Types of Solids Encountered in Production Systems

One aspect of flow assurance is managing the precipitation and deposition

of the below types of solids:

Wax

Hydrate

Heavy oil
Terminology:
Precipitation vs. Deposition
Adhesion Cohesion
Fluid Flow

TUBING

Precipitation is the formation of a solid phase out of a liquid phase, f (P, T, x)

Deposition is the formation of a solid layer on a surface

f (shear, surface-particle interaction, P, T, x)

Precipitation is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for Deposition

 Formation of Organic Solids in Deepwater

The Goal of a Flow Assurance

Engineer:

Commingling of The goal of the flow assurance

Incompatible fluids
engineer is to assure that fluids
flow through the system as
Cold deep water
enhances deposition
designed.

Large pressure drops

enhance deposition
Types of Solids Encountered During Production
Solid Effect
Wax Deposition, plugging
Asphaltenes Deposition, plugging
Hydrates Plugging
Scales Deposition, plugging
Sulfur Deposition, plugging
Diamondoids Plugging

Hydrates can create plugging during production (and HSE concern /

burst pipe).
Asphaltene and Wax deposition generates production problems by
plugging the formation and tubing over time (chronic event).
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Waxes

Normal alkanes Iso-alkanes

C18 C36 C18 C36

Also named paraffin wax

Cyclo-alkanes
C30 C60

Also named napthenic wax

Wax & Asphaltene Global Distribution

7
Wax Appearance Phase Diagram

3 2 1

2 LS 1 L 1G
WAT
C
Pressure

3 VLS 2 VL

Temperature
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Asphaltenes

Atom Mass % Asphaltenes constitute a general class

of aromatic-type substances, which are
C 78.0 84.0 % defined on the basis of their solubility.
H 7.0 8.0 % (molar mass range: > 1000)
O 1.1 4.6 %
N 0.8 1.6 %
S 5.0 9.8 %

< Article link - Oilfield Review (2007)

Asphaltenes >
Asphaltenes in the field & SARA Analysis

S A R A
Effect of Composition on Asphaltene Stability

Titration with nC5

or nC7
Asphaltene

Resin
Aromatic
Saturate

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Asphaltene Onset Phase Diagram

12
Solid Phase Boundaries

L-W
L

L-A-W
L-A

L-V-A
L-V-A-W
L-V
L-V-W

Temperature

Solid precipitation is directly linked to :

pressure, temperature and molecular composition

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What Are Hydrates?
Ice like crystals formed from water and light hydrocarbons
(~85 mol% water, ~15 mol% hydrocarbon), which when
agglomerated can block the flow path
Contain as much as 180 volumes (STP) of gas per volume of
hydrate/solid
Can form at temperatures >18C (>65F) when the pressure
is >170 bar (>2,500psi)

14
Hydrates (formed during production OR as natural deposits)

Gas hydrates are crystalline solids composed

of gas molecules trapped inside a rigid
lattice of water molecules.

*Courtesy of the US DOE -

NETL
Hydrates Curves Open pdf file of Temperature at Which
Gas Hydrates Will Freeze (from KATZ)

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Visual Determination of the Hydrate Locus

100 Wt % Methanol
60 0.0
40
20.0 10.0

20



Pressure, MPa

10

4
V-L Locus
2


0.8

0.4


0.2

0.0
8
0.0
4- 0 10 20 30
10
 16000

14000

12000 Wax

10000
Reservoir
Pressure (psia)

Hydrate
8000

6000 Asphaltene

4000
Bubble Point

Flow line
2000

0 50 100 150 200 250

Temperature (F)
Reservoir Water Composition

Main Cations (mg/L)

Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K+

0 - 82000 0 - 68500 5 - 142500 0 - 6900

Other Cations
Sr +, Li+, Ba++, Al+++, NH4+, Fe+++, Pb++, Mn++, Zn++, etc.

Main Anions (mg/L)

HCO3-- SO4-- Cl-
0 - 7500 0 - 7300 3 - 220000
Other Anions
Br -, I-, F -, S--, CO3--, B4O7--, AsO4---, PO4--- , etc.
Scales
Scale is a deposit of salts (inorganic crystalline deposits),
which can occur:

at formation level

in the tubing

in surface equipment
Oilfield Scale Formation Mechanisms
The three main mechanisms by which scales form in the reservoir and production
systems :

A decrease in pressure and/or an increase in temperature reduces the

solubility of salts ( mainly carbonates such as CaCO3).

Mixing of two incompatible brines

Brine evaporation resulting in salt con-

centrations greater than the solubility limit
and leading to salt precipitation (e.g., high
pressure/high-temperature gas wells in
which a dry-gas stream might mix with a
low-rate brine stream, resulting in de-
hydration and, frequently, precipitation
of NaCl).

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Corrosion: Acid Gases (CO2 and H2S)
Acid Gases (CO2 & H2S) when in the presence of water, exhibit
an acidic property which leads to corrosion issues.
CO2 and H2S are generating acids in presence of water:
CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
CO2 + H2O 2H+ + CO3--
H2S + H2O H+ + HS-
H2S + H2O 2H+ + S--

CO2 and H2S are soluble in both oil and water, therefore they
are present in all three phases.
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Sand
Sand is produced from the reservoir for various reasons:
Unconsolidated rocks
Water production
Sudden change in pressure and flow rates
Improper chemical treatment
Overburden stress while pressure decrease

Sand is mainly composed of silica (SiO2) in a Quartz and feldspar form

and other mineral particles.

The main issues are plugging and equipment erosion.

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