorption,
adsorption, wettability change,
and swelling)
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Rock-Fluid Interactions
(Bennion and Thomas, 1994)
3. Other processes (mud fluid

imbibition, grinding and mashing
of solids, surface glazing)

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Deposition Within Porous
Formation
DEPOSITION FLOW
ENTRAINMENT
TYPICAL HYDRAULIC TUBE

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Shock Phenomena Causing Particle
Detachment and Mobilization
Three Important Criteria:
Critical salt concentration

Critical interstitial fluid velocity
Critical temperature

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Salinity Shock
CSC : Critical salt concentration (Khilar and Fogler, 1983)
Basal Spacing
Salt
Civan (2000, 2001) Concentration
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Particle swelling

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Critical Mobilization Velocity
Gruesbeck and Collins (1982)

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Particles experience more fluid shear
in tortuous paths (Civan, 2006)

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Temperature Shock
Gupta and Civan (1994)

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Small Particles
Deep-bed Filtration
Fluid velocity
decreases with
radial distance
Well Critical
velocity
Hydraulic Tortuous
fracture flow path
Reservoir
region of
well
influence
Suspended Immobile
particles particles
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Particle Deposition
Mechanisms
Pore filling
Surface Pore throat and internal
deposition plugging cake formation

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Valve effect of pore throats
Chang and Civan

(1997) and Ochi and
Vernoux (1998)

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Pore Throat Plugging
Deposition
Dp Dt
Non-bridging
Dt
=
Dp
( )+C
Bridging
B Re p
cr = A 1 e 0 c p uD p
Re p =
( )
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Dislodgement/deposition
at Pore Throats
Flow Reversal

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Particle aggregation kinetics
Diffusion-limited
Reaction-limited

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Medium to Large Particles
External Cake Formation
Large
particles
(Screening)
Medium
particles
(Bridging)

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Filter Cake
Distribution
r, radial direction
Vertical Well
Radial filter cake
Homogeneous thick

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Filter Cake
Distribution
Horizontal Well
Rotation effect
Gravity effect
Non-uniform thick
Gravity direction
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Perforated Wells
y
Uninvaded Zone
Invade
d Zon
Filter e
Cake
Perforation
x
Wellbore

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Hydraulically-Fractured
Wells
y Uninvaded Zone
Invade
d Zon
e
Perforation
x
Wellbore
Filter cake

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Conditions Favorable for
Sand Production
(Hayatdavoudi, 1999)
1. Lack of cementation and loss

of mechanical integrity
2. Small grain size
3. Weak consolidation and
compaction
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Conditions Favorable for
Sand Production
4. Rising water table

Higher water cut
Petrophysical alteration
5. Grain buoyancy effect
6. High flow rate and low
pore fluid pressure
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Sand Liquefaction Criterion
Friction shear-stress > Critical-shear-stress

y

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Massive Sand
Production
(Geilikman and Dusseault, 1994, 1997)
Yielded Intact
Zone Zone
rw R(t) re

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Practical Results
Fluid
Sand
Production
qf Production
Improvement
qs Rate
qo
1.0 qo = flow rate without
sand production
qf = flow rate with
sand production
0 0
0
t 0
t
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Sand Control Methods
(JPT, 1995)
1. Sand control is necessary for

weak formations and high
water influx.
2. Hydraulic fracturing reduces
the flow rate and pressure
gradient to prevent sanding.
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(JPT, 1995)
3. Zone perforation and frac-

packing (gel or water packing)
4. Resin injection for chemical
consolidation
5. Gravel packs, screens, and
slotted liners to filter sand.

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(JPT, 1995)
6. Dropping the water level by special

completion techniques
(Hayatdavoudi, 1999):
a) Horizontal wells
b) Water production from below
the oil/water contact
c) Reducing water-coning.
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Wettability
Definition:
1. Preferential affinity of solid to
fluid phases
2. Tendency of fluids to spread
over solid surface

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Contact Angle
< 90o, strong wettability

> 90o, weak wettability
90o, intermediate wettability
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Wettability Effect
(Durand and Rosenberg, 1988)
Water-wet Oil-wet
(Clay/Oil) (Clay/Oil)
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Wettability Alteration
Oil-wet Water-wet
Site Site
Water
adsorbed
WI
Oil
adsorbed Pore Space
Oil Adsorption
(mg/g)

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Wettability
Wettability alteration can be
detected by capillary pressure
measurement
250oF
Pc 0
100oF

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Particle Migration in Multi-phase Flow

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Fluid-Fluid Interactions
(Amaefule, 1988, and Masikewich and Bennion, 1999)
Emulsion blocking
Inorganic deposition
Organic deposition

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Liquid Phase Entrapment
Filtrates
Water based
Oil based
Condensates
Water
Hydrocarbon

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Phase Entrapment
(Bennion, 2003)
Wetting
phase Wetting
phase
Wetting
phase
Non-wetting
phase

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Relative Permeability
Alteration and Liquid Block
(Keelan and Koepf, 1977)
Before damage After damage
Kr vs. Sw Kr vs. Sw
Shrinking of mobile
fluid saturation range

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Natural and Induced
Scale Damage
(Shaughnessy and Kline, 1983)
2+
Ca + 2 HCO CaCO3( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H 2 0(l )
3
Add incompatible fluid
Induced
Dissolved
al
tur
HCO-3
mol/lt Na
0
Dissolved Ca2+

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Calcite solubility in water
(Segnit et al., 1962)
2+
Ca + 2 HCO3 CaCO3( s ) + H 2O + CO2 ( g )
150 oC
Calcite
200 oC
Solubility
g/kg solution
pCO2
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Saturation Index
(Schneider, 1997)
K ap
SI = log10
K sp
Supersaturated
SI > 0
Saturated
SI = 0 C, Concentration of
aqueous solution, mol/L
SI < 0
Undersaturated

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Organic Deposition
1. Paraffins (dissolved in oil)

2. Asphaltenes (undissolved, but
suspended as a colloid in oil)
3. Resins (peptizing agent,
dissolved in oil, help suspend
asphaltene in oil)
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Organic Deposition
4. Wax: A combined deposit of

paraffins, asphaltenes, resins,
mixed with clays, sand, and
debris (dissolved in oil)

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Asphaltene and Wax
Phase Behavior
(Leontaritis, 1996)
Liquid+Solid Region
(Mostly pressure Upper deposition
boundary Liquid
dependant)
tion ne
Pressure
u r a
Sat oint Li
-P
Bu bb l e
Liquid + Vapor
Lower deposition
boundary
Liquid+Solid+Vapor
Temperature
Region (Pressure and Copyright 2006 by Faruk Civan - 69
Composition dependant) All rights reserved
Electrokinetic Effect
(Mansoori, 1997)
Pipe or Capillary Tube
Streaming Potential
Negative Positive
Difference
Charge Charge
Asphaltene deposits
Asphaltene is positively charged

Oil phase is negatively charged
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Evaluation of Common
Formation Damage Problems
Pore blocking by drilling,

completion, workover, and
injection fluids
Clay hydration, swelling,
dispersion, and pore blocking
resulting from clay-water
reactions

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Evaluation of Common
Formation Damage
Problems
Liquid block resulting from

extraneous water
introduction during drilling,
completion, and workover
Caving and sand production
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Analysis of Core
Damage Data
Permeability
u L
L
K=
P
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Constant-Pressure
Difference Test
1.0
Permeability P-small
ratio,
K/Ko
P-large
0
0
PV-injected
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Core Plugs Wafers
(Acid soak Experiments)
1-inch diameter
0.25-inch thick
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A Simple Linear Core Flow
Testing Set-up
(Doane et al., 1999)
Pressure
Transducer
Core Holder
Fluid Effluent
Reservoir Core
Displacement Annulus
Pump Fluid collector
Pump

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Annular Flow Tester
(Saleh et al., 1997)
Effluent
Fluid
Reservoir Radial Outward
Flow Fluid collector
Pump
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Drilling of Wells
(Yao and Holditch, 1993)
Mud In Mud Out
Mud
Invasion Uninvaded
Zone
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Depth of Filtrate
Invasion
Water mud
Depth of Low-colloid
oil mud
Invasion Oil mud
Copyright 2006 by Faruk Civan -

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Time 79
Saturation Profiles for Mud
Filtrate Invasion
(Yao and Holditch, 1993)
Wellbore
Sw = Swc
Mud Filtrate t1 t2 t3
Cake
Sw = 1- Sor
rw Radial Distance re
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Dynamic Mud Tester
Mud Mud
Pump
Reservoir
Filtrate
Linear
Core
Flow
Effluent
Fluid collector
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Hydraulic Fracturing
Fluids
Water-block
Solids invasion
Leak-off and spurt loss
Clay hydration
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Fracture Flow Tester
(Doane et al., 1999)
Fracture
Flow

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Mitigation Methods
(Masikewich and Bennion, 1999)
Emulsion blocking: Apply demulsifier

Precipitates: Apply wax, scale, and
alkaline control
Migrating clays: Apply cation
Swelling clays: Apply cation or
polymer

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Mitigation Methods
(Masikewich and Bennion, 1999)
Phase trapping and blocking: Apply alcohol,

oil, and interfacial surface tension (IFT)
reducer
Wettability alteration: Apply surfactant
Solid invasion: Apply cake inducing agent

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Treatment
Fluids
(Thomas et al., 1998)
Major Proper Additives

Treatment
= Treating + to control
Fluid Chemical
further damage
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Treatment Fluids
Additives can control:

Corrosion
Sludge formation
Emulsion formation
Organic and inorganic
precipitation

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Treatment Fluids
Additives can control

Homogeneity
Clay stabilization
Interfacial tension
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Fracture
Stimulation
Hydraulic fracturing
Bypass damaged region

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Bypassing Damage by Hydraulic
Fracturing
z
y

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Completion Techniques
Open-hole completions
Cavity completions
Hydraulic fracturing
Frac-and-packs
Horizontal wells

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Reservoir Fluid Pattern- Open Hole
vs. Perforated Cased Hole
Perforation
Well
Invasion Zone
Fluid goes through Fluid bypasses

damaged zone damaged zone
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Perforated Well Flow Efficiency
(Chen and Atkinson, 2001, Yildiz, 2002)
Wellbore radius
Shut density
Shut angle
Perforation depth
Perforation diameter
Crushed zone thickness
Damaged zone thickness Crushed
Reservoir anisotropy zone

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Partial Completion and Deviation
(Al Qahtani and Al Shehri, 2003)
Perforated
Zone
hc
Elevation
zc to mid
point

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Horizontally Fractured Well

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Vertically Fractured Well

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Frac-and-Pack Completion

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Multi-lateral Wells Completion

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Damage Tolerance of Completion
Techniques from Most to Least
(Jahediesfanjani and Civan, 2005)
Long horizontal wells

Short horizontal wells
Horizontally fractured wells
Cavity completions
Vertical wells
Frac-and-Pack completions
Fractured wells
Vertical wells
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Final Remarks
Formation damage mechanisms vary
depending on the well operation
types and reservoir and fluid
conditions.
Oil and gas recovery can be enhanced
by minimizing and controlling of
formation damage.

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Thank you for your attention
Questions?
Discussions?
Comments?

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Formation Damage

FARUK CIVAN, Ph.D.

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Porosity and permeability variation by

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Damaged Region Non-damaged Region

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1. Drilling (emulsion block,

4.Phase trapping and blocking (water

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1. Mineral oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, etc.)

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1. Mobilization, migration, and

3. Other processes (mud fluid

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TYPICAL HYDRAULIC TUBE

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Three Important Criteria:

Critical salt concentration

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Gruesbeck and Collins (1982)

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Gupta and Civan (1994)

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Chang and Civan

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1. Lack of cementation and loss

4. Rising water table

Friction shear-stress > Critical-shear-stress

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1. Sand control is necessary for

3. Zone perforation and frac-

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6. Dropping the water level by special

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< 90o, strong wettability

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Before damage After damage