What are cooperative and collaborative learning?

Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students te

am together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project. A
group of students discussing a lecture or students from different schools workin
g together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both examples of collabo
rative learning.
image Cooperative learning, which will be the primary focus of this workshop, is
a specific kind of collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students wo
rk together in small groups on a structured activity. They are individually acco
untable for their work, and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed. C
ooperative groups work face-to-face and learn to work as a team.
In small groups, students can share strengths and also develop their weaker skil
ls. They develop their interpersonal skills. They learn to deal with conflict. W
hen cooperative groups are guided by clear objectives, students engage in numero
us activities that improve their understanding of subjects explored.
In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can take place,
three things are necessary. First, students need to feel safe, but also challeng
ed. Second, groups need to be small enough that everyone can contribute. Third,
the task students work together on must be clearly defined. The cooperative and
collaborative learning techniques presented here should help make this possible
for teachers.
Also, in cooperative learning small groups provide a place where:
learners actively participate;
teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
respect is given to every member;
projects and questions interest and challenge students;
diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
research tools such as Internet access are made available;
students are invested in their own learning.
There is an age old adage that says two heads are better than one . Consider colla
boration in recent history: Watson and Crick or Page and Brin (Founders of Goog
le).
But did you know it was a collaborative Computer Club about basic programming at
a middle school that brought together two minds that would change the future of
computing? Yes, those two were of course, Bill Gates and Paul Allen, the found
ers of Microsoft.
Collaborative learning teams are said to attain higher level thinking and preser
ve information for longer times than students working individually. Why is this
so?
Groups tend to learn through discussion, clarification of ideas, and evaluation o
f other s ideas . Perhaps information that is discussed is retained in long term me
mory. Research by Webb suggests that students who worked collaboratively on mat
h computational problems earned significantly higher scores than those who worke
d alone. Plus, students who demonstrated lower levels of achievement improved w
hen working in diverse groups.
Collaborative learning teams are said to attain higher level thinking and pr
eserve information for longer times than students working individually.
Many consider Vygotsky the father of social learning . Vygotsky was an education r
ebel in many ways. Vygotsky controversially argued for educators to assess stud
ents ability to solve problems, rather than knowledge acquisition. The idea of co
llaborative learning has a lot to do with Vygotsky s idea of the zone of proximal d
evelopment . It considers what a student can do if aided by peers and adults. By
considering this model for learning, we might consider collaboration to increase
students awareness of other concepts.
What are some ways to include best practices for collaborative learning in our c
lassroom?
Establish group goals. Effective collaborative learning involves es
tablishment of group goals, as well as individual accountability. This keeps th
e group on task and establishes an unambiguous purpose. Before beginning an ass
ignment, it is best to define goals and objectives to save time.
Keep groups midsized. Small groups of 3 or less lack enough diversi
ty and may not allow divergent thinking to occur. Groups that are too large cre
ate freeloading where not all members participate. A moderate size group of 4-5
is ideal.
Establish flexible group norms. Research suggests that collaborativ
e learning is influenced by the quality of interactions. Interactivity and nego
tiation are important in group learning. In the 1960 s studies by Jacobs and Camp
bell suggested that norms are pervasive, even deviant norms were handed down and
not questioned. If you notice a deviant norm, you can do two things: rotate g
roup members or assist in using outside information to develop a new norm. You
may want to establish rules for group interactions for younger students. Older
students might create their own norms. But remember, given their durable nature
, it is best to have flexible norms. Norms should change with situations so tha
t groups do not become rigid and intolerant or develop sub-groups.
Build trust and promote open communication. Successful interpersona
l communication must exist in teams. Building trust is essential. Deal with e
motional issues that arise immediately and any interpersonal problems before mov
ing on. Assignments should encourage team members to explain concepts thoroughl
y to each other. Studies found that students who provide and receive intricate
explanations gain most from collaborative learning. Open communication is key.
For larger tasks, create group roles. Decomposing a difficult task
into parts to saves time. You can then assign different roles. A great example
in my own classroom was in science lab, fifth grade student assumed different r
oles of group leader, recorder, reporter, and fact checker. The students might
have turns to choose their own role and alternate roles by sections of the assig
nment or classes.
Create a pre-test and post-test. A good way to ensure the group lea
rns together would be to engage in a pre and post-test. In fact, many researche
rs use this method to see if groups are learning. An assessment gives the team
a goal to work towards and ensures learning is a priority. It also allows instr
uctors to gauge the effectiveness of the group. Changes can be made if differen
ces are seen in the assessments over time. Plus, you can use Bloom s taxonomy to f
urther hone in on specific skills. Individuals should also complete surveys eval
uating how well the group functioned. Debriefing is an important component of the
learning process and allows individuals to reflect on the process of group learn
ing.
Consider the learning process itself as part of assessment. Many st
udies such as those by Robert Slavin at Johns Hopkins have considered how cooper
ative learning helps children develop social and interpersonal skills. Experts
have argued that the social and psychological effect on self-esteem and personal
development are just as important as the learning itself. In terms of assessme
nt, it may be beneficial to grade students on the quality of discussion, engagem
ent, and adherence to group norms. Praise younger groups for following collabor
ative learning standards. This type of learning is a process and needs explicit
instruction in beginning stages. Assessing the process itself provides motivat
ion for students to learn how to behave in groups. It shows students that you va
lue meaningful group interactions and adhering to norms.
Consider using different strategies, like the Jigsaw technique. The
jigsaw strategy is said to improve social interactions in learning and support
diversity. The workplace is often like a jigsaw. It involves separating an assi
gnment into subtasks, where individuals research their assigned area. Students
with the same topic from different groups might meet together to discuss ideas b
etween groups. This type of collaboration allows students to become experts in th
eir assigned topic. Students then return to their primary group to educate othe
rs. Here are some easy steps to follow the Jigsaw approach. There are other st
rategies discussed here by the University of Iowa, such as using clusters, buzz
groups, round robin, leaning cells, or fish bowl discussions.
Allow groups to reduce anxiety. When tackling difficult concepts, gr
oup learning may provide a source of support. Groups often use humor and create
a more relaxed learning atmosphere that allow for positive learning experiences
. Allow groups to use some stress-reducing strategies as long as they stay on t
ask.
Establish group interactions. The quality of discussions is a predi
ctor of the achievement of the group. Instructors should provide a model of how
a successful group functions. Shared leadership is best. Students should work
together on the task and maintenance functions of a group. Roles are important
in group development. Task functions include:
Initiating Discussions
Clarifying points
Summarizing
Challenging assumptions/devil s advocate
Providing or researching information
Reaching a consensus.
[ois skin= In post ] Maintenance involves the harmony and emotional well
-being of a group. Maintenance includes roles such as:
sensing group feelings
harmonizing
compromising and encouraging
time-keeping
relieving tension
bringing people into discussion
Use a real world problems. Experts suggest that project-based learni
ng using open-ended questions can be very engaging. Rather than spending a lot
of time designing an artificial scenario, use inspiration from everyday problems
. Real world problems can be used to facilitate project-based learning and often
have the right scope for collaborative learning.
Focus on enhancing problem-solving and critical thinking skills. De
sign assignments that allow room for varied interpretations. Different types of
problems might focus on categorizing, planning, taking multiple perspectives, o
r forming solutions. Try to use a step-by step procedure for problem solving. Ma
rk Alexanderexplains one generally accepted problem-solving procedure:
Identify the objective.
Set criteria or goals.
Gather data.
Generate options or courses of action.
Evaluate the options using data and objectives.
Reach a decision
Implement the decision
Keep in mind the diversity of groups. Mixed groups that include a r
ange of talents, backgrounds, learning styles, ideas, and experiences are best.
Studies have found that mixed aptitude groups tend to learn more from each othe
r and increase achievement of low performers. Rotate groups so students have a
 chance to learn from others.
Groups with an equal number of boys and girls are best. Equally bal
anced gender groups were found to be most effective. Some research suggests tha
t boys were more likely to receive and give elaborate explanations and their sta
nces were more easily accepted by the group. In majority male groups girls were
ignored. In majority girl groups, girls tended to direct questions to the boy
who often ignored them. You may also want to specifically discuss or establish
gender equality as a norm. This may seem obvious, but it is often missed. It m
ay be an issue you may want to discuss with older students.
Use scaffolding or diminished responsibility as students begin to un
derstand concepts. At the beginning of a project, you may want to give more dir
ection than the end. Serve as a facilitator, such as by gauging group interacti
ons or at first, providing a list of questions to consider. Allow groups to grow
in responsibility as times goes on. In your classroom, this may mean allowing
teams to develop their own topics or products as time goes on. After all, incre
ased responsibility over learning is a goal in collaborative learning.
Include different types of learning scenarios. Studies suggests tha
t collaborative learning that focuses on rich contexts and challenging questions
produces higher order reasoning. Assignments can include laboratory work, stud
y teams, debates, writing projects, problem solving, and collaborative writing.
Technology makes collaborative learning easier. Collaboration had t
he same results via technology as in person, increased learning opportunities. T
ry incorporating free savvy tools for online collaboration such as Stixy, an onl
ine shared whiteboard space, Google groups, or Mikogo for online meetings. Be aw
are that some research suggests that more exchanges related to planning rather t
han challenging viewpoints occurred more frequently through online interactions.
This may be because the research used students that did not know one another.
If this is your scenario, you may want to start by having students get to know
each other s backgrounds and ideas beforehand on a blog or chat-board.
Keep in mind the critics. As with any learning strategy, it s importa
nt to have a balanced approach. Cynics usually have a valid point. A recent New
York time article, cites some criticism of collaboration for not allowing enoug
h time for individual, creative thinking. You may allow some individual time to
write notes before the groups begin. This may be a great way to assess an indiv
idual grade.
Be wary of group think . While collaborative learning is a great tool,
it is always important to consider a balanced approach. At times, group harmony
can override the necessity for more critical perspectives. Some new research su
ggests that groups favored the more confident members. Changing up groups can he
lp counter this problem.
Value diversity. Collaborative learning relies on some buy in. Stu
dents need to respect and appreciate each other s viewpoints for it to work. For
instance, class discussions can emphasize the need for different perspectives.
Create a classroom environment that encourages independent thinking. Teach stud
ents the value of multiplicity in thought. You may want to give historical or s
ocial examples where people working together where able to reach complex solutio
ns.
By definition learning is social in nature. Using different mediums, whether it
be books, discussions, technology or projects we study and develop new ideas. W
e impart ideas and share perspectives with others. Collaboration is a learned p
rocess.
If managed correctly, it is powerful tool that can allow educators to tap into n
ew ideas and information.

Characteristics of a Collaborative Classroom

Collaborative classrooms seem to have four general characteristics. The first tw
o capture changing relationships between teachers and students. The third charac
terizes teachers' new approaches to instruction. The fourth addresses the compos
ition of a collaborative classroom.
1. Shared knowledge among teachers and students
In traditional classrooms, the dominant metaphor for teaching is the teacher as
information giver; knowledge flows only one way from teacher to student. In cont
rast, the metaphor for collaborative classrooms is shared knowledge. The teacher
has vital knowledge about content, skills, and instruction, and still provides
that information to students. However, collaborative teachers also value and bui
ld upon the knowledge, personal experiences, language, strategies, and culture t
hat students bring to the learning situation.
Consider a lesson on insect-eating plants, for example. Few students, and perhap
s few teachers, are likely to have direct knowledge about such plants. Thus, whe
n those students who do have relevant experiences are given an opportunity to sh
are them, the whole class is enriched. Moreover, when students see that their ex
periences and knowledge are valued, they are motivated to listen and learn in ne
w ways, and they are more likely to make important connections between their own
learning and "school" learning. They become empowered. This same phenomenon occ
urs when the knowledge parents and other community members have is valued and us
ed within the school.
Additionally, complex thinking about difficult problems, such as world hunger, b
egs for multiple ideas about causes, implications, and potential solutions. In f
act, nearly all of the new curricular goals are of this nature--for example, mat
hematical problem-solving--as are new requirements to teach topics such as AIDS.
They require multiple ways to represent and solve problems and many perspective
s on issues.
2. Shared authority among teachers and students
In collaborative classrooms, teachers share authority with students in very spec
ific ways. In most traditional classrooms, the teacher is largely, if not exclus
ively, responsible for setting goals, designing learning tasks, and assessing wh
at is learned.
Collaborative teachers differ in that they invite students to set specific goals
within the framework of what is being taught, provide options for activities an
d assignments that capture different student interests and goals, and encourage
students to assess what they learn. Collaborative teachers encourage students' u
se of their own knowledge, ensure that students share their knowledge and their
learning strategies, treat each other respectfully, and focus on high levels of
understanding. They help students listen to diverse opinions, support knowledge
claims with evidence, engage in critical and creative thinking, and participate
in open and meaningful dialogue.
Suppose, for example, the students have just read a chapter on colonial America
and are required to prepare a product on the topic. While a more traditional tea
cher might ask all students to write a ten-page essay, the collaborative teacher
might ask students to define the product themselves. Some could plan a videotap
e; some could dramatize events in colonial America; others could investigate ori
ginal sources that support or do not support the textbook chapter and draw compa
risons among them; and some could write a ten-page paper. The point here is twof
old: (1) students have opportunities to ask and investigate questions of persona
l interest, and (2) they have a voice in the decision-making process. These oppo
rtunities are essential for both self-regulated learning and motivation.
3. Teachers as mediators
As knowledge and authority are shared among teachers and students, the role of t
he teacher increasingly emphasizes mediated learning. Successful mediation helps
students connect new information to their experiences and to learning in other
areas, helps students figure out what to do when they are stumped, and helps the
m learn how to learn. Above all, the teacher as mediator adjusts the level of in
formation and support so as to maximize the ability to take responsibility for l
earning. This characteristic of collaborative classrooms is so important, we dev
ote a whole section to it below.
4. Heterogeneous groupings of students
The perspectives, experiences, and backgrounds of all students are important for
enriching learning in the classroom. As learning beyond the classroom increasin
gly requires understanding diverse perspectives, it is essential to provide stud
ents opportunities to do this in multiple contexts in schools. In collaborative
classrooms where students are engaged in a thinking curriculum, everyone learns
from everyone else, and no student is deprived of this opportunity for making co
ntributions and appreciating the contributions of others.
Thus, a critical characteristic of collaborative classrooms is that students are
not segregated according to supposed ability, achievement, interests, or any ot
her characteristic. Segregation seriously weakens collaboration and impoverishes
the classroom by depriving all students of opportunities to learn from and with
each other. Students we might label unsuccessful in a traditional classroom lea
rn from "brighter" students, but, more importantly, the so-called brighter stude
nts have just as much to learn from their more average peers. Teachers beginning
to teach collaboratively often express delight when they observe the insights r
evealed by their supposedly weaker students.
Thus, shared knowledge and authority, mediated learning, and heterogeneous group
s of students are essential characteristics of collaborative classrooms. These c
haracteristics, which are elaborated below, necessitate new roles for teachers a
nd students that lead to interactions different from those in more traditional c
lassrooms.
Teacher Roles in a Collaborative Classroom
Across this nation, teachers are defining their roles in terms of mediating lear
ning through dialogue and collaboration. While mediation has been defined in dif
ferent ways by Reuven Feuerstein, Lev Vygotsky and others, we define mediation h
ere as facilitating, modeling, and coaching. Most teachers engage in these pract
ices from time to time. What is important here is that these behaviors (1) drive
instruction in collaborative classrooms, and (2) have specific purposes in coll
aborative contexts.
Facilitator Facilitating involves creating rich environments and activities for
linking new information to prior knowledge, providing opportunities for collabor
ative work and problem solving, and offering students a multiplicity of authenti
c learning tasks. This may first involve attention to the physical environment.
For example, teachers move desks so that all students can see each other, thus e
stablishing a setting that promotes true discussion. Teacher may also wish to mo
ve their desks from the front of the room to a less prominent space.
Additionally, teachers may structure the resources in the classroom to provide a
diversity of genres and perspectives, to use and build upon cultural artifacts
from the students' homes and communities, and to organize various learning activ
ities. Thus, a collaborative classroom often has a multiplicity of projects or a
ctivity centers using everyday objects for representing numerical information in
meaningful ways and for conducting experiments that solve real problems. These
classrooms also boast a rich variety of magazines, journals, newspapers, audiota
pes, and videos which allow students to experience and use diverse media for com
municating ideas. In Video Conference 1, for example, students were shown invest
igating science concepts using everyday materials, such as paper and straw, foun
d in their neighborhoods.
Facilitating in collaborative classrooms also involves people. Inside the classr
oom, students are organized into heterogeneous groups with roles such as Team Le
ader, Encourager, Reteller, Recorder, and Spokesperson. (See Elizabeth Cohen's w
ork for further elaboration.) Additionally, collaborative teachers work to invol
ve parents and community members. Examples are: A workshop center in New York in
vites parents to come and experience the thinking processes involved in conducti
ng experiments using everyday objects so that they can provide such learning exp
eriences at home (Video Conference 1); teachers in Tucson involve parents and th
e community in academic tasks their students engage in (Video Conference 3), and
rural students in Colorado perform community services such as producing a local
newspaper (Video Conference 5).
Another way that teachers facilitate collaborative learning is to establish clas
srooms with diverse and flexible social structures that promote the sort of clas
sroom behavior they deem appropriate for communication and collaboration among s
tudents. These structures are rules and standards of behaviors, fulfilling sever
al functions in group interaction, and influencing group attitudes. Particular r
ules depend, of course, on the classroom context. Thus, teachers often develop t
hem collaboratively with students and review or change them as needed. Examples
of rules are giving all members a chance to participate, valuing others' comment
s, and arguing against (or for) ideas rather than people. Examples of group func
tions are: asking for information, clarifying, summarizing, encouraging, and rel
ieving tension. To facilitate high quality group interaction, teachers may need
to teach, and students may need to practice, rules and functions for group inter
action.
Finally, teachers facilitate collaborative learning by creating learning tasks t
hat encourage diversity, but which aim at high standards of performance for all
students. These tasks involve students in high-level thought processes such as d
ecision making and problem solving that are best accomplished in collaboration.
These tasks enable students to make connections to real-world objects, events, a
nd situations in their own and an expanded world, and tap their diverse perspect
ives and experiences. Learning tasks foster students' confidence and at the same
time, are appropriately challenging.
Model Modeling has been emphasized by many local and state guidelines as sharing
one's thinking and demonstrating or explaining something. However, in collabora
tive classrooms, modeling serves to share with students not only what one is thi
nking about the content to be learned, but also the process of communication and
collaborative learning. Modeling may involve thinking aloud (sharing thoughts a
bout something) or demonstrating (showing students how to do something in a step
-by-step fashion).
In terms of content, teachers might verbalize the thinking processes they use to
make a prediction about a scientific experiment, to summarize ideas in a passag
e, to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word, to represent and solve a pro
blem, to organize complicated information, and so on. Just as important, they wo
uld also think aloud about their doubts and uncertainties. This type of metacogn
itive thinking and thinking aloud when things do not go smoothly is invaluable i
n helping students understand that learning requires effort and is often difficu
lt for people.
With respect to group process, teachers may share their thinking about the vario
us roles, rules, and relationships in collaborative classrooms. Consider leaders
hip, for example. A teacher might model what he or she thinks about such questio
ns as how to manage the group's time or how to achieve consensus. Similarly, sho
wing students how to think through tough group situations and problems of commun
ication is as invaluable as modeling how to plan an approach to an academic prob
lem, monitoring its progress, and assessing what was learned.
A major challenge in mediating learning is to determine when it is appropriate t
o model by thinking aloud and when it is useful to model by demonstrating. If a
teacher is certain that students have little experience with, say, a mathematica
l procedure, then it may be appropriate to demonstrate it before students engage
in a learning task. (This is not to say that the teacher assumes or states that
there is only one way to perform the procedure. It is also important to allow f
or individual variations in application.) If, on the other hand, the teacher bel
ieves students can come up with the procedure themselves, then he or she might e
lect to ask the students to model how they solved the problem; alternatively the
teacher could give students hints or cues. (See below.)
Coach Coaching involves giving hints or cues, providing feedback, redirecting st
udents' efforts, and helping them use a strategy. A major principle of coaching
is to provide the right amount of help when students need it--neither too much n
or too little so that students retain as much responsibility as possible for the
ir own learning.
For example, a collaborative group of junior high students worked on the economi
c development of several nations. They accumulated a lot of information about th
e countries and decided that the best way to present it was to compare the count
ries. But they were stymied as to how to organize the information so they could
write about it in a paper, the product they chose to produce. Their teacher hint
ed that they use a matrix--a graphic organizer they had learned--to organize the
ir information. When the group finished the matrix, the teacher gave them feedba
ck. In so doing, he did not tell them it was right or wrong, but asked questions
that helped them verbalize their reasons for completing the matrix as they did.
The principle the teacher followed was to coach enough so that students could c
ontinue to learn by drawing on the ideas of other group members.
Student Roles in a Collaborative Classroom
Students also assume new roles in the collaborative classroom. Their major roles
are collaborator and active participator. It is useful to think how these new r
oles influence the processes and activities students conduct before, during, and
after learning. For example, before learning, students set goals and plan learn
ing tasks; during learning, they work together to accomplish tasks and monitor t
heir progress; and after learning, they assess their performance and plan for fu
ture learning. As mediator, the teacher helps students fulfill their new roles.
Goal setting Students prepare for learning in many ways. Especially important is
goal setting, a critical process that helps guide many other before-, during-,
and and after-learning activities. Although teachers still set goals for student
s, they often provide students with choices. When students collaborate, they sho
uld talk about their goals. For example, one teacher asked students to set goals
for a unit on garbage. In one group, a student wanted to find out if garbage is
a problem, another wanted to know what happens to garbage, a third wanted to kn
ow what is being done to solve the problem of garbage. The fourth member could n
ot think of a goal, but agreed that the first three were important and adopted t
hem. These students became more actively involved in the unit after their discus
sion about goals, and at the end of the unit, could better evaluate whether they
had attained them.
Designing Learning Tasks and Monitoring While teachers plan general learning tas
ks, for example, to produce a product to illustrate a concept, historical sequen
ce, personal experience, and so on, students assume much more responsibility in
a collaborative classroom for planning their own learning activities. Ideally, t
hese plans derive in part from goals students set for themselves. Thoughtful pla
nning by the teacher ensures that students can work together to attain their own
goals and capitalize on their own abilities, knowledge, and strategies within t
he parameters set by the teacher. Students are more likely to engage in these ta
sks with more purpose and interest than in traditional classrooms.
Self-regulated learning is important in collaborative classrooms. Students learn
to take responsibility for monitoring, adjusting, self-questioning, and questio
ning each other. Such self-regulating activities are critical for students to le
arn today, and they are much better learned within a group that shares responsib
ility for learning. Monitoring is checking one's progress toward goals. Adjustin
g refers to changes students make, based on monitoring, in what they are doing t
o reach their goals. For example, a group of students decided that the sources o
f information on the Civil War they selected initially were not as useful as the
y had hoped, so they selected new materials. Another group judged that the paper
they had planned to write would not accomplish what they thought it would the w
ay they had organized it, so they planned a new paper.
Students can further develop their self-regulating abilities when each group sha
res its ideas with other groups and gets feedback from them. For example, in the
first video conference, elementary students were shown collaborating in small g
roups to define and represent math problems. Working in small groups, the childr
en determined what was being asked in story problems and thought of ways to solv
e the problems. Then each group shared its ideas with the whole class. Members o
f the class commented on the ideas. As students developed problem-solving skills
with feedback from other groups, they learned more about regulating their own l
earning which they could use in the future.
Assessment While teachers have assumed the primary responsibility for assessing
students' performance in the past, collaborative classrooms view assessment much
more broadly. That is, a major goal is to guide students from the earliest scho
ol years to evaluate their own learning. Thus, a new responsibility is self-asse
ssment, a capability that is fostered as students assess group work.
Self-assessment is intimately related to ongoing monitoring of one's progress to
ward achievement of learning goals. In a collaborative classroom, assessment mea
ns more than just assigning a grade. It means evaluating whether one has learned
what one intended to learn, the effectiveness of learning strategies, the quali
ty of products and decisions about which products reflect one's best work, the u
sefulness of the materials used in a task, and whether future learning is needed
and how that learning might be realized.
Collaborative classrooms are natural places in which to learn self-assessment. A
nd because decisions about materials and group performance are shared, students
feel more free to express doubts, feelings of success, remaining questions, and
uncertainties than when they are evaluated only by a teacher. Furthermore, the s
ense of cooperation (as opposed to competition) that is fostered in collaborativ
e work makes assessment less threatening than in a more traditional assessment s
ituation. Ideally, students learn to evaluate their own learning from their expe
riences with group evaluation.
Interactions in a Collaborative Classroom
The critical role of dialogue in collaborative classrooms has been stressed thro
ughout this Guidebook The collaborative classroom is alive with two-way communic
ation. A major mode of communication is dialogue, which in a collaborative class
room is thinking made public. A major goal for teachers is to maintain this dial
ogue among students.
Consider examples of interactions in collaborative groups. Members discuss their
approaches to solving a math problem, explain their reasoning, and defend their
work. Hearing one student's logic prompts the other students to consider an alt
ernative interpretation. Students are thus challenged to re-examine their own re
asoning. When three students in a group ask a fourth student to explain and supp
ort her ideas, that is, to make her thinking public, she frequently examines and
develops her concepts for herself as she talks. When one student has an insight
about how to solve a difficult problem, the others in the group learn how to us
e a new thinking strategy sooner than if they had worked on their own. Thus, stu
dents engaged in interaction often exceed what they can accomplish by working in
dependently.
Collaborative teachers maintain the same sort of high-level talk and interaction
when a whole class engages in discussion. They avoid recitation, which consists
primarily of reviewing, drilling, and quizzing; i.e., asking questions to which
the answer is known by the teacher and there is only one right answer. In true
discussion, students talk to each other as well as to the teacher, entertain a v
ariety of points of view, and grapple with questions that have no right or wrong
answers. Sometimes both students and the teacher change their minds about an id
ea. In sum, interactions in whole group discussion mirror what goes on in small
groups.
Still a third way interactions differ in collaborative classrooms has been sugge
sted above. Teachers, in their new roles as mediators, spend more time in true i
nteractions with students. They guide students' search for information and help
them share their own knowledge. They move from group to group, modeling a learni
ng strategy for one group, engaging in discussion with another, giving feedback
to still another.
Challenges and Conflicts
When teachers and schools move from traditional to collaborative instruction, se
veral important issues are likely to arise. They are important concerns for teac
hers, administrators, and parents.
Classroom Control Collaborative classrooms tend to be noisier than traditional c
lassrooms. This is a legitimate issue for a number of people. Some teachers beli
eve that noisy classrooms indicate lack of discipline or teacher control. In suc
h situations, they argue, students cannot learn.
Earlier in this essay we stressed that collaborative classrooms do not lack stru
cture. Indeed, structure becomes critical. Students need opportunities to move a
bout, talk, ask questions, and so on. Thus, we argue that the noise in a smoothl
y running collaborative classroom indicates that active learning is going on. Ho
wever, students must be taught the parameters within which they make their choic
es. Rules and standards must be stressed from the beginning, probably before any
collaboration is initiated, and reviewed throughout a school year.
Preparation Time for Collaborative Learning Teachers and administrators may beli
eve that new lesson plans must be formed for these classrooms. To a certain exte
nt, they are correct. But many teachers already have created engaging units and
activities that are easily implemented in a collaborative classroom. Furthermore
, teachers can begin slowly, making changes in one subject area or
unit within a subject area, probably one they are already very comfortable teach
ing, and then add other subjects and units. Teachers can also share their plans
with each other. Indeed, if we expect students to collaborate, we should encoura
ge teachers to do the same! Principals and curriculum specialists can also colla
borate with teachers to plan effective segments of instruction. Moreover, there
is a tradeoff between the extra planning time needed and benefits such as less t
ime correcting lessons, increased student motivation, and fewer attendance and d
iscipline problems.
Individual Differences Among Students We have touched on this concern in the sec
tion on heterogeneous grouping. Nevertheless, many people will still doubt that
individual differences can be better addressed in collaborative classrooms than
in traditional classrooms with homogeneous grouping.
A major question people have concerns the advantage collaboration affords gifted
or high-achieving students. There are two tough issues here. First, many teache
rs do not believe that low-achieving students have much to contribute to the lea
rning situation; in effect, that they have no prior experiences or knowledge of
value. Second, teachers worry that high-achieving students will be held back.
In response to the first issue, many collaborative teachers have expressed surpr
ise when seemingly less-able students had insights and ideas that went way beyon
d what teachers expected. Further, if each student contributes something, the po
ol of collective knowledge will indeed be rich. In answer to the second concern,
data suggest that high-achieving students gain much from their exposure to dive
rse experiences and also from peer tutoring (e.g., Johnson and Johnson, 1989). A
lso, students who may be high achieving in one area may need help in other areas
.
Teachers and others also wonder whether shy students can fully participate in a
classroom that depends so much on dialogue. We suggest that these students might
feel more comfortable talking in small groups that share responsibility for lea
rning. Furthermore, interaction between learners can happen in ways other than o
ral dialogue, for example, writing and art.
A related concern is that many schools are structured homogeneously so that an i
ndividual teacher cannot form heterogeneous groups without involving changes in
the entire school. A whole class of "low" readers are taught by one teacher, "av
erage" by another. High school tracks are even more systematically entrenched. C
learly, these practices are not conducive to collaborative learning and require
system-wide restructuring. Individual teachers or groups of teachers can initiat
e dialogue on the problem, however.
Individual Responsibility for Learning This concern is a difficult one to solve
unless major changes in other areas of schooling are also undertaken. Students a
re used to being graded for individual work; parents expect to know how their st
udents fare in school. School staff and state departments depend on traditional
assessments. In collaborative classrooms, it is often difficult to assign indivi
dual grades. Some teachers give group grades, but many students and parents are
uncomfortable with these.
Ideally, assessment practices should be changed so that they are consistent with
collaboration, with a new view of learning and with a thinking curriculum. Vide
o Conference 4 addresses recent research and practice on assessment. In the mean
time, effective ways have been developed whereby individual students can be eval
uated in collaborative classrooms. For example, David Johnson and Roger Johnson,
as well as Robert Slavin, advise making individuals responsible for subtasks in
group work and then determining both group and individual grades.
Conflict of Values Susan Florio-Ruane has observed that many teachers do not fee
l comfortable allowing students to initiate dialogue, determine topics, or explo
re perspectives other than the teacher's. This reluctance conflicts with the way
effective caregivers teach their children in the home. Florio-Ruane and others,
such as Annemarie Palincsar, have found that teachers often have difficulty hel
ping students construct meaning, especially linking the new information to the p
rior knowledge and culture of the students. In part this is because many teacher
s believe that their role is to transmit knowledge; in part it is because they a
re held accountable for teaching discrete skills. In one poignant example, a stu
dent teacher's concern for grammar and punctuation prevented her from seeing the
sophistication and meaning in what the child was actually communicating in a bo
ok report.
The reluctance people feel when asked to make major changes in the way they do t
hings is clearly the most serious issue of those discussed here. Hardly a person
exists who eagerly gives up familiar ways of behaving to attempt something that
is unknown and is likely to have many challenges of implementation.
This problem requires leadership, support, and time to address. Staff developmen
t needs to address teachers' concerns. We urge that educators first examine thei
r assumptions about learning and then consider new curriculum guidelines. There
is an intimate relationship among one's definition of learning, one's view of th
e content and scope of curricula, and instructional practices. Examining one's a
ssumptions honestly and forthrightly, in a supportive group, often spurs educato
rs to change. The already-convinced must allow time for the less-convinced to re
flect and grapple with implications for the views expressed in this Guidebook Th
ey must also accept the possibility that some educators may not change. We are u
rging that students be treated with such respect; we must urge the same respect
for adults.
What Is the Research Base for Collaborative Learning?
Vygotskian Theory
Vygotsky, a developmental theorist and researcher who worked in the 1920s and ea
rly '30s, has influenced some of the current research of collaboration among stu
dents and teachers and on the role of cultural learning and schooling. His princ
ipal premise is that human beings are products not only of biology, but also of
their human cultures. Intellectual functioning is the product of our social hist
ory, and language is the key mode by which we learn our cultures and through whi
ch we organize our verbal thinking and regulate our actions. Children learn such
higher functioning from interacting with the adults and other children around t
hem.
Inner Speech Children learn when they engage in activities and dialogue with oth
ers, usually adults or more capable peers. Children gradually internalize this d
ialogue so that it becomes inner speech, the means by which they direct their ow
n behavior and thinking. For example, as adults use language such as, "That piec
e does not fit there; let's try it someplace else," children may initially just
imitate this strategy. However, they gradually use it to regulate their own beha
vior in a variety of contexts. Eventually, this dialogue becomes internalized as
inner speech.
There seems to be a general sequence in the development of speech for oneself. W
hen alone, very young children tend to talk about what they have done after they
complete an activity. Later, they talk as they work. Finally, they talk to them
selves before they engage in an activity. Speech now has assumed a planning func
tion. Later they internalize this speech. Inner speech--conversations we carry o
n with ourselves begins as a social dialogue with other people and is a major mo
de of learning, planning, and self-regulation.
Various experiments demonstrate this self-regulating function of inner speech. V
ygotsky reasoned that when people are asked to solve difficult problems or to pe
rform difficult tasks, inner speech will go external, that is, take its more pri
mitive form. In other words, people frequently talk to themselves when they face
a problem. This externalization of inner speech is often observed in children.
When they engage in familiar, simple activities, they usually do so without talk
, but faced with difficult tasks, they may whisper or talk out loud to themselve
s. Adults do this, too. When they are faced with perplexing or unfamiliar tasks
such as figuring out how to work a VCR--they often talk themselves through such
tasks.
Vygotsky noted that children interacting toward a common goal tend to regulate e
ach other's actions. Other researchers (e.g., Forman & Cazden, 1986) have observ
ed that when students work together on complex tasks, they assist each other in
much the same way adults assist children. In such tasks, dialogue consists of mu
tual regulation. Together, they can solve difficult problems they cannot solve w
orking independently.
Scaffolding and Development Effective caregivers engage in regulating dialogue w
ith children almost naturally. A key phenomenon of such interactions is that car
egivers maintain the dialogue just above the level where children can perform ac
tivities independently. As children learn, adults change the nature of their dia
logue so that they continue to support the child but also give the child increas
ing responsibility for the task (for example, the adult might say, "Now see if y
ou can find the next piece of the puzzle yourself."). Jerome Bruner and his coll
eagues called this scaffolding. It takes place within a child's zone of proximal
development, a level or range in which a child can perform a task with help. (P
iaget refers to this as "teachable moments" when adults stretch a child's capaci
ty, but stay within what they are capable of understanding.)
The zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and dialogue are especially usefu
l concepts or frameworks for school learning. Vygotsky observed that effective t
eachers plan and carry out learning activities within children's zones of proxim
al development, through dialogue and scaffolding. Florio-Ruane drew five maxims
from studies of caregiver-child interactions that illustrate these points and sh
ould characterize school instruction.
1. Assume the child (learner) is competent
2. Know the child (learner)
3. Share an interest in the task at hand with the child (learner)
4. Follow the child's (learner's) lead
5. Capitalize on uncertainty
Very few teachers have the luxury of teaching children on a one-to-one basis. Fo
rtunately, we now know that tutoring is not, in fact, the only--or even the best
--way for students to learn in most situations. Dialogue, scaffolding, and worki
ng in one's zone of proximal development can be accomplished in collaborative cl
assrooms, and are being accomplished in many classrooms today.
Connecting school learning to everyday life Vygotsky also provides us with a fra
mework for thinking about an important function of teaching and the multicultura
l perspective. His research suggests that school learning enables students to co
nnect their "everyday concepts" to "scientific concepts." In other words, school
s help students draw generalizations and construct meaning from their own experi
ences, knowledge, and strategies. Knowledge learned in the community and knowled
ge gained from school are both valuable. Neither can be ignored if students are
to engage in meaningful learning.
Effective teachers help students make these connections by scaffolding and dialo
gue. In fact, these are the essence of mediating. Teachers plan learning activit
ies at points where students are challenged. Teachers plan activities and experi
ments that build on the language of students' everyday lives through familiar ex
amples and behaviors, analogies and metaphors, and the use of commonly found mat
erials. Teachers demonstrate, do parts of the task students cannot do, work coll
aboratively with students where they need help, and release responsibility to st
udents when they can perform the task independently.
Other Research
A number of researchers in recent years have demonstrated the high degree of lea
rning possible when students can collaborate in learning tasks and when they use
 their own knowledge as a foundation for school learning. While there are many t
hat we could cite, we have chosen three different perspectives here: Luis Moll's
work on teachers' use of successful cultural patterns in Mexican-American famil
ies; Annemarie Palincsar's and Anne Brown's work on scaffolding, dialogue, and r
eciprocal teaching; and research on cooperative learning. Later we provide addit
ional research in content area examples.
Luis Moll Moll, an educator, and his colleagues in anthropology, Carlos Velez-lb
anez and James Greenberg, have studied Mexican-American families who have surviv
ed successfully in spite of debilitating circumstances such as poverty and discr
imination. Particular constellations of cultural patterns--strategies if you wil
l-- that value learning and the transmission of knowledge to children distinguis
h these families. Moll et al. argue that schools can draw on the social and cogn
itive contributions that parents can make to their children's academic learning.
Moll and his colleagues discovered that Mexican-American households are clustere
d according to kinship ties and exchange relationships. These clusters of househ
olds develop rich funds of knowledge that provide information about practices an
d resources useful in ensuring the well-being of the households. Each household
in the cluster is a place where expertise in a particular domain can be accessed
and used; examples of domains include repair of vehicles and appliances, plumbi
ng, knowledge of education, herbal medicine, and first aid. Together, the househ
olds form a cluster for the exchange of information and resources. Often, everyo
ne seems to congregate at one core household.
Families create settings in which children carry out the tasks and chores in the
multiple domains of clustered households. The children's activities have import
ant intellectual consequences. They observe, question, and assist adults as vari
ous tasks are done. For example, the son may indicate interest in fixing a car b
y asking questions. The father takes his cue from the child and then decides whe
ther or not the child is capable of doing a task; if not, he may suggest a task
that the child can accomplish. Even though the son's help may be minimal, such a
s helping to put in screws or checking the oil, his participation in the whole t
ask is encouraged as an essential part of learning. He is allowed to attempt tas
ks and to experiment without fear of punishment if he fails. In such families, l
earning and questioning are in the hands of the child.
With time children develop expertise as well. They have many opportunities in th
e cluster of households to apply what they have learned to tasks of their own de
sign. For example, the son may have a workplace where there are many "junk" engi
nes that he can manipulate and with which he can experiment. He may use what he
has learned in observing and assisting his father to rebuild a small engine for
a "go-cart" he is constructing.
Moll and his colleagues are exploring ways of using the community to enrich chil
dren's academic development. To accomplish this, teachers have developed an afte
r-school laboratory. One teacher created a module on constructing houses which i
s a theme of great interest to the students in this teacher's classroom and also
one of the most prominent funds of knowledge found in the students' households.
The students started by locating information on building or construction in the
library. As a result of their research, they built a model house or other struc
ture as homework and wrote reports describing their research and explaining thei
r construction. To extend this activity, the teacher invited parents and other c
ommunity members who were experts to share information on specific aspects of co
nstruction. For example, one parent described his use of construction tools and
how he measured the area and perimeter of his work site. Thus, the teacher was m
obilizing the funds of knowledge in the community to achieve the instructional g
oals that she and her students had negotiated together.
The students then took the module one step further. They wanted to consider how
they could combine these individual structures to form a community. This task re
quired both application of their earlier learnings and considerable research. St
udents went out to do research, wrote summaries of their findings, and shared th
e results orally with others in the class. Thus, students fulfilled their own in
terests and designed the learning task, while the teacher facilitated and mediat
ed the learning process and fulfilled her curricular goal of teaching language a
rts.
Palincsar and Brown Palincsar and Brown have applied Vygotsky's theories about d
ialogue and scaffolding to classroom instruction. They reasoned that if the natu
ral dialogue that occurs outside of school between a child and adult is so power
ful for promoting learning, it ought to promote learning in school as well. In p
articular, they were interested in the planning and self-regulation such dialogu
e might foster in learners as well as the insights teachers might gain about the
ir students' thinking processes as they engage in learning tasks. In addition, d
ialogue among students might be especially effective for encouraging collaborati
ve problem solving.
Palincsar and Brown noted that, in contrast to effective adult-child interaction
s outside of school, classroom talk does not always encourage students to develo
p self-regulation. Thus, a goal of their research was to find ways to make dialo
gue a major mode of interaction between teachers and students to encourage self-
regulated learning.
Their classroom research revealed increased self-regulation in classrooms where,
subsequent to training, dialogue became a natural activity. Within a joint dial
ogue, teachers modeled thinking strategies effectively, apparently in part becau
se students felt free to express uncertainty, ask questions, and share their kno
wledge without fear of criticism. The students gave the teachers clues, so to sp
eak, as to the kind of learning they were ready for. For example, one student in
terrupted her teacher when she did not understand something the teacher was read
ing. The teacher took this opportunity to model a clarifying strategy. (It also
would have been appropriate to have asked other students to model the process.)
In a number of classrooms, students freely discussed what they knew about topics
, thus revealing persistent misconceptions. Such revelations do not always happe
n in more traditional classrooms. Furthermore, teachers helped students change t
heir misconceptions through continued dialogue.
One particular application was in reading comprehension for students identified
as poor readers. The researchers proposed that poor readers have had impoverishe
d experiences with reading for meaning in school and concluded that they might l
earn comprehension strategies through dialogue. To encourage joint responsibilit
y for dialogue, they asked students to take increasing responsibility for leadin
g discussion, i.e., to act as the teacher. This turn-taking is called reciprocal
teaching.
The four comprehension strategies that are stressed are: predicting, question ge
nerating, summarizing, and clarifying. The "teacher" leads dialogue about the te
xt. Predicting activates students' prior knowledge about the text and helps them
make connections between new information and what they already know, and gives
them a purpose for reading. Students also learn to generate questions themselves
rather than responding only to teacher questions. Students collaborate to accom
plish summarizing, which encourages them to integrate what they have learned. Cl
arifying promotes comprehension monitoring. Students share their uncertainties a
bout unfamiliar vocabulary, confusing text passages, and difficult concepts.
Reciprocal teaching has been successful, but only when teachers believe the unde
rlying assumption that collaboration among teachers and students to construct me
aning, solve problems, and so forth, leads to higher quality learning. Believing
this is only a beginning. Engaging in true dialogue requires practice for both
teachers and students. However, the principles of collaborative dialogue and sca
ffolding for purposes of self-regulated learning ought to be effective across ma
ny content areas. What may differ, of course, are the critical specific strategi
es for different subject areas. For example, defining problems seems critical in
mathematics; judging the reliability of resources appears important in social s
tudies; and seeking empirical evidence is essential in science. In fact, Palincs
ar is currently investigating problem solving in science.
Cooperative Learning Cooperation, a form of collaboration, is "working together
to accomplish shared goals" (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, p. 2). Whereas collaborati
on happens in both small and large groups, cooperation refers primarily to small
groups of students working together. Many teachers and whole schools are adopti
ng cooperation as the primary structure for classroom learning.
Research strongly supports the advantages of cooperative learning over competiti
on and individualized learning in a wide array of learning tasks. Compared to co
mpetitive or individual work, cooperation leads to higher group and individual a
chievement, higher-quality reasoning strategies, more frequent transfer of these
from the group to individual members, more metacognition, and more new ideas an
d solutions to problems. In addition, students working in cooperative groups ten
d to be more intrinsically motivated, intellectually curious, caring of others,
and psychologically healthy. That is not to say that competition and individual
work should not be valued and encouraged, however. For example, competition is a
ppropriate when there can be only one winner, as in a sports event, and individu
alistic effort is appropriate when the goal is personally beneficial and has no
influence on the goals of others.
Unfortunately, simply putting students in groups and letting them go is not enou
gh to attain the outcomes listed above. Indeed, many teachers and schools have f
ailed to implement cooperation because they have not understood that cooperative
skills must be learned and practiced, especially since students are used to wor
king on their own in competition for grades. At least three conditions must prev
ail, according to Johnson and Johnson, if cooperation is to work. First, student
s must see themselves as positively interdependent so that they take a personal
responsibility for working to achieve group goals. Second, students must engage
in considerable face-to-face interaction in which they help each other, share re
sources, give constructive feedback to each other, challenge other members' reas
oning and ideas, keep an open mind, act in a trustworthy manner, and promote a f
eeling of safety to reduce anxiety of all members. Heterogeneous groups of stude
nts usually accomplish this second condition better than do homogeneous groups.
The third condition, effective group process skills, is necessary for the first
two to prevail. In fact, group skills are never "mastered." Students continually
need to reflect on their interactions and evaluate their cooperative work. For
example, students need to learn skills both for accomplishing tasks, such as sum
marizing and consensus taking, and for maintaining group cohesiveness, such as e
nsuring that everyone has a chance to speak and compromising.
Some people, such as Slavin, have developed specific cooperative learning method
s that emphasize individual responsibility for group members. While groups still
work to achieve common goals, each member fulfills a particular role or accompl
ishes an individual task. Teachers can then assess both group and individual wor
k.
Difficult as it may be to implement cooperative learning, those who have are ent
husiastic. (See the example from Joliet West High School in the next section.) T
hey see improved learning, more effective social skills, and higher self-esteem
for most of their students. In addition, they recognize that our changing world
demands more and more cooperation among individuals, communities, and nations, a
nd that they are indeed preparing students for this world.
What Are Other Examples of Collaborative Instruction?
The Kamehameha Early Education Program
Some teachers in Hawaiian classrooms, in cooperation with researchers such as Ka
therine Au, have developed a way to teach elementary reading, Experience-Text-Re
lationship (ETR), that focuses on comprehension and draws on the strengths of th
e Hawaiian culture. The basic element of the ETR method is discussion of a text
and topics related to the text, especially students' own experiences.
Teachers conduct discussion of stories in three phases. First, they guide studen
ts to activate what they know that will help them understand what they read, mak
e predictions, and set purposes. This is the Experience phase. Next, they read t
he story with the students, stopping at appropriate points to discuss the story,
determine whether their predictions were confirmed, and so on. This is the Text
phase. After they have finished the story, teachers guide students to relate id
eas from a text to their own experiences. This is the Relationship phase. Teache
rs facilitate comprehension, model processes, and may coach students as they eng
age in reading and comprehension activities.
Hawaiians engage in "talk story" as a favored way to narrate stories. While some
cultures expect only one person to relate a story, Hawaiians cooperate by takin
g turns relating small parts of a story. Encouraging such strategies in reading
lessons promotes collaboration among students and the teacher and involves, indi
rectly, the community as well. (Cooperation among family and group members is al
so important in other aspects of the culture.) As a result, the ETR method not o
nly attends to students' experiences related to the content of a text, but also
honors communication strategies students have learned in their own cultures.
Content Area Reading Harold Herber developed a set of teaching strategies for co
ntent area reading for older students, particularly high school students, in whi
ch teachers show students how to comprehend text through simulation (modeling an
d facilitating) rather than asking recitation questions that merely assess wheth
er students have understood a text.
In addition, use of small, heterogeneous, collaborative groups in content area r
eading increases students' involvement in learning. They are more willing to tak
e risks and to learn new strategies and ideas from their peers. Teachers who use
Herber's strategies report that all students seem to benefit from collaborative
work. They find that it is critical, however, to teach students how to work in
groups.
Process Writing The process writing approach we describe here was developed in a
rural school in New Hampshire under the direction of Donald Graves. It has been
incorporated in many elementary school classrooms but is just as appropriate fo
r older children.
Process writing teachers who use Graves' approach make certain assumptions about
students and the writing process. One is that students have worthwhile ideas to
communicate in writing. Another is that when students select their own topics t
hey will learn more about writing than if teachers always assign topics. A third
is that writing should be read by real audiences, that is, that writing is cons
tructing meaning by a community of writers and readers.
Both teachers and students engage in writing as a craft. Teachers' main function
s are to facilitate, model, and coach. Students dialogue with other students in
conferences and as part of an audience. The mode of interaction is collaboration
among students and the teacher.
Teachers fulfill their mediating roles in many ways. They facilitate by providin
g time to write every day and by setting standards with the students for confere
ncing, sharing, and being an audience. They model by writing along with the stud
ents and thinking aloud about how to solve problems writers encounter such as se
lecting topics and making revisions. Coaching often takes place in teacher-stude
nt conferences, and student-student conferences mirror the teacher-student confe
rence. Conferences are conceptualized as dialogues between an editor and an auth
or. The "editor" might point out places where the author's writing works especia
lly well, or might point out a confusing passage that the author could revise. G
raves provides many practical guidelines for, and examples of, successful confer
encing.
Many important interactions are promoted in process writing. Students work on th
eir own, but also share their writing with other students and the teacher. When
a student decides to share his or her work with the whole class, he or she is tr
eated as a real author. Questions that other students ask the student author wou
ld be the same ones they might ask a "real" author; for example, "Where did you
get your idea for that story?" When students feel a piece is finished, they publ
ish it and place it on the classroom shelves alongside books by their peers and
"real" authors.
Finding Mathematical Patterns Mathematics is full of opportunities for students
to collaborate on tasks that require complex thinking. Well-designed problems re
quire interpretation, allow for multiple solution strategies, and have solutions
that can be debated, extended, and generalized to other contexts. Thomas Good a
nd his colleagues at the University of Missouri-Columbia have identified exempla
ry practices in small-group mathematics instruction.
As an illustration, they summarize a lesson developed by a third-grade teacher.
She began the lesson by asking the whole class all the different ways of writing
3 as a sum (for example, 1 + 1 + 1, 2 + 1, 3 + 0). She wrote the responses on t
he board and noted the number of possibilities. She then asked students to work
in pairs to identify all the ways to make sums of 4. The teacher encouraged the
students to confer and pool solutions to determine whether they had found all po
ssible solutions. Next she asked small groups of students to consider the number
5. Before the groups started, she asked them to predict how many solutions ther
e would be. With enthusiasm and excitement, the groups competed to find the grea
test number of solutions, and much task-related conversation ensued. The teacher
then led a follow-up discussion, asking each group to describe the system it ha
d used to generate possible solutions. The class then decided which system they
thought was best.
The teacher then helped students look for patterns in the numbers of solutions f
or 3, 4, and 5. Next, she asked them to use their "best" system to generate all
possible patterns for the number 6. Again, she asked if a pattern was apparent a
nd if they could use it to predict solutions for the number 7. Several suggestio
ns were made, but no conclusions agreed on. She ended by encouraging students to
think more about this problem.
Application in Mathematics. As part of the University of Chicago School Mathemat
ics Project, a complete mathematics curriculum has been developed for average st
udents in grades 7-12. Development of this curriculum, which began in 1983, is u
nder the direction of Zalman Usiskin and Sharon Senk, and has involved school pe
rsonnel at every stage of planning, writing, and testing. The curriculum aims to
prepare students for an age in which mathematics has an integral role in contem
porary issues, communication, and commerce, as well as its traditional role in s
cience, engineering, and technology. Curricular content focuses on using mathema
tics to solve real-world problems.
For example, instead of being asked to find a solution to an abstract "problem"
such as 400 divided by 11.3, students might be asked, "Suppose a car goes 400 mi
les between gas fill-ups and it takes 11.3 gallons to fill up the tank. What has
 been the mileage per gallon?" In classes where this question is asked and the a
nswer (about 35.4 miles per gallon) is found, there are natural questions such a
s: "Why is this number important?" "Is this possible - do cars get this much mil
eage? If so, what cars do?" "What is a good gas mileage these days?" "How much l
ess gas would be used on a 10,000-mile trip by a car averaging 35 miles per gall
on than a car averaging 25 miles per gallon? How much less would it cost?"
This emphasis on using mathematics to solve real-world problems forces the curri
culum to make use of technology. The use of technology--in this case, a calculat
or - enables the teacher and students to be more efficient in using math to solv
e problems, freeing up the time formerly spent in calculation for solving additi
onal problems relevant to students' lives. In the School Mathematics Project, sc
ientific calculators are required in all courses because they are available to a
lmost anyone who uses mathematics in the world outside of school. Computer work
is recommended in all courses and is required in one advanced course because the
content--functions and statistics is not covered adequately today unless one ha
s automatic graphic and data handling capabilities.
In these ways, instruction is changed not because of an a priori decision to use
collaborative groups or cooperative learning but because the content and techno
logy lend themselves to discussion and teamwork. Students are usually not satisf
ied merely with a right/wrong answer to an interesting problem; they wish to dis
cuss it, they want to share their methods of solution, and they want to know whe
ther others thought the same way. One of the salient findings from the testing o
f this curriculum is that students no longer ask, "How does this topic apply to
the real world?" or "Why am I studying this?"
In the algebra curriculum, Usiskin and Senk have included only those "word probl
ems" that show the importance of mathematics in today's world. The curriculum de
velopers point out the pitfalls of problems such as the following, often found i
n algebra texts: "Reversing the two digits in the cost of an item, a salesperson
overcharges a customer by 27 cents. If the sum of the digits was 15, what was t
he original cost of the item?" Such problems violate two principles of applicati
on of mathematics. First, they are reverse given-find, in that one has to know t
he answer before one can make up the question. In the real world, one would neve
r solve a problem for which one already as solution. Second, such problems are e
asier to solve with arithmetic than algebra. Usiskin, Senk, and the teachers the
y work with believe it is because of these two weaknesses that such "word proble
ms" are viewed with such antipathy that many students ask why they are studying
the subject. Mathematics, Usiskin, points out, has been invented to do things mo
re easily, not to make things more difficult.
The School Mathematics Project teaches algebraic concepts using real-world probl
ems. For example, linear equations are taught with a wide variety of constant in
crease or constant decrease problems, such as, "The population of the province o
f Quebec in Canada was 6,398,000 in 1980. If the population is increasing by 40,
000 people per year, find an equation relating the population to the year." An e
xample of a linear combination problem is: "If you eat a quarter-pounder which h
as 80 calories per ounce, how many 111-calorie French fries can you eat if you d
on't want your lunch to exceed 500 calories?" An example involving data that nee
ds a line graph is: "Given the latitudes and mean April temperatures of some cit
ies in the northern hemisphere, find an equation approximately relating latitude
and temperature. Graph this equation. Explain why the point for Mexico City fal
ls far from the line." Similar problems are used to teach other concepts in alge
bra and other courses. The goal of the curriculum developers is to show that it
is important not only to have skills, to see the relationships among mathematica
l ideas, and to represent these ideas concretely or pictorially, but also to see
why mathematics is so important in so many ways in today's world.
Joliet West High School, Joliet, IL Joliet is a community of approximately 100,0
00 people diverse in terms of racial background and income level. Whites, blacks
, and Hispanics reside in Joliet. It is home to families living in poverty as we
ll as families living in affluence. In the mid-'80s, Joliet West High school had
a high failure rate (37 percent of the freshmen class failed one or more classe
s) and a high rate of referrals for discipline problems. Determined to equip stu
dents with knowledge and skills to succeed both in school and out, the high scho
ol instituted a cooperative learning program exemplifying collaborative instruct
ion.
Basic to Joliet West High School's program are the TEAM (Together Each Accomplis
hes More) Seminars in which all freshmen participate daily. Seminars provide stu
dents with opportunities to experience small-group, cooperative learning. While
learning problem-solving and decision-making skills, students, grouped heterogen
eously with regard to race, economic level, and ability, begin to appreciate div
erse cultures, attitudes, and abilities. TEAM also involves the community: Local
hospital staff talk with freshmen about stress management and drug abuse preven
tion; other community members introduce students to career possibilities.
Aware that collaboration promotes learning in many settings, Joliet West High Sc
hool trains many of its content-area teachers to make their classrooms communiti
es of collaboration. In English, history, foreign language, and industrial techn
ology, for example, students collaborate in small groups or as an entire classro
om; they share prior knowledge, set learning goals, monitor their progress, and
share responsibility for results. Heterogeneous grouping may team students from
various socioeconomic groups and students with varying experiential backgrounds.
Gifted students and former Special Education students may collaborate. Classroo
ms are open communities where all ideas are welcome; students challenge each oth
er and share positive criticism. Teachers offer positive reinforcement and commu
nicate successes to parents.
Collaborative techniques extend to discipline. Student groups, trained in mediat
ion and arbitration, counsel students who are habitually tardy or disruptive.
Joliet's success is evident not only in academic performance, but also in studen
t attitudes, motivation, and self-esteem. Since the program's inception three ye
ars ago, the number of students earning grades in the A to C level has increased
by 20 percent, and there has been a significant reduction in the number of fail
ures among the academically at-risk group. Teacher comments illustrate other typ
es of gains: "I use it in auto technology. Students change oil in triads: one pi
cks up the tools, one puts them away, while one actually does the job. All watch
and are responsible that the job is done properly." "I find that there seem to
be fewer disciplinary referrals on the freshman level." "In freshman seminar my
students are forming their own groups to study before major tests. They quiz eac
h other. They enjoy working together so much, they have even made up their own g
ames and asked me to be part of their group."
Student comments may be the most insightful: "I really like sharing answers. I n
ever shared answers before." "I really like working in groups because you can br
ing your grade up." "While working in groups there are no arguments. If you disa
gree with someone you find a way to solve the problem." "I learned not to argue
and always help out and share ideas that you think of and do not start fights."
"Working with groups is fun because you get to share your facts with someone els
e."
Beaupre Elementary School, Aurora, IL This school's student population is approx
imately 44 percent Hispanic, 46 percent black, 9 percent white, and 1 percent As
ian. Most students are members of low-income families. Just a few years ago, man
y Aurora citizens had few expectations of Beaupre students. The community regard
ed many students as little more than troublemakers. School personnel were frustr
ated with their students' lack of learning success, particularly in reading.
All that has changed. The program that made all the difference is called Reading
, Reading, Everywhere. Far more than a reading program, it demonstrates how coll
aboration within the classroom, the school, and the community can produce succes
sful learners.
Rather than continuing to rely on homogeneous grouping and entirely on basal rea
ders, Beaupre adopted a whole-language approach and collaborative learning. The
curriculum provides students with opportunities to read many types of literature
by authors from various cultural backgrounds, opportunities to visit the public
library, and diverse writing experiences. An instructional technique known as K
-W-L was introduced in classrooms.
Teachers activate students' prior knowledge by asking them what they already KNO
W; then students (collaborating as a classroom unit or within small groups) set
goals specifying what they WANT to learn; and, after reading, students discuss w
hat they have LEARNED. Students apply higher-order thinking strategies which hel
p them construct meaning from what they read and help them monitor progress towa
rd their goals.
At Beaupre, students often work in cooperative group~ in which each student has
a specific responsibility--to complete a product such as a story map. Fifth- and
sixth-grade teachers have seen how effectively peer influence regulates behavio
r when group members must cooperate to complete a science experiment or other ty
pe of assignment.
Beaupre has gained respect in the community by utilizing the talents of communit
y members to further stimulate learning. Among the numerous collaborative effort
s are: visits to senior centers where youngsters and senior citizens read to eac
h other; visits to early education centers where Beaupre students share their kn
owledge with the toddlers; a homework lab operated by teenagers and seniors from
a local church; and an Urban League tutoring program operated by parents and hi
gh school students. A program exemplifying collaboration as well as a whole-lang
uage approach is the school's Read Aloud program. Students in each classroom wri
te to community members inviting them to be the "community reader" for the day.
Community members of various ethnic groups and occupations have accepted invitat
ions and serve as role models for the students.
In addition to heightened involvement and respect from parents and the community
at large, Beaupre has observed improvement in students' reading habits and abil
ities: after-school reading was up 20 percent; the number of students holding li
brary cards increased by 28 percent; newspaper readership by students increased
significantly. On state reading comprehension and vocabulary assessments, the sc
hool rose from last in the school district to first in the county; the percent o
f students in the bottom quartile on standardized tests for grade 1-6 decreased
from 80 percent to 22 percent; and overall reading scores of at-risk students tu
tored through the Urban League Project increased 34 percent. In fact, 5 of 15 st
udents moved out of the at-risk category.
Redwood Falls High School, Redwood Falls, MN Redwood Falls, a community of 5,000
people, is rapidly changing. What was once a very stable community is now chara
cterized by instability: Many farmers found it necessary to leave the area, othe
rs remained and took low income jobs, and a number of new people are moving into
the area. The range of income levels is wider now than when agriculture was the
main enterprise.
These changes have created a lack of cohesiveness and feelings of insecurity in
the community. High school students, especially, fear for their future and wonde
r if they will find jobs. The town's limited manufacturing enterprises, retail s
tores, and remaining farms cannot provide employment for all the town's youth. M
ost will probably seek jobs in small cities nearby.
To address these problems, in the late 1980s the school system applied to the Am
erican Forum in the late 1980s and was awarded a five-year Education 2000 grant.
Education 2000 funds enable communities to restructure schools so that students
are prepared for a changing society. To accomplish this aim, the entire Redwood
Falls community collaborated to set goals and develop a restructuring plan.
These efforts have led to many positive changes. People began regarding the scho
ols as the center of intellectual life for the community at large. Early childho
od, family education, and university level adult education courses are among tho
se programs available to everyone in the community.
Curriculum and instruction have also changed. Instruction is much more collabora
tive, and curriculum focuses more on higher order thinking skills needed for suc
cess in school and in life. Teachers tap students' prior knowledge and help stud
ents "learn how to learn," through collaborative problem solving and decision ma
king. When students need information, they ask an "expert" classmate or contact
a community expert. Students develop their own tools to "test" how well they hav
e learned. The curriculum has also become more interdisciplinary and builds on t
he multicultural resources in the community (Native Americans, Swedes, and Norwe
gians).
In Larry Gavin's high school English class, for example, students work in small
groups to critique each other's writing. When students write narrative, they con
sult Dakota Indian students who are skillful in writing narrative because in the
ir culture, nothing is an "event" until someone tells a story about it. When stu
dying about conflicts on the Great Plains in the 1800s between Native American a
nd white groups, students heard representatives of both groups present their poi
nt of view. Gavin, the drama teacher, and the music teacher collaborated to assi
st students in writing and producing an original one-act play.

Dyad may refer to:

Dyad (sociology), a group of two people
Dyad (music), a set of two notes or pitches
Dyad pedagogy, students working together in groups of two
Dyad (biology), a pair of sister chromatids
Dyad symmetry, in genetics
Dyad product, in mathematics
Dyad (Greek philosophy), Greek philosophers' principle of "twoness" or "othe
rness"
Dyad (video game)
Dyad (novel), 1989 novel by Michael Brodsky
Dyad 1909 also Dyad 1929, ballets by Wayne McGregor

Synonyms for assess

verb evaluate, determine
appraisestar
checkstar
determinestar
estimatestar
fixstar
gaugestar
judgestar
 weighstar
apprisestar
assaystar
computestar
figurestar
guessstar
nickstar
pegstar
ratestar
reckonstar
setstar
sizestar
surveystar
valuatestar
valuestar
check outstar
dig itstar
size upstar
take measurestar
Antonyms for assessed

sink or swim
Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Legal, Acronyms, Encyclopedia, Wikipedia.
sink or swim
Fig. to fail or succeed. (Alludes to the choices available to someone who has fa
llen into the water.) After I've studied and learned all I can, I have to take t
he test and sink or swim. It's too late to help John now. It's sink or swim for
him.
See also: sink, swim

Interdisciplinary teaching is a method, or set of methods, used to teach a unit

across different curricular disciplines. For example, the seventh grade Language
Arts, Science and Social Studies teachers might work together to form an interd
isciplinary unit on rivers.
The local river system would be the unifying idea, but the English teacher would
link it to Language Arts by studying river vocabulary and teaching students how
to do a research report. The science teacher might teach children about the lif
e systems that exist in the river, while the Social Studies teacher might help s
tudents research the local history and peoples who used the river for food and t
ransport.

Types of Interdisciplinary Teaching

There are many different types, or levels, of interdisciplinary teaching. On one
end, schools might employ an interdisciplinary team approach, in which teachers
of different content areas assigned to one group of students who are encouraged
to correlate some of their teaching (Vars, 1991). The most common method of imp
lementing integrated, interdisciplinary instruction is the thematic unit, in whi
ch a common theme is studied in more than one content area (Barton & Smith, 2000
).
The example given above about rivers would be considered multidisciplinary or pa
rallel design, which is defined as lessons or units developed across many discip
lines with a common organizing topic (Jackson & Davis, 2000).
One of the foremost scholars of interdisciplinary teaching techniques is James B
eane, who advocates for curriculum integration, which is curriculum that is coll
aboratively designed around important issues. It has four major components: the
integration of experiences, social integration, the integration of knowledge, an
d integration as a curriculum design. It differs from other types of interdiscip
linary teaching in that it begins with a central theme that emerges from questio
ns or social concerns students have, without regard to subject delineations (Bea
ne, 1997).
In 1989, the seminal work, Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementati
on, edited by Heidi Hayes Jacobs was published by ASCD (Alexandria, Va. In this
work, she presented a continuum of options for design spanning focused disciplin
ed work to parallel to multidisciplinary to full integration.
streeThubah.design&print.co
Benefits of Interdisciplinary Teaching
A school district in Michigan created integration plans for thematic units, base
d on the ideas of Howard Gardner about multiple intelligences, in a yearlong pil
ot program. The results of the program included sustained enthusiasm from the staf
f, parents, and students, increased attendance rates, and improvement in standar
dized test scores, especially from students with the poorest test results (Bolak,
Bialach, & Duhnphy, 2005).
Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall identify five important outcomes and findings of the
ir experiences with interdisciplinary teaching and planning: common planning tim
e is vital, schools that team have a more positive work climate, parental contac
t is more frequent, teachers report a higher job satisfaction, and student achie
vement scores in schools that team are higher than those that do not team (1999)
.
Additionally, Pumerantz & Galanto find that interdisciplinary teaching allows fo
r students to, Proceed at a pace commensurate with their interests, skills, and e
xperiences (1972).
Integrated instruction helps teachers better utilize instructional time and look
deeper into subjects through a variety of content-specific lens. Another benefi
t of integrated instruction is that teachers can better differentiate instructio
n to individual student needs. Integrated instruction also allows for authentic
assessment (Barton & Smith, 2000). A final benefit of interdisciplinary teaching
is that students have a chance to work with multiple sources of information, th
us ensuring they are receiving a more inclusive perspective than they would from
consulting one textbook (Wood, 1997).
Implementation of Interdisciplinary Teaching
Heidi Hayes Jacobs presents a four-phase approach to curriculum integration plan
ning. (1989, ASCD, Alexandria, Va) First, she suggests that a school conduct act
ion research to learn more about how to implement curriculum integration. This s
hould be done six months to a year ahead of when the school is going to attempt
curriculum integration. Next, phase two calls for the development of a proposal.
Phase three consists of implementing and monitoring the pilot unit; this should
take place in the second year of the curriculum integration plan. Phase four ta
kes place in the third year of the plan, and calls for staff adoption of the pro
gram based on the findings from phase three (1991).
Criticisms and Shortcomings of Interdisciplinary Teaching Methods
Scholars that advocate for curriculum integration argue that the topics studied
should originate with students and their teachers, and not from district-imposed
curriculum packages. This raises the important issue of accountability (Stevens
on, 1998). As school districts often have decision-making panels that consist of
stakeholders such as teachers, parents, and students, curriculum integration ma
y take away their agency to make curricular choices. In addition to issues of lo
cal control, truly integrated curricula may or may not prepare students for the
high-stakes tests that have become a reality for most high schools around the wo
rld, depending on whether they cover the same material. Finally, there is also c
oncern that integrated teaching discounts the value of deep subject-specific kno
wledge, which is essential for specialization in areas such as medicine, law, an
d engineering (Gatewood, 1998).
Thematic units can also fall short of teaching in-depth content to students. Oft
en a theme, such as apples, is used to link unrelated subjects, with little defe
rence to students prior knowledge or interests. This superficial coverage of a to
pic can give students the wrong idea about school, perhaps missing the idea of c
urriculum integration in the first place (Barton & Smith, 2000). Thematic units
can contain pointless busywork and activities created solely to create a link to
a theme; for example, the alphabetizing of state capitals in a social studies u
nit, attempting to integrate it with language arts (Brophy & Alleman, 1991).
What is Interdisciplinary Teaching?
Interdisciplinary instruction entails the use and integration of methods and ana
lytical frameworks from more than one academic discipline to examine a theme, is
sue, question or topic. Interdisciplinary education makes use of disciplinary ap
proaches to examine topics, but pushes beyond by: taking insights from a variety
of relevant disciplines, synthesizing their contribution to understanding, and
then integrating these ideas into a more complete, and hopefully coherent, frame
work of analysis.
In dealing with multi-faceted issues such as teenage pregnancy, new drug develop
ment, genetically modified foods, and health care access, interdisciplinary pers
pectives are needed to adequately address the complexity of the problems and to
forge viable policy responses.
Interdisciplinary teaching is different from multi- or cross-disciplinary teachi
ng in that it requires the integration and synthesis of different perspectives r
ather than a simple consideration of multiple viewpoints.

Some Definitions
Cross-disciplinary analysis examines an issue typically germane to one disciplin
e through the lens of another discipline (i.e., how physicists explore music, so
ciological perspectives on the purpose of religion).
Multi-disciplinary analysis examines an issue from multiple perspectives, withou
t making a concerted effort to systemically integrate disciplinary perspectives.
Inter-disciplinary analysis examines an issue from multiple perspectives, leadin
g to a systematic effort to integrate the alternative perspectives into a unifie
d or coherent framework of analysis.

What Makes Interdisciplinary Instruction Different?

A single disciplinary perspective often has limitations in that it is driven by
the norms and framework of a particular discipline without consideration and inc
orporation of alternative views. The single disciplinary view can lead to hegemo
ny which prevents critical assessment of both their own and other perspectives.
In contrast, interdisciplinary education draws on multiple disciplines to acquir
e a deep and thorough understanding of complex issues and challenges students to
synthesize what each of the disciplines offers before attempting to design effo
rts to resolve noted concerns.
Teaching Economic Growth: An Interdisciplinary Example
Every Principles of Economics student learns that an economy grows in the near t
erm through the use of additional labor, subject to the law of diminishing retur
ns, and over a longer horizon by adding more capital and technology. This set of
insights is depicted using the circular flow model or diagram. After discussing
this perspective an educator can ask if other disciplines have additional insig
hts to offer on this topic. They should expect some students to indicate that na
tural scientists often challenge this narrow, economic based, characterization o
f the productive process as incomplete and potentially misleading. This provides
an opportunity for the instructor to introduce and model for students the integ
ration of insights regarding economic growth from both economists and natural sc
ientists.
For instance, Ecologists have argued for decades that the economy does not funct
ion separate from the natural world. They assert that there are ecological const
raints or planetary boundaries that govern the economy and alter the conventiona
l economic characterization of the link between inputs and output growth. They o
ffer three insights that an interdisciplinary economics educator could integrate
into their conventional analysis to produce an interdisciplinary exploration of
economic growth. First, natural resources need to be included as an input to ec
onomic growth and must simultaneously be viewed a constraint on the process sinc
e they are not easily altered in the near term. Second, the production process c
reates waste which must be assimilated back into the biosphere and the environme
nt may be coming under severe stress due to this inefficiency in the production
process. This idea/concept leads directly to the third notion that the contribut
ion of inputs to output is contingent upon the level and status of natural resou
rces. For example, the combination of boats and fishers in the Gulf of Mexico wi
ll be unable to produce any seafood for a period due to the condition of the Gul
f waters as a result of the BP oil leak. Thus, expanding the standard economic f
ramework used to understand economic growth to account for ecological insights p
rovides a richer understanding of production and growth.
Assignment: Ask students to expand the circular flow framework to formally accou
nt for ecological insights to produce an interdisciplinary framework for explori
ng economic growth. Then, students should address the following questions using
the interdisciplinary framework they have developed, (1) how big can the economy
grow before it starts to push up against these planetary boundaries? (2) where
does the pollution go and how might this effect the environment and the producti
vity of other inputs? (3) how much energy and what amount of natural resources a
re used to sustain the economic system? and (4) what is the effect of a degraded
environment of the economy and the quality of life?
Assessment: Students who approach the problem of growth with a purely economic f
ocus would be assigned a C for the assignment, while those who account for insig
hts from Ecology but are unable to clearly integrate ideas from both disciplines
in their answers would be given a B. A grade of A is reserved for those who dis
play the ability to integrate notions associated with growth from both Economics
and Ecology.
What is reflective thinking?
The description of reflective thinking:
Critical thinking and reflective thinking are often used synonymously. Crit
ical thinking is used to describe:
"... the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the proba
bility of a desirable outcome...thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal d
irected - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferen
ces, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using ski
lls that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thi
nking task. Critical thinking is sometimes called directed thinking because it f
ocuses on a desired outcome." Halpern (1996).
Reflective thinking, on the other hand, is a part of the critical thinking p
rocess referring specifically to the processes of analyzing and making judgments
about what has happened. Dewey (1933) suggests that reflective thinking is an a
ctive, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of kno
wledge, of the grounds that support that knowledge, and the further conclusions
to which that knowledge leads. Learners are aware of and control their learning
by actively participating in reflective thinking assessing what they know, what
they need to know, and how they bridge that gap during learning situations.
In summary, critical thinking involves a wide range of thinking skills leadi
ng toward desirable outcomes and reflective thinking focuses on the process of m
aking judgments about what has happened. However, reflective thinking is most im
portant in prompting learning during complex problem-solving situations because
it provides students with an opportunity to step back and think about how they a
ctually solve problems and how a particular set of problem solving strategies is
appropriated for achieving their goal.
Characteristics of environments and activities that prompt and support reflectiv
e thinking:
Provide enough wait-time for students to reflect when responding to
inquiries.
Provide emotionally supportive environments in the classroom encoura
ging reevaluation of conclusions.
Prompt reviews of the learning situation, what is known, what is not
yet known, and what has been learned.
Provide authentic tasks involving ill-structured data to encourage r
eflective thinking during learning activities.
Prompt students' reflection by asking questions that seek reasons an
d evidence.
Provide some explanations to guide students' thought processes durin
g explorations.
Provide a less-structured learning environment that prompts students
to explore what they think is important.
Provide social-learning environments such as those inherent in peer-
group works and small group activities to allow students to see other points of
view.
Provide reflective journal to write down students' positions, give r
easons to support what they think, show awareness of opposing positions and the
weaknesses of their own positions.
Links to descriptions of reflective thinking activities in use with midd
le school kids:
Recommendations for prompting reflective thinking in the classroom:
http://www.cotf.edu/ete/teacher/reflect.html
 Examples of lesson plans that have been revised to encourage reflect
ive thinking in students, e.g., prompting to compare what they know to what they
don't know and actively make modifications to their conceptions:
http://www.criticalthinking.org/k12/k12class/4-6/skeleton.nclk
http://www.criticalthinking.org/k12/k12class/6-9/bugs.nclk
Top of page
Why is reflective thinking important?
Modern society is becoming more complex, information is becoming available a
nd changing more rapidly prompting users to constantly rethink, switch direction
s, and change problem-solving strategies. Thus, it is increasingly important to
prompt reflective thinking during learning to help learners develop strategies t
o apply new knowledge to the complex situations in their day-to-day activities.
Reflective thinking helps learners develop higher-order thinking skills by promp
ting learners to a) relate new knowledge to prior understanding, b) think in bot
h abstract and conceptual terms, c) apply specific strategies in novel tasks, an
d d) understand their own thinking and learning strategies.
Links to more information on reflective thinking:
Critical or reflective thinking:
http://www.mdk12.org/practices/good_instruction/projectbetter/thinki
ngskills/ts-17-20.html
Reflective thinking:
http://www.algonquinc.on.ca/edtech/gened/reflecti.html
Top of page
Reflective thinking and middle school kids:
How to prompt reflection in middle school kids:
It is important to prompt reflective thinking in middle school children to s
upport them in their transition between childhood and adulthood. During this tim
e period adolescents experience major changes in intellectual, emotional, social
, and physical development. They begin to shape their own thought processes and
are at an ideal time to begin developing thinking, learning, and metacognitive s
trategies. Therefore, reflective thinking provides middle level students with th
e skills to mentally process learning experiences, identify what they learned, m
odify their understanding based on new information and experiences, and transfer
their learning to other situations. Scaffolding strategies should be incorporat
ed into the learning environment to help students develop their ability to refle
ct on their own learning. For example,
Teachers should model metacognitive and self-explanation strategies on s
pecific problems to help students build an integrated understanding of the proce
ss of reflection.
Study guides or advance organizer should be integrated into classroom ma
terials to prompt students to reflect on their learning.
Questioning strategies should be used to prompt reflective thinking, spe
cifically getting students to respond to why, how, and what specific decisions a
re made.
Social learning environments should exist that prompt collaborative work
with peers, teachers, and experts.
Learning experiences should be designed to include advice from teachers
and co-learners.
Classroom activities should be relevant to real-world situations and pro
vide integrated experiences.
Classroom experiences should involve enjoyable, concrete, and physical l
earning activities whenever possible to ensure proper attention to the unique co
gnitive, affective, and psychomotor domain development of middle school students
.
Top of page
How does KaAMS support reflective thinking?
KaAMS model of PBL and its relationship to reflective thinking:

When students are faced with a perplexing problem, reflective thinking helps
them to become more aware of their learning progress, choose appropriate strate
gies to explore a problem, and identify the ways to build the knowledge they nee
d to solve the problem. The KaAMS model of PBL incorporates various components t
o prompt students' reflective thinking during the learning process. The lesson p
lans:
Provide teacher questions designed to prompt students to identify and cl
arify overall and subordinate problems.
Provide many opportunities to engage students in gathering information t
o look for possible causes and solutions.
Provide ideas and activity sheets to help students evaluate the evidence
they gather.
Provide questions that prompt students to consider alternatives and impl
ications of their ideas.
Provide questions and activities that prompt students to draw conclusion
s from the evidence they gathered and pose solutions.
Provide opportunities for students to choose and implement the best alte
rnative.
Encourage students to monitor and reevaluate their results and findings
throughout the entire unit.
 KaAMS incorporates prompts and scaffolding suggestions to promote reflective
thinking by:
Structuring lesson plans to support reflective thinking.
Providing lesson components that prompt inquiry and curiosity.
Providing resources and hand-on activities to prompt exploration.
Providing reflective thinking activities that prompt students to think a
bout what they have done, what they learned, and what they still need to do.
Providing reflection activity worksheets for each lesson plan to prompt
students to think about what they know, what they learned, and what they need to
know as they progress through their exploration.

Chapter 12. Learning Through Reflection

by Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick
A defining condition of being human is that we have to understand the meanin
g of our experience.
Jack Mezirow
Most of us go through life viewing our experiences as isolated, unrelated events
. We also view these happenings simply as the experiences they are, not as oppor
tunities for learning. Psychologists refer to this type of lifeview as an "episo
dic grasp of reality" (Feuerstein, Rand, Hoffman, & Miller, 1980), and it is not
a habit we want to pass along to children. Instead, we want students to get int
o the habit of linking and constructing meaning from their experiences. Such wor
k requires reflection.
Reflection has many facets. For example, reflecting on work enhances its meaning
. Reflecting on experiences encourages insight and complex learning. We foster o
ur own growth when we control our learning, so some reflection is best done alon
e. Reflection is also enhanced, however, when we ponder our learning with others
.
Reflection involves linking a current experience to previous learnings (a proces
s called scaffolding). Reflection also involves drawing forth cognitive and emot
ional information from several sources: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tacti
le. To reflect, we must act upon and process the information, synthesizing and e
valuating the data. In the end, reflecting also means applying what we've learne
d to contexts beyond the original situations in which we learned something.
Valuing Reflection
The art of teaching is the art of assisting discovery.
Mark Van Doren
Teachers who promote reflective classrooms ensure that students are fully engage
d in the process of making meaning. They organize instruction so that students a
re the producers, not just the consumers, of knowledge. To best guide children i
n the habits of reflection, these teachers approach their role as that of "facil
itator of meaning making."
In the role of facilitator, the teacher acts as an intermediary between the lear
ner and the learning, guiding each student to approach the learning activity in
a strategic way. The teacher helps each student monitor individual progress, con
struct meaning from the content learned and from the process of learning it, and
apply the learnings to other contexts and settings. Learning becomes a continua
l process of engaging the mind that transforms the mind.
Unfortunately, educators don't often ask students to reflect on their learning.
Thus, when students are asked to reflect on an assignment, they are caught in a
dilemma: "What am I supposed to do? How do I 'reflect'? I've already completed t
his assignment! Why do I have to think about it anymore?"
In response to our questions, students who are inexperienced with reflection off
er simple answers such as "This was an easy assignment!" or "I really enjoyed do
ing this assignment." If we want students to get in the habit of reflecting deep
ly on their work and if we want them to use Habits of Mind such as applying past k
nowledge to new situations, thinking about thinking (metacognition), and remaini
ng open to continuous learning we must teach them strategies to derive rich meanin
g from their experiences.
Setting the Tone for Reflection
Most classrooms can be categorized in one of two ways: active and a bit noisy, w
ith students engaged in hands-on work; or teacher oriented, with students paying
attention to a presentation or quietly working on individual tasks. Each of the
se teaching environments sets a tone and an expectation. For example, when stude
nts work actively in groups, we ask them to use their "six-inch" voices. When we
ask them to attend to the teacher, we also request that they turn their "eyes f
ront." When they work individually at their desks, we ask them not to bother oth
er learners.
Teachers must signal a shift in tone when they ask students to reflect on their
learning. Reflective teachers help students understand that the students will no
w look back rather than move forward. They will take a break from what they have
been doing, step away from their work, and ask themselves, "What have I (or we)
learned from doing this activity?" Some teachers use music to signal the change
in thinking. Others ask for silent thinking before students write about a lesso
n, an assignment, or other classroom task.
In the reflective classroom, teachers invite students to make meaning from their
experiences overtly in written and oral form. They take the time to invite stud
ents to reflect on their learnings, to compare intended with actual outcomes, to
evaluate their metacognitive strategies, to analyze and draw causal relationshi
ps, and to synthesize meanings and apply their learnings to new and novel situat
ions. Students know they will not "fail" or make a "mistake," as those terms are
generally defined. Instead, reflective students know they can produce personal
insight and learn from all their experiences.
Guiding Student Reflection
To be reflective means to mentally wander through where we have been and to try
to make some sense out of it. Most classrooms are oriented more to the present a
nd the future than to the past. Such an orientation means that students (and tea
chers) find it easier to discard what has happened and to move on without taking
stock of the seemingly isolated experiences of the past.
Teachers use many strategies to guide students through a period of reflection. W
e offer several here: discussions, interviews, questioning, and logs and journal
s.
Discussions
Sometimes, encouraging reflection is as simple as inviting students to think abo
ut their thinking. Students realize meaning making is an important goal when ref
lection becomes the topic of discussion. For example, conduct discussions about
students' problem-solving processes. Invite students to share their metacognitio
n, reveal their intentions, detail their strategies for solving a problem, descr
ibe their mental maps for monitoring their problem-solving process, and reflect
on the strategy to determine its adequacy. During these kinds of rich discussion
s, students learn how to listen to and explore the implications of each other's
metacognitive strategies. The kind of listening required during such discussions
also builds the Habits of Mind related to empathy, flexibility, and persistence
.
Interviews
Interviews are another way to lead students to share reflections about their lea
rning and their growth in the Habits of Mind. A teacher can interview a student,
or students can interview classmates. Set aside time at the end of a learning s
equence a lesson, a unit, a school day, or a school year to question each other abou
t what has been learned. Guide students to look for ways they can apply their le
arnings to future settings. Interviews also provide teachers and students with o
pportunities to model and practice a variety of habits: listening with understan
ding and empathy, thinking and communicating with clarity and precision, and que
stioning and posing problems.
Questioning
Well-designed questions supported by a classroom atmosphere grounded in trust will i
nvite students to reveal their insights, understandings, and applications of the
ir learnings and the Habits of Mind. Here are possible questions to pose with ea
ch student:
As you reflect on this semester's work, which of the Habits of Mind were you
most aware of in your own learnings?
What metacognitive strategies did you use to monitor your performance of the
Habits of Mind?
Which Habit of Mind will you focus on as you begin our next project?
What insights have you gained as a result of employing these Habits of Mind?
As you think about your future, how might these Habits of Mind be used as a
guide in your life?
Logs and Journals
Logs and journals are another tool for student reflection. Periodically ask stud
ents to reread their journals, comparing what they knew at the beginning of a le
arning sequence with what they know now. Ask them to select significant learning
s, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commi
t to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.
Modeling Reflection
Students need to encounter reflective role models. Many teachers find such model
s in novels in which the characters take a reflective stance as they consider th
eir actions. A variety of novels and films use the design element of reflection
as the way to tell a story. For example, in Marcel Proust's Swann's Way, the mai
n character is affected by the smell of a "petite madeleine" that reminds him of
his past. Proust uses this device to dig into the character's past. In Mem Fox'
s Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge, Wilfrid discovers that life's meaning can c
ome from the retrieval of powerful memories. The memories truly are given meanin
g, however, through making them explicit to someone else.
Although fictional role modeling is useful, students also need to see adults paren
ts, teachers, and administrators reflect on their practice. Perhaps you can offer
an example from your own work. We offer here an excerpt from Bena Kallick's jour
nal reflecting on a workshop session. She sent her reflection to the workshop pa
rticipants. Here's the excerpt:
To: The third-year teachers and mentors
From: Bena Kallick
Re: Yesterday's session
Reflecting on the day, I am still mad at myself for not listening more close
ly to your needs for the afternoon session. I wanted to share some of my thought
s with you.
First, I find that I can use the Habits of Mind as one lens for reflection.
As I reconsidered yesterday, there were four habits that I focused on: listening
with understanding and empathy, thinking flexibly, managing impulsivity, and re
maining open to continuous learning.
Listening with understanding and empathy. One of the strengths in my work is
my capacity to stay immersed in the work of others. I need to be able to listen
to the surface text of the work, pay attention to the subtext of the individual
(the context of the classroom, the personality of the teacher, the intentions a
nd values that are expressed as the person presents the work), and make certain
that my comments and critique are in tune with the person who I hope will be abl
e to make use of them. I felt that our group was tuned to the work that was pres
ented and that I was able to model that level of listening. As a result, I think
that the presenters were able to listen to their own work more deeply.
The other half of my listening, however, was not as attuned. Patricia tried
to suggest that we make time for you to share your own work in the afternoon, bu
t because I lunched with Michelle and was involved with some of the issues and p
roblems she was working on, I lost some of my perspective on where the group was
. As a result, I jumped in with the plan to look at the possibility for "brand x
" rubrics. Although I cast the afternoon for the possibility of your working on
your own rubrics, I observed that almost everyone either worked on the general r
ubric (with energy and commitment) or started to do their own work for the class
room. I thought that most people were using the time productively, and so I did
not listen carefully to Patricia's concerns. I should have lunched with Patricia
and David, talked through what was in my head for the afternoon, and listened a
t that time for their read of the group and its needs.
Thinking flexibly. I always pride myself on the degree to which I am willing
to shift plans and respond to the group's immediate needs. That strength, howev
er, can also become a weakness and I think that happened yesterday. When Dan sugge
sted that we move to developing outcomes that would work across the disciplines,
I immediately went there without checking with the group. Maybe that happened b
ecause the question is of intellectual interest to me right now and I also wante
d to work on it. I have been struggling with how to develop a rubric that would
be sufficiently rigorous and, at the same time, descriptive enough to provide a
set of criteria for students that would show them what was expected regardless o
f subject. Clear criteria would address a question such as "Why do we need to wr
ite properly if I am in a science class?" To me, these criteria are a significan
t part of building a learning culture. I was exploring using the criteria in rel
ation to the Habits of Mind I will develop this thought more fully in a moment.
Managing impulsivity. Well, this is where the habits intersect and sometimes
feel contradictory. I moved very quickly with Dan's suggestion. I would say tha
t I did not manage my impulsivity. Can you be both flexible and manage your impu
lsivity at the same time? I think the way to do that is to check your moves. I s
hould have done so with the group instead of assuming I knew where to go. Had I
managed my impulsive act through a quick check on the afternoon agenda, we might
have gone down the same path, or a different one, and at least made the decisio
n together.
Remaining open to continuous learning. I started thinking about Evonne Goola
gong. (She's a really great tennis player. What I always admired about her was h
er grace, agility, and enormous flexibility. She had all the strokes, and often
what got in her way of winning was that she did not make the right choice of str
oke for the occasion.) I think I am at a point in my career where I have many ch
oices in my repertoire for each teaching situation. Sometimes I do not take the
time to think through which is the right choice for the occasion. I am finding i
t easy to excuse impulsive behavior by thinking of it as flexible behavior. Beca
use I am an "in the moment" teacher, I need to pay attention to this more than I
have been recently. I am grateful to you yesterday for reminding me of the impo
rtance of this dynamic in order for me to continue to be the teacher I imagine I
would like to be!
After this particular reflection, Kallick worked with the teachers to design the
ir next session to better meet everyone's needs. Sharing parts of the reflection
brought them to another level of understanding as they worked together in a lea
rning community. Reflection can bring the same spirit of community to your class
room, too.
Students also learn much when they see examples of reflection from other student
s' journals. You might want to cull a variety of examples to share. Here is a re
flection from a group journal written by students from the Communications Academ
y at Sir Francis Drake High School in San Anselmo, California:
Today our group spent most of the time reading articles and the ballot info
pamphlet. We have all participated and have been open and informative. Our goal
seems to be execution of the actual set of criteria for our project
We are passing around our wonderful journal to write down what we want to do
or improve on for ourselves. I want to work on reading. I find myself reading e
nough to slide by but not enough to be fully educated in the subject. It takes a
lot of time, so I need to find some of that, too. I want to be able to answer t
he questions I have asked with precision and accuracy. My stretch goal would be
to do everything assigned to me completed and on time. If I start to slack off,
just kick me back into place
I want to be more patient. I also feel I talk a lot and don't mean to. I wan
t to try to listen with understanding and empathy.
The students at University Heights School in New York City are required to refle
ct on the Habits of Mind they have adopted when they present their portfolios to
a panel of judges. The following excerpt is a reflection from one student:
Through "Thinking Critically and Questioning," we investigate questions, myt
hs, and even proven knowledge. From that we gain intelligence (learning from pro
of, not opinion) and experiences to find what we believe to be the truth.
I learned the importance of an education. Ignorance is a weakness. It fogs t
he mind and blurs the human eye. Only knowledge can clear our visions of this we
akening lack of thought.
I learned the value of our pride. In my opinion, those who were forced to se
rve without pay were not slaves. They were captives to slaves of greed.
Now that I have this strengthened knowledge, I must apply it to my life. But
the success of that assignment can only be judged by me. Only I know what is ha
ppiness and beauty in this mind and it will take me an entire lifetime to apply
what I have learned to my existence.
Developmental Issues
The work of educators at Croton Elementary School in Croton-on-Hudson, New York,
shows how the quality of students' reflections changes as children develop thei
r reading and writing skills. When kindergartners were asked to reflect orally,
they gave rich descriptions of their work. But as they developed their writing a
bility and were encouraged to write their own reflections, the reflections becam
e less descriptive. This change puzzled the teachers until they realized that st
udents are more concerned about spelling, punctuation, and other aspects of edit
ing when they first learn to write. Because students do not have a great deal of
fluency with their writing, they are more limited in what they describe.
In contrast, when meeting with the teacher, the kindergartners elaborated on wha
t they wrote about their work. And once students became more fluent with their w
riting skills, they were able to represent their reflective thoughts more easily
.
Teaching Students How to Reflect
Initially the students at Croton Elementary often offered stereotypical comments
such as "This was fun!" or "I chose this piece of work because it is my best."
Teachers realized that they needed to spend time teaching students how to reflec
t. They asked students, "What does a reflection look like when it really tells y
ou something about the experience?" After considerable discussion and after consid
ering models of reflection from students and published authors the students began
to understand what was called for. Reflection was not a time for testimonials ab
out how good or bad the experience was. Instead, reflection was the time to cons
ider what was learned from the experience. Reflection was a time to describe wha
t students saw in their own work that changed, needed to change, or might need t
o be described so another person might understand its meaning.
Figure 12.1 shows how teachers characterized student work as students acquired t
he capacity for reflection. The teachers then summarized key statements that stu
dents made about their work when asked the question "What would I change to make
my work better?" Students from kindergarten through 2nd grade made comments suc
h as these:
I would add to the picture.
I would use what I know to show more in the picture.
I would add what is missing.
I would be more careful.
Students in 3rd and 4th grade made comments like these:
I would correct.
I would proofread.
I would pay attention to conventions.
I would extend more.
I would stay to the subject.

Figure 12.1. Students' Stages of Reflection

Kindergarten
Describes what is drawn.
Focuses on drawing.
Comments on realism.
 Shows interest (what student really loves).
Mentions use of color.
Mentions use of letters.
Pays attention to what letters spell.
1st Grade
Focuses on conventions.
Wants papers to have a neat appearance.
Talks about what was liked in drawing.
2nd Grade
Focuses on details.
Focuses on colors.
Shows development of an idea.
Relates to content of story (how student feels about the content of what was
written).
3rd 5th Grade (Learning-to-Read Stage)
Responds in depth to dictation.
Starts to write by self.

Teachers used these phrases to describe 3rd and 4th grade students' writing as t
he teachers reflected upon it:
Uses humor.
Talks about genre or type of writing.
Attends to style (uses dialogue).
Describes well enough for a reader to picture what was written.
Focuses on script.
Focuses on description.
Offers information.
Is interesting.
Works hard.
Is exciting.
Attends to the reader.
Is clear.
Does not drag writing out.
Uses descriptive words.
Through this experience, the teachers realized that the questions they asked mig
ht limit students' responses. They reminded themselves that the purpose of refle
ction is threefold:
To help students become more aware of their writing what makes writing work an
d what does not.
To help students take more responsibility for their writing to know that writi
ng must be understood by an audience and to learn how to anticipate a reader's r
esponse through self-evaluation.
To see growth in writing over the school year and to be able to talk about t
hat growth with students' parents.
Teachers emphasized to students that the purpose of reflection was not to develo
p a carefully crafted piece of writing, but to develop the capacity for metacogn
ition.
Sentence Stems
Sentence stems can stimulate reflections. Use them in conferences (where reflect
ion can be modeled), or put them on a sheet for students who choose writing to j
ump-start their reflections. Here are examples of possible sentence stems:
I selected this piece of writing because
What really surprised me about this piece of writing was
When I look at my other pieces of writing, this piece is different because
What makes this piece of writing strong is my use of
Here is one example from my writing to show you what I mean.
What I want to really work on to make my writing better for a reader is
Student Choices
Students may prefer simply to describe what is going on in the writing in their
own way. When students set their goals, they will use their reflections as a bas
is for directing their learning journey. Students might collect work throughout
the year as part of a portfolio process. Every quarter they can review the work
in their collection folders and choose one or two pieces to enter into their por
tfolio. When they make those choices, they can take the opportunity to reflect o
n the reasons for their choices and to set goals for their next quarter's work.
Building the Voices of Reflection
The ultimate intent of teaching reflection is to get students into the habit of
reflecting on their own actions and constructing meaning from those experiences.
When they develop the Habits of Mind related to reflection, they will hear both
an internal and an external voice of reflection.
Internal Voice
The internal voice of reflection is self-knowledge. Self-knowledge is difficult
to describe in detail, but we can define it as both what and how we are thinking
. Self-knowledge includes ways of thinking that may not be visible to us conscio
usly. Given our culture, students have difficulty realizing that they need to en
gage in "self-talk." To help students develop the internal voice of reflection,
they can be asked to do the following:
Write a letter to themselves detailing what they learned from an experience.
Send themselves a letter of advice, reminding themselves of what to look out
for the next time they do something.
Interview themselves.
Make a list of connections they see between their work and others' work. Inc
lude peers' work along with work that has been studied in the classroom.
Record the steps they go through to solve a problem. Guide them to comment o
n how useful those steps were.
External Voice
Students hear an external voice of reflection in others' comments, suggestions,
assessments, evaluations, and feedback. External sharing of reflections is impor
tant because this kind of reflection multiplies the learning for each individual
. As students review the learning events that have taken place, they give their
learning new meaning. The opportunity to share often validates a student's inter
nal conversation. Here are suggestions for helping students develop the capacity
for sharing their reflections:
Sit in a circle. Ask each person to share one reflection on the day's activi
ties.
Organize small-group reflections in which students share their thoughts. The
n ask a reporter to present those thoughts to the whole class.
Invite students to share problem-solving strategies. Ask them to focus on ho
w many different ways they can effectively solve a problem.
 Ask students to share at least one example in which they observed their grou
p using the Habits of Mind.
During these classroom experiences, teachers have an opportunity to model the Ha
bits of Mind themselves. They can show evidence of good listening skills, probe
for clarity and understanding, ask thoughtful questions, and share metacognitive
thinking. Through experience and continuous modeling, the class begins to learn
how to use the Habits of Mind in reflective conversations, which strengthens th
e transfer to the internal voice of reflection.
Documenting Reflections
Many teachers document reflective conversations as a way of assessing progress w
ith the Habits of Mind. For example, as mentioned in Chapter 11, some teachers c
reate a notebook tabbed with each student's name. They also keep sticky labels c
lose at hand. When a student makes a significant comment that shows evidence of
using a Habit of Mind, the teacher jots down the key words from the comment on a
label and sticks the label on the tabbed page for that student. This record pro
vides a rich source of information for a conference or a student report.
You might also consider reading student journals and noting how student reflecti
ons are developing. Keep a record for each student with notes about whether the
student has moved from superficial to in-depth reflections. Indicators of in-dep
th reflections include making specific reference to the learning event, providin
g examples and elaboration, making connections to other learning, and discussing
modifications based on insights from this experience.
Developing the Habits of Mind related to continuous growth and improvement requi
res the capacity to be self-reflective. As students reflect on their learning, t
hey gain important assessment information about how they perceive the efficacy o
f their thinking.
Many of us grow up thinking of mistakes as bad, viewing errors as evidence o
f fundamental incapacity. This negative thinking pattern can create a self-fulfi
lling prophecy, which undermines the learning process. To maximize our learning
it is essential to ask: "How can we get the most from every mistake we make?"
Michael Gelb and Tony Buzan
Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hoffman, M., & Miller, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichm
ent: An intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Baltimore, MD: Univers
ity Park Press.
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integrative teaching
In the traditional higher education environment, the specialization of educators
and large lecture hall environments often led to students only learning isolate
d facts and concepts through lecture-focused teaching. Utilizing an integrative
teaching strategy instead means that educators focus not only on the facts and t
heories of their discipline, but relate those facts to other, related fields of
study in a more interactive teaching model. It may also include applying skills
and concepts into real-world practice, presenting contradictory points of view a
nd explaining and modeling those concepts and theories in context.
One research project at the University of Colorado Boulder merged a physics curr
iculum with cognitive psychology. In this study, the integrative class model was
clearly more successful. As compared to traditional lecture-style physics class
es at the same school, the integrative class uniformly scored significantly high
er on written exams and attendance improved by 20 percent.
In the K-12 environment, integrative teaching strategies are similarly applied w
ith success, particularly in science-based curricula. In the case of younger lea
rners, more basic combinations, such as reading comprehension and writing skills
, enter into the science class in order to further engage learners and improve t
heir overall understanding of not only scientific concepts, but also reading and
language arts.

Integrated Approach to Learning and Teaching

Integrated Approach to Learning and Teaching
5.4 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO LEARNING AND TEACHING

Learning through an integrated studies approach is enhanced when students are ac

tively engaged in meaningful and relative topics. Learners construct and produce
knowledge by solving problems, conducting inquiry, engaging in reflection and b
uilding a repertoire of effective strategies. Integrated studies helps students
to become life long learners and allows efficient coverage and delivery of curri
culum in terms of expertise, resources and time.
Forward planning of topics and foci (themes) allows comprehensive coverage of th
e Curriculum and Standards Framework levels and serves to ensure continuity from
Prep to Grade 6.
Integrated studies at St Robert s incorporates the areas of:
Civics and Citizenship, Health, Science, Technology, Geography, History, Humanit
ies, Economics and the Arts.
The Forward Planner which outlines years, weeks, subjects, whole school and area
topics and special events is reviewed at the completion of each year.
At St Robert s, each team level (Junior, Middle and Senior) plan integrated units
using a planning proforma which is common across the school.
Assessment tasks appropriate to each unit are devised and an evaluation of each
unit is undertaken upon its completion.
Integrative learning is a learning theory describing a movement toward integrate
d lessons helping students make connections across curricula. This higher educat
ion concept is distinct from the elementary and high school "integrated curricul
um" movement.
Contents
1 Term and concept
2 Integrated medical curriculum
3 K-12 outcomes
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Term and concept
Integrative Learning comes in many varieties: connecting skills and knowledge fr
om multiple sources and experiences; applying skills and practices in various se
ttings; utilizing diverse and even contradictory points of view; and, understand
ing issues and positions contextually."
...making connections within a major, between fields, between curriculum, co
curriculum, or between academic knowledge and practice."[1]
Integrated studies involve bringing together traditionally separate subjects so
that students can grasp a more authentic understanding. Veronica Boix Mansilla,
cofounder of the Interdisciplinary Studies Project at Project Zero, explains "wh
en [students] can bring together concepts, methods, or languages from two or mor
e disciplines or established areas of expertise in order to explain a phenomenon
, solve a problem, create a product, or raise a new question" they are demonstra
ting interdisciplinary understanding. For over a decade, Project Zero researcher
s at the Harvard Graduate School of Education have been studying interdisciplina
ry work across a range of settings. They have found interdisciplinary understand
ing to be crucial for modern-thinking students.[2]
Edutopia highlighted Central York High School as a "School That Works" because o
f its successful integrated studies approach. For example, an AP government teac
her and art teacher collaborated to create a joint project that asked students t
o create a sculpture based on the principles presented by the AP government clas
s.[3] AP government teacher Dayna Laur states that, "Integrated studies projects
[aim to] create a connectedness between disciplines that otherwise might seem u
nrelated to many students. Deliberately searching for ways in which you can ming
le standards and content is imperative if you want to create truly authentic exp
eriences because, in the world outside of the classroom, content is not stand-al
one."[4][5]

The Integrated Curriculum

I remember learning in the classroom and being taught subjects in isolation. For
example, I was only taught reading comprehension in reading class or math in on
ly mathematics class but never in other subjects. I often wondered why some math
concepts weren't taught in science since they somehow seemed to have a relation
ship. Has that ever happened to you?
Today, there is a focus on an integrated curriculum. An integrated curriculum is
described as one that connects different areas of study by cutting across subje
ct-matter lines and emphasizing unifying concepts. Integration focuses on making
connections for students, allowing them to engage in relevant, meaningful activ
ities that can be connected to real life. Can you imagine how an integrated curr
iculum can benefit your students? Understanding the benefits and how to effectiv
ely integrate curriculum can help teachers and students become more successful i
n the classroom.
Benefits
Do you wonder why it is important to integrate curriculum? Think about how much
you could learn in a classroom where you learn math, science and reading all in
one lesson or teaching a theme-based unit that focuses on cultural diversity and
incorporates core content area topics. When I taught through an integrated curr
iculum, my students showed higher signs of retention at an increased rate than w
hen an integrated curriculum was not implemented. The reason for this is because
they were able to more closely relate to content and make real world connection
s in integrated curriculum approaches.
Students not only connect and create more real world connections in integrated c
lassrooms, but they are also more actively engaged. Creating an integrated curri
culum means that teachers are charged with having to create challenging, fun, me
aningful tasks that help students connect to information. Creating a solar syste
m unit that also requires oral language development and practice, reading compre
hension skills and mathematics, can engage students far more than just a lesson
on the solar system alone. Integration helps to achieve retention and engagement
in classrooms, which yields higher mastery of content standards.
One final key benefit of an integrated curriculum is the ability for students to
see skills multiple times. Instead of teaching comprehension strategies in just
reading, teaching those strategies across multiple disciplines can give student
s an opportunity to see and implement it more often. The repetition of the skill
s being taught creates a higher level of understanding and retention of informat
ion for students in the classroom.
Examples
Think about the idea of integration as either a multidisciplinary approach or an
interdisciplinary approach. A multidisciplinary approach focuses primarily on t
he disciplines. Teachers who use this approach organize standards from the disci
plines around a theme. In an interdisciplinary approach, teachers organize the c
urriculum around common learnings across disciplines. They chunk together the co
mmon learnings embedded in the disciplines to emphasize interdisciplinary skills
and concepts.
To create multidisciplinary integrated curriculum, develop a central theme focus
ed on social studies and teach history, geography, economics and government in t
hat thematic based unit. You may also achieve this by creating a mathematics the
matic unit that teachers the relationship between fractions, percents, decimals
and ratios. This will help students make connections to many disciplines.
Thinking about an interdisciplinary unit can be just as fun. Focus on creating a
lesson on sculpting or singing while still teaching math and communication conc
epts. Try having your students make wind or rain machines while still teaching t
he interdisciplinary skills of numeracy and communication of ideas. The idea of
an interdisciplinary approach is to have students learn more than just the immed
iate content being taught. They can learn interdisciplinary skills such as think
ing skills or research skills that are integrated among all disciplines.
To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Crea
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Transdisciplinary Learning Approach
- Why transdisciplinary learning? - Connections -Unit Plan Tools
DEFINITION: Transdisciplinary learning is the exploration of a relevant issue or
problem that integrates the perspectives of multiple disciplines in order to co
nnect new knowledge and deeper understanding to real life experiences.
external image trans3.gif
The following outline provides resources to help educators develop comprehensive
units reflecting a transdisciplinary approach to learning.
Why transdisciplinary learning?
Explore resources on transdisciplinary learning to reach a shared unders
tanding of its definition, vision, scope and purpose in educational reform.
Transdisciplinary Learning Online Resources
Articles: Curriculum is a Construct by Darron Davies, Selected pages
from the book: Beyond the Boundaries by Douglas Kaufman, David M. Moss and Terr
y A. Osborn and online article: Interdisciplinary Studies: A Matter of Definitio
n by Richard Meeth.
Compare and contrast elements of multi- , inter- and transdisciplinary u
nits.
Visual diagram adapted from Beyond the Boundaries (Kaufman, Moss, Os
born).
How does transdisciplinary learning connect to Understanding by Design, the
Vision of the Graduate and curriculum realignments ?
Explore possible unifying issues/inquiry topics for transdisciplinary le
arning.
Intel Teach to the Future - Index of Units (modeled on project-based
learning).
TeachGlobalEd.Net - Teaching Global Issues
iEarn Projects - Collaboration Centre for Global Projects on current
issues.
ePals Projects - Classroom exchange projects based on global issues.
How does the Vision of a Graduate compare to our shared understanding of
transdisciplinary learning?
The Greenwich Public Schools Vision of the Graduate
How does Understanding by Design connect with the vision of transdiscipl
inary learning?
Backward Design 101 -This article reviews the differences between tr
aditional curriculum and Backwards Design.
Identifying Enduring Understandings - http://pdonline.ascd.org/pd_on
line/ubd_backward/mctighe99chapter4.html

quotes
This means that the teacher is boring when teaching lessons (dull teacher), unin
teresting textbooks has been issued by this teacher too (dull textbooks) and it
was a dumb movie film ever so that`s why i`m feeling so lazy (dull films) but wh
en it comes to subject matter, it is means no dull subjects is there is no borin
g subjects if the teacher is quiet fun and cool to explain what is the lesson be
hind. So in reflection basis, there is no subjects that i hard with the cool tea
cher and funny professor. All students can be good if the teacher is good too in
teaching. If the teacher is intelligent, his students will also get intelligent
when the teacher is very good in teaching skills. Not all teacher`s like this.
They can be count using your hand.

dedutive
Inductive and Deductive Instruction
Two very distinct and opposing instructional approaches are inductive and deduct
ive. Both approaches can offer certain advantages, but the biggest difference is
the role of the teacher. In a deductive classroom, the teacher conducts lessons
by introducing and explaining concepts to students, and then expecting students
 to complete tasks to practice the concepts; this approach is very teacher-centr
ed. Conversely, inductive instruction is a much more student-centred approach an
d makes use of a strategy known as noticing . Let s take a closer look at the differe
nces between inductive and deductive instruction, and find out how noticing can
be used in the language classroom to better facilitate student learning.

What is deductive instruction?

A deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach. This me
ans that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then has
the students practice using the concept. For example, when teaching a new gramm
ar concept, the teacher will introduce the concept, explain the rules related to
its use, and finally the students will practice using the concept in a variety
of different ways.
According to Bob Adamson, The deductive method is often criticized because: a) it
teaches grammar in an isolated way; b ) little attention is paid to meaning; c)
practice is often mechanical. This method can, however, be a viable option in ce
rtain situations; for example, when dealing with highly motivated students, teac
hing a particularly difficult concept, or for preparing students to write exams.
What is inductive instruction?
In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of studen
t noticing . Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation w
ith examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the c
oncept is used. The intent is for students to notice , by way of the examples, how
the concept works.
Using the grammar situation from above, the teacher would present the students w
ith a variety of examples for a given concept without giving any preamble about
how the concept is used. As students see how the concept is used, it is hoped th
at they will notice how the concept is to be used and determine the grammar rule
. As a conclusion to the activity, the teacher can ask the students to explain t
he grammar rule as a final check that they understand the concept.
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How can teachers help their students practice noticing ?
In the 1990s researchers explored the role that noticing a grammatical construct p
layed in learning that structure. They hypothesized that learners needed to noti
ce a structure in order to hold it in their short- or long-term memory. Although
the value of the concept to grammatical acquisition is still under debate (See
http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej23/a2.html), the overall value of resp
onding promptly to questions and observations of learners cannot be dismissed no
r can the role that awareness and consciousness play in the development of metal
inguistic knowledge.
What is noticing?
Noticing is the process of students becoming aware of something in particular; a
s mentioned above in the inductive approach, noticing can be used to teach a gra
mmar concept when students are given the examples, and they come to understand t
he rule by noticing what those examples have in common. In a more general classr
oom situation, noticing can be used in many ways:
When teachers speak at a more advanced level, they are giving the students c
onstant opportunities to notice the differences between the teacher s speech and t
heirs. This way each student can become aware of the differences at his own pace
.
 Teachers can provide students with opportunities for noticing simply by putt
ing posters up in the classroom in the target language. As before, when the stud
ents are ready to notice the difference, they will.
Language ladders (see the Functions of Language page) are also to promote st
udents noticing skills. Once they understand what each rung on the ladder means,
they can understand how they all fit together and how they differ.
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How can a teacher decide which method is the best choice for a given topic?
Both deductive and inductive sequences are valuable for teaching concepts, gener
alizations, processes, and skills. The teacher must decide which to select given
the learning outcomes desired and the composition of the class. When choosing,
the teacher should consider a number of factors:
How personalized should the learning be? Students will usually be more invol
ved in the learning experience and tend to participate more actively when an ind
uctive approach is used. If a deductive approach is chosen, it is important to s
tructure the learning experience in order to draw on students' prior experiences
and learning, and to provide for their active involvement.
Should learning experiences be predictable? The deductive approach is more p
redictable because the teacher selects the information and the sequence of prese
ntation.
What depth of understanding and rate of retention is desired? Students tend
to understand and remember more when learning occurs inductively.
How much time is available to teach the material? The deductive approach is
faster and can be an efficient way to teach large numbers of facts and concrete
concepts.
Instructional methods tend to be either deductive or inductive, although some me
thods use both. Many lessons can include both approaches.
Information taken from Saskatchewan Education: Making Instructional Choices.

three level
Integrated Teaching The Three Level Strategy
Do you ever wonder exactly HOW children learn?
The present system of education follows a building block principle. In this, eac
h subject has its own block of time, usually restricted to one part of the cours
e.
The early curriculum is expected to lay foundation for the other subjects that f
ollow. It is left to the students to solve the jigsaw puzzle. Let us see an exam
ple. It you give the students individual ingredients of a cake flour, egg and su
gar to eat, even if you force them to swallow it, will they be able to digest it
? On the other hand, it you mix the ingredients, blend it well and bake it the s
tudents would love to eat it and definitely will have no problem to digest it.
There were flaws on the system, that is sometimes there is unnecessary repetitio
n of teaching, disjointed approach to teaching, and confusion in student s mind du
e to difference in opinion which in turn leads to disunity and hence the subject
as a whole is never grasped. This discourages students from learning and they g
et disinterested in applying the knowledge achieved into practice.
What was lacking?
Integration was lacking. Integrated curriculum in education is organize in such
a way that it cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing together various aspect
s of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon broad areas of stu
dy. It views learning and teaching in a holistic way and reflects the real world
, which is interactive. It aims at giving the students a holistic instead of a f
ragmented outlook on his studies. Thus the topics can be presented in a more mea
ningful way. This overcomes the separation in the students mind between form and
function of the system concerned, its diseases, their diagnosis, therapy and so
cial and preventive aspects.
Integration is defined as organization of teaching matter to interrelate or unif
y subjects frequently taught in separate academic courses or departments.
Using an integrated curriculum to teach is a strategy based on the premise that
learning is a series of connections. The integrated curriculum can be beneficial
to teachers and students, using theme teaching, projects, and units to cover a
variety of material and effectively teach many concepts and skills. This approac
h allows children to learn in a way that is most natural to them. Teachers can c
reate a good deal of their curriculum by building webs made up of themes of inte
rest to the children, with benefits for all. These benefits include more adequat
e coverage of curriculum, use of natural learning, and building on children s inte
rests, teaching skills in meaningful contexts, more flexibility, and an organize
d planning device.
Integration is possible if departmental (both intradepartmental and inter-depart
mental) barriers are completely broken down and the curriculum will be revamped.
Many of our nation s schools, colleges, and leisure services organizations are off
ering programs that focus on basic skills instruction in a variety of outdoor ad
venture pursuits. These programs are design to provide participants with opportu
nities for challenge and adventure in a natural setting, emphasizing safe and en
vironmentally sound traveling and camping practices.
Instructional objectives for these programs are usually based on three primary a
reas the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains.
Merrill s three level strategies in integrated teaching were under in these Bloom s
domain of learning. Fact and concept level is under the cognitive domain, where
in on the fact level it includes specific information on details, isolated facts
, events, and the learning of very basic skills; while on the concept level, the
principles supporting the facts were explored, generalizations were made from t
he information gathered, and if skills were involved, more complex skills were i
ntroduced and practiced. At this level, the teacher encourages the students to e
xplore the principles behind the facts and student is encourage to put pieces of
different facts together so that generalizations can be made from the gathered
data. However, nothing is really accomplished until the student is guided to the
values level. Values level is under the affective domain which is use to develo
p attitudes, values, and feelings towards particular issues or ideas, including
attitudes towards the environment. At this level the subject matter is integrate
d into students lives, and students are encourage to think, feel, and act on thei
r concerns, attitudes, and experiences. At this level the student is made to rel
ate the facts and concepts to his or her own life (i.e., What does this have to d
o with me? ). At the values level the student is forced to explore the connection
between the subject matter and his or her own behavior.
We know that integrated teaching units work for children and teachers, and we ca
n look for ways to integrate new ideas with our already effective teaching units.
These integrated units allow us the opportunity to make sure children are learni
ng relevant information and applying that knowledge to real life scenarios. That
is why in our lesson plans; we integrate the three domains including the psycho
motor domain to have a holistic learning.
Integration not only done with these three domains or three domains, it can also
be done across many disciplines. That is interdisciplinary teaching, where we c
onnect one subject to another in just one lesson only (e.g. teaching science but
we incorporate math, language, social science and values into it). Thus, integr
ated teaching promotes the development of multiple intelligences, where varied l
earning styles and daily experiences of the learners were tackled. It also means
empowering learners to become lifelong learners and active makers of meaning.