Catena 119 (2014) 166173

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Mineral composition vs. soil forming processes in loess soils A case

study from Krakw (Southern Poland)
Marek Drewnik a,, Micha Skiba b, Wojciech Szymaski a, Marcin ya a
a
Jagiellonian University, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Department of Pedology and Soil Geography, Gronostajowa St. 7, 30-387 Krakw, Poland
b
Jagiellonian University, Institute of Geological Sciences, Department of Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry, Oleandry St. 2a, 30-063 Krakw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The mineral composition of soil parent material has a clear impact on: soil formation, soil properties (espe-
Received 26 March 2013 cially chemical properties), and mineral transformation in soil environment. Despite many studies
Received in revised form 29 January 2014 concerning loess soils, detailed, quantitative studies on the mineral composition and transformation of
Accepted 21 February 2014
clay minerals in loess soils formed during Holocene and the inuence of the mineral composition of parent
Available online 15 March 2014
material on the properties of loess soils are rare. The main aims of the present study were (1) to determine
Keywords:
the inuence of loess mineral composition on soil genesis and (2) to determine layer silicate transforma-
Loess tions and clay mineral formation in loess soils in relation to soil-forming processes using qualitative and
Chernozems quantitative X-ray diffraction analyses (XRD and QXRD). The obtained results show that the occurrence
Luvisols of carbonate minerals (i.e. calcite) and their inuence on chemical properties of soil play a crucial role in
Albeluvisols the evolution of loess soils. In loess that does not contain carbonates, dispersion and translocation of clay
Clay minerals particles (including clay minerals) down the prole occur. This leads to the formation of Luvisols and
Carbonates Albeluvisols. In carbonate loess, clay minerals and soil organic matter form stable humusmineral com-
plexes leading to the accumulation of humus and the formation of Chernozems. The transformation of
mica and/or smectite and/or vermiculite to hydroxy-interlayered minerals (HIMs) is the dominant process
in the studied loess soils developed in a temperate climate because intense weathering of layer silicates is
possible after removal of carbonates from soil prole. This indicates that the occurrence of carbonates
which maintain soil pH on a level of about 7 or higher is most likely the main factor controlling the rate of
weathering of layer silicates in a loess soil environment. In carbonate loess, the dissolution and leaching of
carbonates prevail over the weathering of silicates. It is highly likely that the continuous leaching of
carbonates assuming that the climate will not change will lead to more intense weathering of layer silicates.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The mineral composition of soil parent material has a clear impact
on soil formation. On the other hand, soil properties control the mineral
transformation, decomposition, and neoformation of soil minerals
(Wilson, 1999). The relationships between soil properties and soil min-
eral composition in young soils (i.e. few thousand years old) formed
from loess are not very often subject of investigation. Few studies
concerning the mineral composition of loess soils can be found in the re-
search literature (from Poland e.g.: Ciolkosz and Uziak, 2003; Uziak,
1961, 1964). Fanning and Jackson (1964), Kalm et al. (1996), Blanco
and Stoops (2007), Buggle et al. (2008), and Jeong et al. (2008) were
able to shown that, based on the mineral composition of different
loess soils (i.e. Gray-Brown Podzolic soils, paleosols, Luvisols, and
Calcisols), it was possible to determine the origin of detrital material-
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marek.drewnik@uj.edu.pl (M. Drewnik).
forming loess. In addition, Jeong et al. (2011) noted the opportunity to
identify the loess transportation process and chemical weathering
after deposition, basing on the mineral and chemical compositions of
loess.
Clay minerals, as mineral phases very sensitive to environmental
changes, are very important indicators of weathering and transfor-
mation of loess. Kalm et al. (1996) and Khormali and Kehl (2011) re-
ported on primary mineral transformation and formation of clay
minerals in loess soils (paleosols, Luvisols, Cambisols, Chernozems,
Regosols, Calcisols) as a reection of climate conditions. According
to Fanning and Jackson (1964), and Finke and Hutson (2008), the
mineral composition of loess soils is controlled by soil properties
(e.g. presence of carbonates). Gunal and Ransom (2006) stated that
mineral composition depends on soil drainage. These issues are
very important because the mineral composition of contemporary
soils developed from loess and loess paleosols allows reconstructing
the paleo-environment and determining soil formation conditions in
the past. Kalm et al. (1996), basing on relative amount of illite, kao-
linite, smectite and chlorite or chloritevermiculite, showed that

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.02.012
0341-8162/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173
the composition of clay minerals reects periods of more intensive
and less intensive weathering of loess material. Detailed mineralog-
ical studies dealing with specic weathering occurring between the
main phases of loess deposition were conducted on Pleistocene
pedocomplexes (e.g. Jeong et al., 2008; Kosti and Proti, 2000). On
the other hand, detailed studies concerning the mineral composition
and transformation of clay minerals in loess soils (Luvisols,
Cambisols, Chernozems, Regosols, Calcisols) developed during Holo-
cene are relatively rare (Bronger et al., 1998; Huang et al., 2011;
Khormali and Kehl, 2011; Kuzila, 1995; Sokolova et al., 2010).
Jeong et al. (2008) showed that mineral transformations in loess
soils are not very clearly marked. They also noticed that, the results
of the mineralogical studies are hardly comparable because of the
fact that in these studies only the mineral composition of ne frac-
tions was reported and the main soil minerals were omitted. Studies
concerning the inuence of the mineral composition of the parent
material on the properties of loess soils are also rare. Gunal and
Ransom (2006) showed that the physical properties (e.g. coefcient
of linear extensibility COLE) of Luvisols formed from loess from
central Kansas depend on the mineral composition of loess.
Fanning and Jackson (1964) reported that the development
(origin and evolution) of loess soils (graybrown Podzolic soils) in
southern Wisconsin depends on the carbonate content in their par-
ent material.
A variety of loess soils (Luvisols, Cambisols, Chernozems) formed in
Holocene occurring near each other can be found in the Krakw area
(e.g. Komornicki, 1974; Skiba et al., 2013; Zasoski, 1974, 1983). The
main aims of the present study were (1) to determine the inuence of
loess mineral composition on soil genesis and (2) to determine layer sil-
icate transformations and clay mineral formation in loess soils in rela-
tion to soil-forming processes using qualitative and quantitative X-ray
diffraction analyses (XRD and QXRD).
Fig. 1. Distribution of loess in Europe (A) (based on Haase et al., 2007) and (B) location of
the studied soil proles (distribution of loess based on Gradziski (1955) and Rutkowski
(1993)); a loess cover.
167
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The study was carried out in the northeastern and northwestern pe-
ripheral parts of Krakw, southern Poland (Fig. 1). The study area is built
of mesozoic carbonate rocks (Jurassic limestones, dolomites, and marls)
covered by sandy and gravelly glaciouvial deposits and Vistulian loess
(Gradziski, 1955; Rutkowski, 1993). This is a part of the European loess
belt (Fig. 1). The loess in the area studied constitutes a parent material
for Chernozems, Luvisols, and Albeluvisols. Many of these soils have
been cultivated continuously since the Middle Ages (Korna and
Medwecka-Korna, 1974). The mean annual temperature in the study
area is 7.9 C and the mean annual precipitation for the 19562000 pe-
riod was 675 mm (Bokwa et al., 2013).
2.2. Field and laboratory analyses
In order to determine the impact of the mineral composition of the
parent material on soil genesis, other soil-forming factors (i.e. climate,
relief, water conditions, vegetation cover, time and human impact)
must be the same. Because of that fact, two loess soil proles occurring
quite near each other (distance is ~20 km) and formed from slightly dif-
ferent parent materials (i.e. carbonate loess vs. non-carbonate loess)
were selected for detailed analysis (Table 1). Prole 1 was classied as
Haplic Chernozem (Siltic) and the second prole (prole 2) was classi-
ed as Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic) according to the WRB classi-
cation system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). The soil proles
excavated were described and sampled. One large, representative bulk
sample was collected from each genetic horizon. In addition, undis-
turbed soil samples were collected in order to determine physical prop-
erties (bulk density and total porosity).
The bulk samples were air dried, gently crushed using a wooden
rolling pin, and sieved through a 2 mm steel sieve. The texture was de-
termined by wet sieving (sand fractions) and the hydrometer method
(silt and clay fractions) (Gee and Bauder, 1986). The organic carbon
content was determined using the rapid dichromate oxidation tech-
nique (modied Tyurin method) (Nelson and Sommers, 1996), and
the amount of carbonate (as equivalent to CaCO3) was determined
using the volumetric calcimeter method. The soil reaction was mea-
sured in distilled water (1:2.5 soil/water ratio) (Thomas, 1996). Total
porosity (P) and bulk density (Db) were determined using the core
method (Blake and Hartge, 1986). Soil color was described in the
moist state using Munsell Color Soil Charts.
Geochemical analyses were performed at Activation Laboratories
Ltd. (ACTLABS) by means of fusion inductively coupled plasma-optical
emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma-
mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (for the determination of trace elements).
The sample was digested with four acids beginning with hydrouoric
acid and followed by a mixture of nitric and perchloric acids, then heat-
ed using precise programmer controlled heating over several ramping
and holding cycles, which takes the samples to a dry state. Following
drying, the samples are brought back into solution using hydrochloric
acid. Certied reference materials were used for quality control.
The mass fraction of constituent for elements was calculated accord-
ing to a procedure (so-called mass balance analysis) given by Brimhall
and Dietrich (1987) with zirconium as a reference element. The mass
balance was calculated with reference to mean values from three sam-
ples collected from the lowest horizon in each soil prole.
The mineral composition of the studied soil proles (fraction b 2 mm)
was determined using X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Quantitative mineral
composition analysis was conducted using bulk soil samples (b2 mm
fractions). The samples were air dried and 2.7 g of each sample was
mixed with 0.3 g of Baker ZnO (as an internal standard) and ground in
ethanol using a McCrone micronizing mill for 10 min. The ground
samples were dried and passed through a 0.4 mm steel sieve and side-
168 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173

Table 1
Selected information concerning studied sites and classication of the studied soils.
Prole 1 Prole 2
Location Kocielniki Mydlniki
Latitude, longitude N 500605.6, E 201055.9 N 500555.6, E 195155.6 of this prole (up to 95 cm) did not contain carbonates at all (Table 3). The
Altitude 231 m a.s.l. 272 m a.s.l.
Geomorphic position Flat summit Flat summit
Vegetation/land cover Arable land (wheat) Arable land
(35 years abandoned)
Classication Haplic Chernozem (Siltic) Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol
(WRB, 2006) (Siltic)
loaded to obtain random powder mounts according to the procedure
given by Moore and Reynolds (1997). A ne clay fraction (b0.2 m)
was separated from bulk samples (b 2 mm) by centrifugation preceded
by: carbonate removal using Na-acetic buffer, organic matter oxidation
using hydrogen peroxide, and free Fe3+-oxide removal using Na-
citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite (CBD) according to the procedure de-
scribed by Jackson (1969). Only the ne clay fraction (b0.2 m) was
analyzed, because a large concentration of mica and quartz was
expected in bulk clay (i.e. fraction b 2 m). The products of clay trans-
formation (i.e. mixed-layered clays) were expected to concentrate in
the ne clay fraction. Additionally, the most reactive and sensitive
clay minerals to processes occurring in soil environment can be
masked by minerals present in coarser clay fraction (i.e. b2 m)
(Hubert et al., 2012). The separated fractions were saturated with
K + and Mg2 + using 1 mol/dm 3 KCl and 1 mol/dm 3 MgCl2 , re-
spectively. The excess salts were removed by dialysis. Oriented
mounts were prepared from both K-saturated and Mg-saturated
samples using a glass slide technique with surface density of
10 mg/cm2 (rodo, 2006). However, in some cases the density of
oriented specimens was lowered to avoid rolling of clay lm.
XRD analyses were performed using a Philips X'Pert diffractometer
with a vertical PW3020 goniometer. The instrument was equipped with
a 1 divergence slit, 0.2 mm receiving slit, incident- and diffracted-beam
Soller slits, 1 anti-scatter slit and a graphite diffracted-beam monochro-
mator. CuK radiation was used with a voltage of 40 kV and a 30 mA cur-
rent. Random powder mounts for quantitative analysis were scanned
from 2 to 652 at a counting speed of 0.02/5 s. Quantitative analysis of
the mineral composition of the bulk samples (b 2 mm) was performed
using the Rietveld AutoQuan/BGMN computer program (Taut et al.,
1998). XRD data from 152 to 652 range were used for calculation pur-
poses. Oriented mounts were scanned from 2 to 502 at a counting
speed of 0.02/2 s. K-saturated clays were scanned in air dry condition
and after heating for 1 h at 330 C and at 550 C. Mg-saturated clays
were analyzed at air dry condition and after solvation with liquid glycerol.
Relative air humidity was checked during every run (~32%). Clay min-
erals were identied using operational denitions given by rodo
(2006). XRD patterns recorded for oriented mounts were processed
using the ClayLab computer program (Mystkowski, 1999).
was neutral or slightly alkaline (pH 7.08.3 in distilled water) and only
the upper part (i.e. Ap and A horizons) showed an acidic or slightly acidic
reaction (pH 4.75.0 in distilled water) (Table 3). This was a reection of
the carbonate content, which increased down the prole. The upper part
amount of organic carbon was small and ranged from 0.1% in the lower-
most horizons to 1.1% in the Ap horizon (Table 3).
Prole 2 showed the following morphology: Ap-A-AE-Eg-Btx-Btg-
BC-C1-C2 and was classied as Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic) accord-
ing to the WRB classication system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006)
(Fig. 2, Tables 1 and 2). The origin of this soil was connected with the
translocation of the clay fraction down the prole (so-called lessivage).
The occurrence of many clay coatings on the surfaces of peds from illuvial
horizons clearly indicated the illuviation of clays (Table 2). The transloca-
tion of the clay fraction was responsible for higher bulk density and
lower total porosity of the illuvial horizons (Table 3). This leads to the pe-
riodic stagnation of water above illuvial horizons (i.e. Btx and Btg) as in-
dicated by the presence of clear bleaching of the eluvial horizon,
occurrence of FeMn nodules, and mottling (Table 2). The texture of
the prole was silt loam, only in AE horizon it was sandy loam according
to USDA (Soil Survey Staff, 2010). However, illuvial horizons contained
higher amounts of the clay fraction in comparison with the upper part
of the prole, indicating lessivage (Table 3). The reaction of this soil
was acidic in the upper horizons (pH 4.76.3 in distilled water) and neu-
tral in the lower part (pH 6.8 in distilled water) (Table 3). The amount of
organic carbon in prole 2 was similar to that in prole 1 (up to 1.1% in
Ap horizon). This soil prole did not contain carbonates (Table 3). The
morphology, physical and chemical properties of prole 2 were typical
of soils formed from loess showing decalcication or originally not
containing carbonates (e.g. Khormali and Kehl, 2011; Kuzila, 1995;
Lindbo et al., 1994, 1995, 2000; Mermut et al., 1995; Szymaski et al.,
2011, 2012).
3.2. Chemical composition of soils
The investigated soil proles were composed mainly of SiO2 (7087%)
and Al2O3 (59%) (Table 4), which is a reection of their mineral compo-
sition. A similar chemical composition of loess from different regions of
the world was described by many other researchers (e.g. Gallet et al.,
1998; Lautridou et al., 1984; Taylor et al., 1983). The prole 1 exhibited
lower content of Ca and Mg in the upper horizons that is related to

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Soil morphology, physical and chemical properties

Prole 1 was classied as Haplic Chernozem (Siltic) according to the

WRB system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). The morphology of this
soil was typical of Chernozems, i.e. Ap-A-Bh/A-Bh-C1-Ck2-Ck3-Ck4
(Fig. 2, Tables 1 and 2). In the Bh/A and Bh horizons, humus coatings
were present. The soil exhibited high biological activity to a depth of 0.7
m and no evidence of water stagnation (Table 2). The texture of the Haplic
Chernozem was silt loam according to USDA (Soil Survey Staff, 2010)
throughout the prole, which is typical of loess soils (e.g. Khormali and
Kehl, 2011; Kosti and Proti, 2000). Bulk density and total porosity
were almost the same throughout the prole, with a slight increase in
density in the lowermost horizons (Table 3). The reaction of this soil Fig. 2. Morphology of the studied soil proles; 1 prole no. 1 and 2 prole no. 2.
 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173 169

Table 2
Field description of the studied soils.

Horizon Depth (cm) Color (moist) Structure Roots FeMn nodules Coatings Bioturbations

Haplic Chernozem (Siltic)

Ap 038 10YR 5/3 Granular Common Absent Absent Abundant
A 3856 10YR 5/3 Granular Common Absent Absent Abundant
Bh/A 5670 10YR 5/3; 10YR 6/24 Granular Common Absent Humus Abundant
Bh 7095 10YR 6/24 Subangular blocky Few Absent Humus Few
C1 95107 10YR 7/4 Massive Few Absent Absent Absent
Ck2 107240 10YR 7/4 Massive Absent Absent Absent Absent
Ck3 240370 10YR 7/34 Massive Absent Absent Absent Absent
Ck4 370400 10YR 7/34 Massive Absent Absent Absent Absent

Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic)

Ap 023 10YR 6/3 Granular Many Absent Absent Abundant
A 2328 10YR 6/3 Subangular blocky and platy Few Absent Absent Frequent
AE 2865 10YR 6/3 Subangular blocky and platy Few Absent Humus Few
Eg 6573 10YR 7/25/2 Angular blocky and platy Few Few Absent Few
Btx 7383 10YR 6/35/2; 2.5Y 7/3 Angular blocky and platy Few Few Clay Few
Btg 83152 10YR 56/4; 7.5YR 3/2 Prismatic Few Absent Clay Absent
BC 152230 10YR 56/4; 7.5YR 3/2 Prismatic Absent Absent Clay Absent
C1 230320 10YR 8/4 Massive Absent Absent Absent Absent
C2 320420 10YR 7/4 Massive Absent Absent Absent Absent

translocation (leaching) of these elements (Table 4). This is supported by
mass balance analysis (Table 5).
The upper part of prole 2 showed also clear depletion of Ca and Mg,
indicating leaching of basic cations in the acidic soil environment due to
percolation of water in a humid climate (Table 5). This part of the prole
(i.e. A, AE, and Eg horizons) exhibited also lower amount of Fe because
of periodic stagnation of water. Stagnation leads to the reduction of the
insoluble in H2O Fe3+ form to a soluble Fe2+ form, which is translocated
to the lower part of the pedon (Bigham et al., 2002; Lindbo et al., 1995;
Szymaski et al., 2011).
3.3. Mineral composition of the studied soils
Mineral composition of bulk samples of both pedons studied was
similar (Table 6). Prole 1 contained: quartz, K-feldspars, plagioclases,
dioctahedral mica, biotite (with the exception of the Ap horizon), calcite
(in lower horizons), chlorite, kaolinite, and smectite (Figs. 3 and 4,
Table 6). In addition, mica-vermiculite and mica-smectite mixed-
layered minerals occurred (Figs. 3 and 4). In the Ap horizon, trace
amounts of goethite were also present (Table 6). Quartz was the pre-
dominant mineral with a concentration between 57.3% and 64.3% in
Ck4 and A horizons, respectively (Table 6). K-feldspars predominated
over plagioclases in the Ap and A horizons. Dioctahedral mica exhibited
an almost even distribution throughout the prole with a slightly higher
concentration in the Bh horizon. The lack of calcite in the Ap and A ho-
rizons and its very low concentration in the Bh and C1 horizons provid-
ed evidence of calcite dissolution and leaching due to a humid climate
and percolation of water. Chlorite, kaolinite, and smectite were evenly
distributed throughout the prole, indicating the lack of clear illuviation
(Table 6).
XRD data for the ne clay fraction indicated a lack of transformation
of mica, vermiculite and smectite inherited from parent material
(Figs. 4 and 6). The lack of transformation of layer silicates in this soil

Table 3
Physical and chemical properties of the studied soil proles.

Horizon Depth 2.00.05 mm 0.050.002 mm b0.002 mm Db P pH eqCaCO3 Corg

(cm) (Mg/m3) (%) (H2O)
(%) (%)

Haplic Chernozem (Siltic)

Ap 038 17.3 74.7 7.9 1.31 45.4 5.3 0.0 1.1
A 3856 14.7 78.2 7.1 1.34 48.7 6.5 0.0 1.0
Bh/A 5670 16.2 76.2 7.5 1.50 43.0 7.0 0.0 0.4
Bh 7095 20.5 72.2 7.3 1.43 44.6 7.4 0.0 0.2
C1 95107 20.6 72.1 7.5 1.47 44.2 7.7 0.3 0.1
Ck2 107240 21.3 71.6 7.0 1.52 42.3 8.3 7.7 0.1
Ck3 240370 21.7 71.8 6.5 1.60 36.6 8.2 8.2 0.1
Ck4 370400 24.0 69.6 6.3 1.57 40.3 8.3 8.0 0.1

Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic)

Ap 023 42.2 54.1 3.7 1.12 57.4 4.7 0.0 1.1
A 2328 43.3 52.7 4.2 n.a. n.a. 5.0 0.0 0.8
AE 2865 47.0 48.6 4.3 1.47 43.9 6.3 0.0 0.3
Eg 6573 19.5 74.6 5.9 1.47 43.6 6.6 0.0 0.2
Btx 7383 21.1 71.2 7.6 1.63 38.9 6.8 0.0 0.4
Btg 83152 32.0 61.5 6.6 1.57 40.2 6.8 0.0 0.2
BC 152230 26.6 67.7 5.6 1.55 40.5 6.6 0.0 0.1
C1 230320 31.9 63.0 5.1 1.61 38.4 6.4 0.0 0.1
C2 320420 27.9 65.2 6.9 1.61 38.4 6.8 0.0 0.1

Db bulk density.
P total porosity.
n.a. not analyzed.
170 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173

Table 4 (Table 6). The predominance of quartz and its higher amount in the top-
Chemical composition of the studied soils. soil in comparison with lower horizons is related to the high resistance
Horizon Depth SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O LOI of the mineral against weathering in the soil environment (Jeong et al.,
(cm) 2008; Wilson, 2004). The amount of K-feldspars was almost the same as
(%)
the amount of plagioclases. Their content ranges from 7.1 to 10.5%.
Haplic Chernozem (Siltic)
However, the former prevailed in upper horizons (Ap, AE, and Eg hori-
Ap 038 79.3 0.7 7.5 2.6 0.5 0.5 0.8 2.3 4.9
A 3856 78.0 0.7 8.1 2.8 0.6 0.7 0.8 2.2 5.0 zons). Such a distribution of K-feldspars and plagioclases is most likely
Bh/A 5670 77.0 0.7 9.0 3.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 2.3 4.5 the effect of weathering, because plagioclases are less resistant to
Bh 7095 78.6 0.7 8.7 2.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 2.4 3.6 weathering than K-feldspars (Jeong et al., 2008; Wilson, 2004). The
C1 95107 80.1 0.7 8.1 2.6 0.6 0.7 1.0 2.3 2.7 amount of dioctahedral mica was diverse with the highest concentra-
Ck2 107240 74.4 0.6 7.3 2.4 1.2 4.2 0.9 2.1 5.2
Ck3 240370 74.1 0.6 7.4 2.4 1.3 5.2 0.9 2.2 5.8
tion in Btx horizon. Swelling clays prevailed over chlorite and kaolinite.
Ck4 370400 72.9 0.7 8.0 2.6 1.3 4.0 0.9 2.2 5.5 The amount of swelling clays was between 3.1% in the Ap horizon and
13.3% in the Btg horizon (Table 6). Kaolinite also exhibited a higher con-
Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic)
Ap 023 83.7 0.6 6.0 1.7 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.9 3.7
centration within lower horizons (Btx, Btg, BC, and C2). The higher con-
A 2328 84.4 0.7 6.1 1.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.9 3.1 tent of kaolinite in Ap horizon (in comparison with AE and Eg horizons)
AE 2865 84.6 0.6 5.9 1.5 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.9 2.5 is most likely connected with aeolian admixtures. The distribution of
Eg 6573 86.4 0.7 6.0 1.4 0.3 0.4 0.8 2.1 1.2 smectite and kaolinite indicates the translocation of clay minerals
Btx 7383 80.5 0.6 7.9 2.8 0.6 0.5 0.7 2.0 3.4
down the prole, which is associated with a humid climate and an ab-
Btg 83152 80.3 0.6 8.0 2.8 0.6 0.5 0.7 2.0 3.2
BC 152230 80.8 0.7 7.9 2.6 0.5 0.6 0.8 2.2 2.7 sence of carbonates throughout the prole. The concentration of chlo-
C1 230320 81.9 0.7 8.0 2.6 0.5 0.6 0.9 2.2 2.7 rite was low (0.94.7%) because chlorite is susceptible to weathering
C2 320420 80.8 0.7 7.5 2.2 0.7 1.8 0.9 2.2 2.9 in an acidic soil environment (Skiba, 2007; Wilson, 1999). No clear
LOI loss on ignition. trend in chlorite distribution throughout the prole was observed.
However, BC horizon showed slightly higher concentration of chlorite.
Such a distribution of chlorite may be related to its decomposition in
upper soil horizons due to cyclic oxidation and reduction (ferrolysis)
prole is most likely related to a quite short period of intense (Brinkman, 1979; Brinkman et al., 1973; Hardy et al., 1999; Kohut and
weathering, which could be possible following the leaching of carbon- Warren, 2002; McKeague and Brydon, 1970). It is supported by a stagnic
ates. The occurrence of carbonates protected mica, vermiculite, and color pattern (Table 2), which was the strongest marked in upper
smectite from transformation due to high pH (e.g. Uzarowicz and 100120 cm of this prole.
Skiba, 2011). This suggests that the occurrence of carbonates is most like- A comparison of X-ray patterns of the ne clay fraction from specic
ly the main factor inhibiting the weathering of layer silicates in a loess horizons indicated that the formation of hydroxy-interlayered minerals
soil environment. Present-day agricultural liming of soils in the study (HIMs) in the upper soil horizons is a dominant process in prole 2
area affects soil pH and thus inuences conditions for mineral trans- (Figs. 5 and 6). HIMs are likely to be formed due to precipitation of Al-
formation in the soils (Nazarkiewicz and Kaniuczak, 2012). hydroxy and/or Fe-hydroxy polymers within swelling clays (i.e. vermic-
Prole 2 was composed of quartz, K-feldspars, plagioclases (mainly ulite and smectite). This is in agreement with results previously
albite), and dioctahedral mica (Fig. 3). In the lower part of the pedon obtained by Rich and Cook (1961), Rich (1968), McKeague and
(i.e. Btx, Btg, and BC horizons), traces of biotite (i.e. trioctahedral Brydon (1970), Wilson (1999), Malla (2002), Jeong et al. (2011), and
mica) were also present. In addition, chlorite, kaolinite, swelling clays Khormali and Kehl (2011). HIMs seemed to concentrate in the Ap, A,
(i.e. smectite, mica-vermiculite, and mica-smectite), and goethite and AE horizons. Therefore some of the interlayered clays are likely to
(only in the Ap horizon) also occurred (Figs. 3 and 5, Table 6). The be intercalated with organic matter (Brown, 1954; Skiba et al., 2011).
amount of quartz, which was a dominant mineral in all genetic horizons, Most likely, the formation of HIMs in the topsoil is related to slightly
ranged from 61.5% in the BC horizon to 74.1% in the Ap horizon acidic reaction and low amount of soil organic carbon (Table 3). This is
in agreement with e.g. Rich (1968), Barnhisel and Bertsch (1989),
Meunier (2007), and Tolpeshta et al. (2010) whose showed that HIMs
can form mainly in such conditions.
The obtained mineral composition data indicate that the presence of
Table 5 carbonates (i.e. calcite) plays a crucial role in the genesis of loess soils. In
The mass fraction of constituent for elements according to mass balance analysis.
loess that does not contain carbonates, the dispersion and translocation
Horizon Depth (cm) Fe Mg Ca Na K of clay minerals down the prole occur. This leads to the formation of
Haplic Chernozem (Siltic) Luvisols. The translocation of the clay fraction and its accumulation in
Ap 038 0.08 0.72 0.91 0.20 0.08 the lower part of the soil prole decrease its permeability. As a conse-
A 3856 0.03 0.65 0.87 0.18 0.07 quence, periodic stagnation of water above the illuvial horizon occurs,
Bh/A 5670 0.19 0.58 0.87 0.21 0.10 and cyclic reduction and oxidation also take place. This may lead to
Bh 7095 0.15 0.66 0.88 0.16 0.15
C1 95107 0.09 0.64 0.88 0.09 0.10
the transformation of Luvisols into Albeluvisols. In such conditions, the
Ck2 107240 0.07 0.12 0.04 0.01 0.04 weathering of primary minerals (especially mica) and transformation
Ck3 240370 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.00 of smectite and vermiculite inherited from parent material to HIMs
Ck4 370400 0.08 0.05 0.22 0.04 0.02 are more intensive.
Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic) On the other hand, clay minerals and humus form stable humus
Ap 023 0.06 0.23 0.48 0.01 0.18 mineral complexes leading to the accumulation of humus and the for-
A 2328 0.08 0.26 0.52 0.05 0.10 mation of Chernozems in soils developed from carbonate-rich loess.
AE 2865 0.11 0.29 0.45 0.03 0.14
The dissolution and leaching of carbonates prevail over the weathering
Eg 6573 0.28 0.32 0.50 0.02 0.09
Btx 7383 0.70 0.36 0.29 0.04 0.24 of silicates in such soils. It is highly likely that the continuous leaching of
Btg 83152 0.77 0.39 0.28 0.06 0.29 carbonates in temperate zone assuming that the climate will not
BC 152230 0.36 0.11 0.33 0.07 0.18 change will lead to more intense weathering of layer silicates. In addi-
C1 230320 0.05 0.11 0.38 0.15 0.14 tion, this could lead to the transformation of Chernozems into Luvisols
C2 320420 0.10 0.03 0.36 0.05 0.03
and subsequently into Albeluvisols (e.g. Eckmeier et al., 2007).
 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173 171

Table 6
Quantities of minerals (fraction b2 mm) in the soils studied.

Horizon Depth Quartz K-feldspars Plagioclases Di-mica Biotite Calcite Chlorite Kaolinite Smectite Goethite Amorphous
(cm)
(%)

Haplic Chernozem (Siltic)

Ap 038 62.6 11.7 8.6 4.2 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.2 9.8 0.4 0.4
A 3856 64.3 10.2 9.0 3.7 0.9 0.0 1.9 0.8 9.2 0.0 0.0
Bh/A 5670 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Bh 7095 63.4 6.9 9.9 5.7 1.3 0.2 2.0 1.6 9.1 0.0 0.0
C1 95107 62.7 6.8 13.0 4.0 1.2 0.3 1.7 1.9 8.4 0.0 0.0
Ck2 107240 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Ck3 240370 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Ck4 370400 57.3 9.2 9.0 4.4 0.4 5.4 2.9 0.3 10.7 0.0 0.3

Cutanic Fragic Albeluvisol (Siltic)

Ap 023 74.1 9.4 7.6 3.5 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.1 3.1 0.2 0.0
A 2328 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
AE 2865 73.5 9.8 7.1 4.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.5 3.2 0.0 0.0
Eg 6573 72.3 10.5 7.7 2.6 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.6 4.7 0.0 0.1
Btx 7383 61.8 7.3 8.4 5.7 1.4 0.0 1.8 1.6 11.9 0.0 0.1
Btg 83112 62.7 9.2 7.7 3.0 0.4 0.0 1.5 1.1 13.3 0.0 1.0
BC 152230 61.5 7.9 8.3 4.1 1.2 0.0 4.7 1.9 9.7 0.0 0.9
C1 230320 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
C2 320420 66.5 8.2 9.3 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.9 1.5 11.0 0.0 0.1

n.a. not analyzed.

Fig. 3. XRD patterns of bulk soil material (b2 mm) from Ap and Ck4 horizons of the prole
1 and from Ap and C2 horizons of the prole 2; Qtz quartz, Kf K-feldspars, Pl Fig. 4. XRD patterns of ne clay fraction (b0.2 m) from Ap and Ck4 horizons of the prole
plagioclases, M mica, K kaolinite, S smectite, V vermiculite, MS micasmectite, 1; Qtz quartz, M mica, K kaolinite, S smectite, V vermiculite, MS mica
MV micavermiculite, Cal calcite, and Zn zincite (internal standard). smectite, MV micavermiculite.
172 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173
Fig. 5. XRD patterns of ne clay fraction (b0.2 m) from Ap and C2 horizons of the prole
2; Qtz - quartz, M - mica, K - kaolinite, S - smectite, V - vermiculite, M-S - mica-smectite,
M-V - mica-vermiculite, HIMs - hydroxy-interlayered minerals.
4. Conclusions
Occurrence of carbonate minerals (i.e. calcite), which are respon-
sible for maintenance of alkaline reaction of soil, plays a crucial role
in the genesis and evolution of loess soils. In loess that does not con-
tain carbonates, dispersion and translocation of clay particles
(including clay minerals) down the prole occur. This leads to the
formation of Luvisols and Albeluvisols. In carbonate loess, clay min-
erals and soil organic matter form stable humusmineral complexes
leading to the accumulation of humus and the formation of
Chernozems.
The transformation of layer silicates (mica, smectite and vermic-
ulite) to HIMs is the predominant process in loess soils developed in
a temperate climate. Such transformation is possible following the
decalcication of loess which is accompanied by the decrease of
soil pH. This indicates that the occurrence of carbonates which
maintain soil pH on a level of about 7 or higher is most likely the
main factor controlling the rate of weathering of minerals in a
loess soil environment. In carbonate loess, dissolution and leaching
of carbonates prevail over the weathering of silicates. It is highly
likely that the continuous leaching of carbonates assuming that
the climate will not change will lead to more intense weathering
of layer silicates.
Fig. 6. XRD patterns of K-saturated ne clay fraction (b0.2 m) heated at 330 C from the
prole 1 and prole 2; Qtz quartz, M mica, K kaolinite, V vermiculite, HIMs
hydroxy-interlayered minerals.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Project N N305 121 034 from the State
Committee for Scientic Research (Warsaw, Poland). The author would
like to thank the Editor (Karl Stahr) and anonymous reviewers for their
helpful suggestions. Language editing was done by Grzegorz Zbik.
References
Barnhisel, R.I., Bertsch, P.M., 1989. Chlorites and hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite and
smectite, In: Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B. (Eds.), Minerals in Soil Environments, 2nd edition.
Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 729788.
Bigham, J.M., Fitzpatrick, R.W., Schulze, D.G., 2002. Iron oxides. In: Dixon, J.B., Schulze, D.G.
(Eds.), Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications. Soil Science Society of
America, Madison, WI, USA, pp. 323366.
Blake, G.R., Hartge, K.H., 1986. Bulk density, In: Klute, A. (Ed.), 2nd edition. Agronomy
Monograph, vol. 9. ASA-SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 363375.
Blanco, M.C., Stoops, G., 2007. Genesis of pedons with discontinuous argillic horizons in
the Holocene loess mantle of the southern Pampean landscape, Argentina. J. S. Am.
Earth Sci. 23, 3045.
Bokwa, A., Wypych, A., Ustrnul, Z., 2013. Climate changes in the vertical zones of the Pol-
ish Carpathians in the last 50 years. In: Kozak, J., et al. (Eds.), Integrating Nature and
Society Towards Sustainability. Environmental Science and Engineering, Springer-
Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 89109.
Brimhall, G.H., Dietrich, W.E., 1987. Constitutive mass balance relations between chemical
composition, volume, density, porosity, and strain in metasomatic hydrochemical sys-
tems: results on weathering and pedogenesis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51, 567587.
 M. Drewnik et al. / Catena 119 (2014) 166173
Brinkman, R., 1979. Ferrolysis, a soil-forming process in hydromorphic conditions. (PhD
thesis) Agricultural Research Reports 887Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Doc-
umentation, Wageningen.
Brinkman, R., Jongmans, A.G., Miedema, R., Maaskant, P., 1973. Clay decomposition in sea-
sonally wet, acid soils: micromorphological, chemical and mineralogical evidence
from individual argillans. Geoderma 10 (4), 259270.
Bronger, A., Winter, R., Sedov, S., 1998. Weathering and clay mineral formation in two
Holocene soils and in buried paleosols in Tadjikistan: towards a Quaternary paleocli-
matic record in Central Asia. Catena 34, 1934.
Brown, G., 1954. Soil morphology and mineralogy. A qualitative study of gleyed soils from
North-West England. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 5, 145155.
Buggle, B., Glaser, B., Zller, L., Hambach, U., Markowi, S., Glaser, I., Gerasimenko, N.,
2008. Geochemical characterization and origin of Southeastern and Eastern
European loesses (Serbia, Romania, Ukraine). Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 10581075.
Ciolkosz, E.J., Uziak, S., 2003. Clay minerals of some European Chernozems. Pol. J. Soil Sci.
36, 153162.
Eckmeier, E., Gerlach, R., Gehrt, E., Schmidt, M.W.I., 2007. Pedogenesis of Chernozems in
Central Europe a review. Geoderma 139, 288299.
Fanning, D.S., Jackson, M.L., 1964. Clay mineral weathering in southern Wisconsin soils
developed in loess and shale-derived till. Clay Clay Miner. 13, 175191.
Finke, A.P., Hutson, J.L., 2008. Modelling soil genesis in calcareous loess. Geoderma 145,
462479.
Gallet, S., Jahn, B., Van Vliet-Lano, B., Dia, A., Rosello, E., 1998. Loess geochemistry and its
implications for particle origin and composition of the upper continental crust. Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 156, 157172.
Gee, G.W., Bauder, J.W., 1986. Particle-size analysis, In: Klute, A. (Ed.), Methods of Soil
Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods, 2nd edition. Agronomy Mono-
graph, vol. 9. ASA-SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 427445.
Gradziski R., 1955. Detailed geological map of Poland, 1:50 000, sheet no. 974,
Niepoomice, Wyd. PIG Warszawa.
Gunal, H., Ransom, M.D., 2006. Genesis and micromorphology of loess-derived soils from
central Kansas. Catena 65, 222236.
Haase, D., Fink, J., Haase, G., Ruske, R., Pcsi, M., Richter, H., Altermann, M., Jger, K-D.,
2007. Loess in Europe its spatial distribution based on a European Loess Map, 1:
2 500 000, Quaternary Science Reviews 26(910), 13011312.
Hardy, M., Jamagne, M., Elsass, F., Robert, M., Chesneau, D., 1999. Mineralogical develop-
ment of the silt fractions of a Podzoluvisol on loess in the Paris Basin (France). Eur. J.
Soil Sci. 50, 443456.
Huang, C., Zhao, W., Tan, W., Koopal, L.K., 2011. Environmental signicance of mineral
weathering and pedogenesis of loess on the southernmost Loess Plateau, China.
Geoderma 163, 219226.
Hubert, F., Caner, L., Meunier, A., Ferrage, E., 2012. Unraveling complex b2 m clay miner-
alogy from soils using X-ray diffraction prole modeling on particle-size sub-
fractions: implications for soil pedogenesis and reactivity. Am. Mineral. 97, 384398.
(update 2007)IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006. World reference base for soil resources
2006. World Soil Resources Reports No. 103, FAO, Rome.
Jackson, M.L., 1969. Soil Chemical Analysis: Advanced Course, 2nd ed. Dept. of Soil Sci-
ence, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
Jeong, G.Y., Hillier, S., Kemp, R.A., 2008. Quantitative bulk and single-particle mineralogy
of a thick Chinese loesspaleosols section: implications for loess provenance and
weathering. Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 12711287.
Jeong, G.Y., Hillier, S., Kemp, R.A., 2011. Changes in mineralogy of loesspaleosol sections
across the Chinese Loess Plateau. Quat. Res. 75, 245255.
Kalm, V.E., Rutter, N.W., Rokosh, C.D., 1996. Clay minerals and their paleoenvironmental in-
terpretation in the Baoji loess section, Southern Loess Plateau, China. Catena 27, 4961.
Khormali, F., Kehl, M., 2011. Micromorphology and development of loess-derived surface
and buried soils along a precipitation gradient in Northern Iran. Quat. Int. 234,
109123.
Kohut, C.K., Warren, C.J., 2002. Chlorites. In: Dixon, J.B., Schulze, D.G. (Eds.), Soil Mineral-
ogy with Environmental Applications. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI,
USA, pp. 531553.
Komornicki, T., 1974. Soils of Krakw. Folia Geogr. 8, 145151 (in Polish).
Korna, J., Medwecka-Korna, A., 1974. The vegetation of Cracow. Folia Geogr. 8, 153169
(in Polish).
Kosti, N., Proti, N., 2000. Pedology and mineralogy of loess proles at Kapela-Batajnica
and Stala, Serbia. Catena 41, 217227.
Kuzila, M.S., 1995. Identication of multiple loess units within modern soils of Clay Coun-
ty, Nebraska. Geoderma 65, 4557.
Lautridou, J.P., Somm, J., Jamagne, M., 1984. Sedimentological, mineralogical and geo-
chemical characteristics of the loesses of North-West France. In: Pcsi, M. (Ed.),
Lithology and Stratigraphy of Loess and Paleosols. Geographical Research Institute
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, pp. 121132.
Lindbo, D.L., Rhoton, F.E., Bigham, J.M., Hudnall, W.H., Jones, F.S., Smeck, N.E., Tyler, D.D.,
1994. Bulk density and fragipan identication in loess soils of the Lower Mississippi
River Valley. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58, 884891 (Madison, Wisconsin).
Lindbo, D.L., Rhoton, F.E., Bigham, J.M., Hudnall, W.H., Jones, F.S., Smeck, N.E., Tyler, D.D.,
1995. Loess toposequences in the Lower Mississippi River Valley: I. Fragipan mor-
phology and identication. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 59, 487500 (Madison, WI).
173
Lindbo, D.L., Rhoton, F.E., Hudnall, W.H., Smeck, N.E., Bigham, J.M., Tyler, D.D., 2000.
Fragipan degradation and nodule formation in Glossic Fragiudalfs of the Lower
Mississippi River Valley. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64, 17131722 (Madison, Wisconsin).
Malla, P.B., 2002. Vermiculites. In: Dixon, J.B., Schulze, D.G. (Eds.), Soil Mineralogy
with Environmental Applications. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI,
USA, pp. 501529.
McKeague, J.A., Brydon, J.E., 1970. Mineralogical properties of ten reddish brown soils
from the Atlantic provinces in relation to parent materials and pedogenesis. Can. J.
Soil Sci. 50, 4755.
Mermut, A.R., Luk, S.H., Rmkens, M.J.M., Poesen, J.W.A., 1995. Micromorphological and
mineralogical components of surface sealing in loess soils from different geographic
regions. Geoderma 66, 7184.
Meunier, A., 2007. Soil hydroxy-interlayered minerals: a re-interpretation of their
crystallochemical properties. Clay Clay Miner. 55, 380388.
Moore, D., Reynolds, R.C., 1997. X-ray Diffraction and the Identication and Analysis of
Clay Minerals, Oxford. Oxford Univ. Press.
Mystkowski, K., 1999. ClayLab, a computer program for processing and interpretation of
X-ray diffractograms of clays. Conference of European Clay Groups Association,
EUROCLAY 1999, Book of abstracts, Krakw, Poland, pp. 114115.
Nazarkiewicz, M., Kaniuczak, J., 2012. The effect of liming and mineral fertilization on the
reaction, hydrolytic acidity, exchangeable acidity and content of exchangeable alu-
minium in Haplic Luvisols. Rocz. Gleboznawcze - Soil Sci. Annu. 63, 4348.
Nelson, D.W., Sommers, L.E., 1996. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In:
Sparks, D.L., et al. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3. Chemical Methods SSSA
Book Series, vol. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 9611010.
Rich, C.I., 1968. Hydroxy interlayers in expansible layer silicates. Clay Clay Miner. 16,
1530.
Rich, C.I., Cook, M.G., 1961. Formation of dioctahedral vermiculite in Virginia soils. Clay
Clay Miner. 10 (1), 96106.
Rutkowski, J., 1993. Detailed geological map of Poland, 1:50 000, sheet no. 973, Krakw
Explanations, Wyd. PIG, Warszawa, pp. 46. (in Polish).
Skiba, M., 2007. Clay mineral formation during podzolization in an alpine environment of
the Tatra Mountains, Poland. Clay Clay Miner. 55 (6), 618634.
Skiba, M., Szczerba, M., Skiba, S., Bish, D.L., Grybos, M., 2011. The nature of interlayering in
clays from a podzol (Spodosol) from the Tatra Mountains, Poland. Geoderma 160,
425433.
Skiba, S., Drewnik, M., Szymaski, W., ya, M., 2013. Soils of Krakw. In: Degrska, B.,
Bacik, M. (Eds.), Environment of Krakw: ResourcesConservationManagement,
Krakw, pp. 6979 (in Polish).
Soil Survey Staff, 2010. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 11st. ed. USDA-NRCS, Washington, DC.
Sokolova, T.A., Zaidel'man, F.R., Ginzburg, T.M., 2010. Clay minerals in Chernozem-like
soils of mesodepressions in the northern forest-steppe of European Russia. Eurasian
Soil Sci. 43 (1), 7684.
rodo, J., 2006. Identication and quantitative analysis of clay minerals. In: Bergaya, F., et
al. (Eds.), Handbook of Clay Science. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 765787.
Szymaski, W., Skiba, M., Skiba, S., 2011. Fragipan horizon degradation and bleached
tongues formation in Albeluvisols of the Carpathian Foothills, Poland. Geoderma
167168, 340350.
Szymaski, W., Skiba, M., Skiba, S., 2012. Origin of reversible cementation and brittleness of
the fragipan horizon in Albeluvisols of the Carpathian Foothills, Poland. Catena 99, 6674.
Taut, T., Kleeberg, R., Bergmann, J., 1998. The new Seifert Rietveld Program BGMN and its
application to quantitative phase analysis. Mater. Struct. 5 (1), 5764.
Taylor, S.R., McLennan, S.M., McCulloch, M.T., 1983. Geochemistry of loess, continental
crustal composition and crustal model ages. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 47,
18971905.
Thomas, G.W., 1996. Soil pH and soil acidity. In: Sparks, D.L., et al. (Eds.), Methods of Soil
Analysis. Part 3. Chemical Methods SSSA Book Series, vol. 5. SSSA and ASA, Madi-
son, Wisconsin, pp. 475490.
Tolpeshta, I.I., Sokolova, T.A., Bonifacio, E., Falcone, G., 2010. Pedogenic chlorites in podzol-
ic soils with different intensities of hydromorphism: origin, properties, and condi-
tions of their formation. Eurasian Soil Sci. 43, 777787.
Uzarowicz, ., Skiba, S., 2011. Technogenic soils developed on mine spoils containing
iron sulphides: mineral transformations as an indicator of pedogenesis.
Geoderma 163, 95108.
Uziak, S., 1961. Clay minerals in soils formed from loess. Ann. UMCS Sec. B 15, 1121.
Uziak, S., 1964. Mineralogical composition of the clay fraction of soils formed from silt de-
posits of different origin. Rocz. Gleboznawcze 14, 367373.
Wilson, M.J., 1999. The origin and formation of clay minerals in soils: past, present and fu-
ture perspectives. Clay Miner. 34, 725.
Wilson, M.J., 2004. Weathering of the primary rock-forming minerals: processes, products
and rates. Clay Miner. 39, 233266.
Zasoski, S., 1974. Micromorphological and chemical studies concerning lessivage in loess
soils, Part I. Loess soils of Krakw Upland. Rocz. Gleboznawcze 25 (3), 5582 (in Polish).
Zasoski, S., 1983. Soil-forming processes on loess deposits in the Wieliczka Foothills, part
II. Micromorphological properties. Rocz. Gleboznawcze 34 (4), 123159 (in Polish).