Q.1. Explain in detail different stages in data processing.

Ans: Data processing is a process of skilfully organising of data for the purpose of data
analysis and interpretation. Data processing can be done manually when the data collected is
limited or it can be done mechanically when the collected data involve huge quantities. Data
processing is the intermediary stage between data collection and data analysis. It needs to be
planned at the stage of research design.

Processing of data is a process of editing, coding, classification, tabulation and graphic

presentation of data. Data processing is required for the purpose of analysis and
interpretation. Analysis and interpretation of data facilitates:

Research Findings
Drawing Conclusions
Recommendations

The various stages in data processing are as follows:

1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation
5. Graphic Presentation

1. EDITING:
Editing is the process of checking errors and omissions in data collection, and making
corrections, if required. Editing is required when:
There is inconsistency in responses given by the respondents.
Respondents may provide incorrect or false responses.
Some vague/ incomplete answers given by the respondents.
No responses are provided by the respondents for certain questions.

Types of Editing:

Field Editing
Central Editing

2. CODING:
It is a process of assigning codes to the various statements or questions in the
questionnaire. Coding is specially required when the sample size is large and there is
 large amount of data collection from respondents. Coding facilitates proper tabulation
and analysis of data.

Types of Codes:
Numerical Codes
Alphabetical Codes
Alpha-Numerical Codes

3. CLASSIFICATION:
It is the process of grouping of collected data into different categories. Therefore,
coding is an element of classification. The classification can be according to different
categories: Age Group Wise, Gender Wise, Educational Level Wise, Income Group
Wise, Occupation Wise, etc.

Each of the categories can be further divided into sub-groups. For example: The age
group can be further divided into different categories such as: Children, Teenagers,
Young Adults, Middle Aged and Senior Citizens.

4. TABULATION:
It refers to transferring the classified data in a tabular format for the purpose of
analysis and interpretation. It involves sorting of data into different categories and
counting the number of responses that belong to each category.

Methods of Tabulation:
Manual Tabulation
Mechanical Tabulation

5. GRAPHIC PRESENTATION:
The research data needs to be presented effectively for quick and clear understanding.
Bar graphs, pie charts, line graphs and other pictorial devices are an excellent means
to present the data.

Methods of Graphic Presentation:

Pie Chart
Bar Graphs
Line Graphs
Gantt Charts
Histograms
Q.2. Explain in brief measures of central tendency.

Ans: A single value within the range of the data that is used to reveal the general tendency
and to represent the entire data is known as a measure of central tendency.

George Simpson and Fritz Kafka state that a measure of central tendency is a typical value
around which the other values congregate.

Croxton and Cowden define an average is a single value within the range of the data that is
used to represent all of the values in the series. Since the average is somewhere within the
range of data, it is sometimes called as a measure of central value.

Objectives of Averaging:

To arrive at a single value that is representative of the characteristics of the entire

mass of data.
To get a birds eye view about a phenomenon under study.
To facilitate comparison.
To trace precise relationships.
To know about the universe from a sample.

Characteristics of a Good Measure of Central Tendency:

It should be simple to calculate and easy to understand:

An essential quality of a good average is that it should be simple to calculate and easy
to understand so that it can be widely used in practice.

It should be rigidly defined:

The definition of an average should permit one and only one interpretation. The
rigidity in the definition usually follows an algebraic formula to calculate the average.

It should be based on all the observations:

The main object of computing the average is to get a single figure representative of all
the items. Hence it should be based on each and every item of the series.

It should not be affected by extreme items:

 If an average is unduly influenced by few extreme items, its real value is either
increased or decreased, and it cannot be representative value. Hence all items should
have more or less same influence over the average.

It should be capable of further algebraic treatment:

A good average should have number of algebraic properties which can be used for
further statistical treatment.

It should have sampling stability:

An average is considered to be good if it has stability in the values of averages of the
samples drawn from the same population i.e. the average should not be affected
unduly by fluctuations of sampling.

It can be easily calculated in the case of distributions containing open end class-
intervals:
Sometimes, we are bound to use open-end classes for classification. Even in such
situations an average can be calculated very easily without any assumption regarding
such open-end classes.

It should be in the form of a mathematical formula:

With mathematical formulation, different persons may not interpret it differently and
anybody computing an average from a particular set of data will interpret it in a same
manner and arrive at a same figure.

Types of Measures of Central Tendency:

MATHEMATICAL:
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Geometric Mean
3. Harmonic Mean

POSITIONAL:
1. Median
2. Mode

1. ARITHMETIC MEAN:
It is the most popular measure of central tendency, as it is quicker and easier to
compute the average. It refers to the value obtained by dividing the sum of the values
of all items by the total number of items.

Formula:
 Arithmetic mean is calculated with the following formula:

Sum of the values of all items

Arithmetic Mean = ________________________
Total number of items

2. GEOMETRIC MEAN:
The geometric mean of any set of n numbers is the n th root of the product of the
numbers. If there are two times or values, square root of the product of the two values
is the Geometric mean, if there are three values, the cube root is the Geometric mean
and so on.
It is the most appropriate average to be used when it is desired to give more weightage
to smaller items and small weightage to larger items.

3. HARMONIC MEAN:
Harmonic mean of a series is the reciprocal of the arithmetic average of the reciprocal
of the values of its various items.

n
Harmonic Mean = ______________________________
(1/x1) + (1/x2) + + (1/xn)

The formula is used in the series of individual observations.

4. MEDIAN:
Median is the middle value of a series when the data of a series is arranged in
ascending or descending order. It divides the series in two equal parts.

5. MODE:
The mode is defined as the value of a variable which occurs most frequently.it is the
value which is repeated number of times or with the highest frequency in the series.

Croxton and Cowden define The mode of a distribution is the value at the point
around which the items tend to be most heavily concentrated.

A. M. Tuttle defines Mode is the value which has the highest frequency density in
its immediate neighbourhood.
Q.3. Explain the different methods of determining correlation.

Ans: The methods of determining correlation between variables can be divided into two
groups:

Graphic methods which includes Scatter Diagram and Graphs.

Algebraic methods which include rank differences, product moment, least squares etc.

SCATTER DIAGRAM:

The pairs of values of X and Y are represented by dot points plotted on the graph paper. The
graph is called a Scatter Diagram.

When X and Y are meaningfully linked with each other their scatter diagrams may tally with
any one of the above standard scatter diagram.

SPEARMAN RANK CORRELATION COEFFICIENT:

Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient uses ranks to calculate correlation. It is also called as
correlation coefficient between ranks. It is sometimes denoted by rs.

E.g. A talent contest where 5 competitors are evaluated by 2 judges A & B. Usually judges
award numerical scores for each contestant after his/her performance.

Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient can indicate if judges agree to each others views as
far as talent of the contestants are concerned. This correlation coefficient can indicate if the
judges are unanimous.
Interpretation of numerical values:

The numerical value of correlation coefficient, rs, ranges between -1 and +1. The correlation
coefficient is the number indicating as to how the scores are relating.

In general,

Rs > 0 indicates positive agreement among ranks

Rs < 0 indicates negative agreement

Rs = 0 indicates no agreement

Assigning Ranks:

In order to compute Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient, it is necessary that the data can
be ranked. Ranks are assigned separately for the 2 judges starting either from the highest or
from the lowest score.

Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient tries to assess the relationship between ranks without
making any assumptions about the nature of their relationship. It is a non-parametric measure
of correlation.

KARL PEARSONS PRODUCT MOMENT COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION:

It is one of the measure of correlation which quantifies the strength as well as direction of
such relationship.

Two variables are said to be correlated if change in one variable is accompanied by change in
the other either in the same or reverse direction.
Q.4. Distinguish between regression and correlation tool of analysis

Ans: The two techniques are directed towards a common purpose of establishing the degree
and the direction of relationship between two or more variables but the methods of doing are
different. However, there are some basic differences in the two approaches which have been
summarised below:

CORRELATION ANALYSIS REGRESSION ANALYSIS

1. MEANING: Correlation literally means Regression means stepping back or
the relationship between two or more returning to the average value, it
variables which vary in sympathy so that expresses average relationship between
the movements in one tend to be two or more variables.
accompanied by corresponding movement
of others.

2. CAUSE EFFECT RELATIONSHIP: Regression analysis clearly indicates the

Correlation need not imply cause effect cause effect relationship. The variables
relationship between variables under contributing cause is taken as
study. independent variables and the variable
constituting the effect is taken as
dependent variable.

3. EXTERNAL VARIABLE: It may be a There is nothing like nonsense

case of nonsense or spurious correlation if regression. External variables cannot be
the sympathetic movement is on account included in regression.
of influence of an outside variable which
has no practical relevance.

4. DEPENDENCE ON VARIABLES: It establishes a functional relationship,

There is a sort of mutual dependence. which is mathematical, showing
dependence of one variable on the
others.
5. PURPOSE: Correlation Coefficient r x Regression analysis aims at establishing
y between two variables X and Y is a functional relationship between two
measure of the direction and degree of the variables under study and then using this
linear relationship between two variables relationship to predict or estimate the
which is mutual. It is symmetric and it is value of dependent variable for any
immaterial which of X and Y is dependent given value of independent variable.
and independent material.

6. UNIT OF MEASUREMENT: The regression coefficients are absolute

Correlation coefficient r x y, a relative measures representing the change in the
measure of linear relationship between X value of variable.
and Y is independent of units of
measurement.

7. SCOPE OF APPLICATION: Regression analysis studies linear as

Correlation analysis has limited well as non-linear relationships between
applications as it is confined only to the variables and therefore has much wider
study of linear relationship between applications.
variables.

Q5. Discuss the steps in testing hypothesis?

Ans: The following are the steps in testing hypothesis:-

1. Identify the Problem:

The first step is to state the research problem. The research problem needs to identify the
population of interest, and variables of under investigation.

The population of research refers to the students, and the variables include the teaching
methods and the marks.

This step enables the researcher not only define what is to be tested but what variables will be
used in sample data collection. The type of variables, whether categorical, discrete or
continuous, further defines the statistical test which can be performed on the collected data.

2. Specific Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

The research problem or question is converted into a null hypothesis and an alternative
hypothesis. The hypothesis are stated in such a way that they are mutually exclusive which
means that if one is true then the other must be false.

Null Hypothesis: It is a statement that declares the observed difference is due to chance. It is
the hypothesis the researcher hopes to reject or disprove.

Alternative Hypothesis: It proposes a relationship between two or more variables, symbolized

as H1.

It is clear that Null Hypothesis is a hypothesis of no difference. The main problem of testing
hypothesis is to accept or to reject the Null Hypothesis.

The Alternative Hypothesis specifies a definitive relationship between two variables. Only
one Alternative Hypothesis is tested against the Null Hypothesis.

3. Significant Level:

After formulating the hypothesis, the researcher must determine a certain level of
significance. The confidence with which a Null Hypothesis is accepted or rejected depends
on the level of significance.

4. Test Statistic:
A statistic used to test the Null Hypothesis. The researcher needs to identify a test statistic
that can be used to assess the truth of the Null Hypothesis. It is used to test whether the Null
Hypothesis set up should be accepted or rejected.

Test Statistic is calculated from the collected data. There are different types of test statistics.
Every test in statistics indicates the same. Based on the sample data, it gives the probability
that can be observed. When the p-value is low, it means that the sample data are very
significant and it indicates that the null hypothesis is wrong. When the p-value is high, it
suggests that the collected data are within the normal range.

5. Region of Acceptance and Region of Rejection:

The region of acceptance is a range of values. If the test statistic falls within the region of
acceptance, the Null Hypothesis is not rejected. The region of acceptance is defined so that
the chance of making a Type I error is equal to Alpha level of significance.

The set of values outside the region of acceptance is called Region of Rejection. If the test
statistic falls within the region of rejection, the Null Hypothesis is rejected. It is said that the
hypothesis has been rejected at the Alpha level of significance.

(Alpha the probability the researcher is willing to take in falsely rejecting a true Null
Hypothesis)

6. Select an Appropriate Test:

A hypothesis test may be one-tailed or two-tailed. Whether the test is one sided or two sided
depends upon an alternative hypothesis and the nature of the problem.

A test of a Statistical Hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on only one side of
sampling distribution, is called one tailed test. In one tailed test, the test statistic for rejection
of Null Hypothesis falls only in one side of sampling distribution curve.

Whether to apply one tailed test or two tailed test depends upon the nature of the problem.
One tailed test is used when the researchers interest is primarily on one side of the issue.

In two tailed test, the test statistic for rejection of Null Hypothesis falls on both sides of the
sampling distribution curve.

7. Select the test Criterion:

The researcher needs to select the test criterion. If the hypothesis pertains to smaller sample
say less than 30, the t-test is used. If hypothesis pertains to larger sample say more than 30
then the z-test is used.

8. Rejecting or failing to reject the Null Hypothesis:

The statistical analysis shows that the significance level is below the cut off value we have
set, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. If significance level is
above the cut off value, we fail to reject null hypothesis and cannot accept the alternative
hypothesis.

Q6. Explain different Parametric tests used in Hypothesis Testing?

Ans: Parametric Test is a statistical test that depends on an assumption about the distribution
of data, that the data are normally distributed. When considering a normal distribution of a
population these features are known as Parameters. Parametric analysis relies on the data
being normally distributed so that an estimation of the underlying populations parameters
can be made. These can then be used to test the null hypothesis. As only quantitative data can
have a normal distribution, it follows that parametric analysis can only be used on
quantitative data.

Provided they are appropriately used, parametric test derive more information about the
whole population than non-parametric ones.

Q7. Write a short note on Chi-Square?

Ans: Chi Square is the measure which evaluates extent to which a set of the observed
frequencies of a sample deviates from the corresponding set of expected frequencies of the
samples. It is the measure of aggregate discrepancies between actual and expected
frequencies. It was first discovered by Helmet in 1875. Karl Pearson derived it independently
in 1990 and applied it as a test of goodness of fit. It is used as a test statistic in testing
hypothesis that provides the theoretical frequencies with which observed frequencies are
compared.

If O denotes the observed frequency and E the corresponding expected frequency of a class
interval or cell, then we define Chi Square by the relation.

The formula of Chi Square is given below:-

Where the summation extends to the whole set of class intervals or cells, another useful form
is given by

Where N is the total frequency.

Any statistical test that uses the Chi Square distribution can be called Chi Square Test. It is
applicable both for large and small samples depending on the context.

Eg. Suppose a person wants to test the hypothesis that success rate in a particular English test
is similar for students studied in Private Schools and Government Schools.

If we take random sample size 80 students and measure both types of schools as well as
success/failure status of each of the student, the Chi Square test can be applied to the test of
hypothesis.

There are different purposes for the test. They are as follows:-

1. Chi square test for testing goodness of fit.

2. Chi square test for independence of two attributes.

The Chi Square test for single variance has an assumption that the population from which the
sample has been normal. This normality assumption need not hold for chi square goodness of
fit test and test for independence of attributes.

When implementing these two tests one has to ensure that expected frequency in any cell is
not less than 5. If it is so, then it has to be pooled with the preceding or succeeding cell so
that expected frequency of the pooled cell is atleast 5.

Steps in Computation of Chi Square:-

1. Indicate Null Analysis and Alternate Hypothesis.

2. List the observed frequencies from the form of the investigation.

3. Calculate the expected frequencies based upon the application of theoretical distribution.

4. Calculate the difference between the observed and expected frequencies correspondingly.

5. Add together all the fractions as per the above step.

6. Ascertain the appropriate value from the table at a particular level of significance.

7. Finally take the decision of accepting or rejecting of the hypothesis.

Q8. Bring out the essentials of a Good Research Report?

Ans: The essential characteristics of a good research report are stated as follows:

1. Informative:

The research report must be informative. The research report must provide adequate
information to the concerned authorities to take appropriate decisions. Inadequate
information may not facilitate proper decision making on the part of the management.

2. Clarity:

The report must be written in simple and lucid language. The reader should find no difficulty
in understanding the contents of the report. The reader should be able to understand the
contents in the first reading itself. Technical language should be used only in exceptional
areas. Ambiguous words and phrases should be avoided in the reports.

3. Concise:

The report must be written briefly. Maximum information must be provided in minimum
words. As far as possible, lengthy reports must be avoided. This is because, lengthy reports
are often confusing and they require a lot of time for the reader to note the contents.

4. Accuracy:

The report should contain accurate facts and figures. This is because managers base their
decisions on the facts and figures of the reports. If the reports are inaccurate or contain wrong
facts and figures, then it will lead to poor decisions.

5. Reliability:
A good report must be reliable. The information in the report must be collected from reliable
sources. While collecting information for the purpose of preparing reports, care must be taken
to check the validity and genuineness of the source. Reports must not contain out dated data.
If the reports are based on secondary sources, the researcher must check the genuineness of
the data.

6. Objectivity:

The report must be objective. It must contain only objective facts and figures. The reports
must not be biased or subjective. The report must not be influenced by personal bias of the
researcher. Personal bias adversely affects the decision making. Therefore, the research must
be objective especially in the case of commercial research.

7. Logical Arrangement:

The research must be written in a systematic manner. The different parts of the report must be
arranged in a logical sequence as follows:

Title of the report

Table of contents or index

Introduction of research problem

Methodology used in conducting research

Findings of the research

Limitations of the research, if any

Conclusion

Recommendations

Appendix

Bibliography

Signature of the reporter / chairman of the research committee

8. Secrecy:

Certain report findings must be kept secret. Eg. A committee may set up to look after the
malpractices of a certain manager. The committee members should not leak out the findings.
The report finds must be strictly provided only to the top management.

9. Timely submission of the reports:

Certain reports must be submitted within a particular time limit. Eg. Committee report must
be reported within time limit so that suitable action can be taken.

10. Proper Format:

The report must be written in a suitable format. The report must be divided into paragraphs,
preferable numbered and be given a suitable heading for each paragraph. The report must also
contain a suitable title.

Q9. Explain different types of Research Report?

Ans: There are various types of Research Report. The types of research report are as follows:

1. Technical Report:

This is a comprehensive report of a technical research. It is primarily meant for academic or

professional community such as scientist, engineers, doctors, research, scholars, etc. This
report covers all aspects of research such as: statement of the problem, time frame of the
research, area of research, resources used for conducting research, techniques of data
collection and analysis etc.

The technical research is written in technical language. It follows a specific pattern and
consists of several sections with proper headings and paragraphs.

2. Popular Report:

It is designed for executives and other non-technical users. The reader is more interested in
knowing the findings of the research, conclusions and recommendations.

While writing this report, certain essentials must be followed such as concise and clarity,
accuracy of data, reliability of data, objectivity and not biased and logical arrangement of
different parts of report etc.
This type of research report is meant for commercial and social research because it is meant
for non-technical people, especially executives in a commercial organization.

3. Interim Report:

When there is long gap between data collection and presentation of final report, the study
may lose its importance. Therefore, the sponsor may also lose interest in the research and/or
research report. Therefore, in such a situation, the researcher may present interim report. The
interim report may also contain the first analysis of the problem and the final analysis of
certain aspects that have been completely analysed. This type of report enables the
sponsoring authority to take decisions without waiting for the full report.

4. Summary Report:

It is generally prepared for the use of general public. This report is desirable for any study
whose findings are of general interest. It is written in non-technical and simple language.

It contains a brief reference to the objective of the research, findings and conclusions. It is a
short report of two or three pages.

5. Research Abstract:

This is a summary of technical report. Technical students like engineering, medicine etc. are
usually prepared in on the eve of submitting their thesis. Its copies are sent to the university,
which in turn provides to the examiners or referees invited to evaluate the thesis.

6. Research Article:

This is designed for publication in a professional journal. If a study has two or more
important aspects that can be discussed independently, it is advisable to write two articles
rather than to include in a single article.

A research must be clearly written in concise and clear language. It must be logically
arranged as follows:

Statement of Research Problem

Objectives of Research

Methodology used to conduct research

Findings

Recommendations

Q10. Write a short note on MLA and CMS citation method?

Ans: MLA (Modern Language Association):

The Modern Language Association (MLA) establishes values for acknowledging sources
used in research paper. MLA citation style uses a simple two part parenthetical
documentation system for citing sources: Citation in the text of paper point to the alphabetical
Works Cited list that appears at the end of the paper. Together, these references identify and
credit the sources used in the paper and allow others to access and retrieve this material.

In MLA style, writers place references to sources in paper to briefly identify them and enable
readers to find them in the Works Cited list. These parenthetical references should be kept as
brief and as clear as possible.

The writer needs to give only the information needed to identify a source. Usually the
authors last name and page reference should suffice.

Place the parenthetical reference as close as possible to its source. Insert the parenthetical
reference where a pause would naturally occur, preferably at the end of a sentence.

Information in the parenthesis should complement, not repeat, information given in the text.
If you include an authors name in a sentence, you do not need to repeat it in your
parenthetical statement.

The parenthetical reference should precede the punctuation mark that concludes the sentence,
clause, or phrase that contains the cited material.

Electronic and online sources are cited just like print resources in parenthetical references. If
an online source lacks page numbers, omit numbers from parenthetical references. If an
online source includes fixed page numbers or section numbering, such as numbering or
paragraphs, cite the relevant numbers.

CMS (Chicago Manual Style):

The Chicago Manual Style or CMS is a style guide for American English published since
1906 by the University of Chicago Press.
It is one of the most widely used and respected style of guides in the United States. CMS
deals with aspects of editorial practice, from American English grammar and use to document
preparation.

The Chicago Manual Style includes chapters relevant to the publishers of books and journals.
It is used widely by academic and trade publishers, as well as editors and authors who are
required by those publishers to follow it.

Chicago Style offers writers a choice of several different formats. It invites the mixing of
formats, provided that the result is clear and consistent.

The Chicago Manual Style presents two basic documentation systems:

1. Notes and Bibliography

2. Author Date

Choosing between the two often depends on subject matter and the nature of sources cited, as
each system is favoured by different groups of scholars.

The Notes and Bibliography style is preferred by many in the humanities, including those in
literature, history and the arts. This style presents bibliographic information in notes and
often, a bibliography. It accommodates a variety of sources, including esoteric ones less
appropriate to the author date system.

The author date system has long been used by those in the physical, natural and social
sciences. In this system, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in parenthesis, by
authors last name and date of publication. The short citation is amplified in a list of
references, where full bibliographic information is provided.

Q.11: Explain different ethical norms in research.

Ans: Researcher must follow certain ethical norms or guidelines in conducting the research
work. The main ethical norms in research are briefly stated as follows:

1. Relations with and responsibilities towards Research Participants:

a. Protecting research participants and honouring trusts: Anthropologists or
researchers should endeavour to protect the physical, social and psychological
well-being of those whom the study and to respect their rights, interests,
sensitivities and privacy.
 b. Anticipating harms: Researchers should be sensitive to the possible consequences
of their work and should endeavour to guard against predictably harmful effects.
c. Negotiating informed consent: Inquiries involving human subjects should be
based on the freely given informed consent expresses the belief in the need for
truthful and respectful exchanges between the social researchers and the people
whom the study.
d. Rights to confidentiality and anonymity: Informants and other research
participants should have the rights to privacy and confidentiality respected.
However, privacy and confidentiality present researchers with particularly
difficult problems given the cultural and legal variations between societies and the
various ways in which the real interests or research role of the ethnographer may
not fully be realized by some or all of participants.
e. Fair return for assistance: there should be no economic exploitation of individual
informants, translators and research participants; fair return should be made for
their help and services.
f. Participants intellectual property rights: It should be recognised that research
participants have contractual and/or legal, interests and rights in data, recordings
and publications, although rights will bary according to agreements and legal
jurisdiction.
g. Participants involvement in research: As far as is possible researchers should try
and involve the people being studied in the planning and execution of research
projects, and they should recognise that their obligations to the participants or the
host community may not end with the completion of their fieldwork or research
project.
2. Relations with and Responsibilities towards Sponsors, Funders and Employers:
a. Clarifying roles, rights and obligations: Researchers should clarify in advance the
respective roles, rights and obligations of sponsor, funder, employer and
researcher
b. Obligations to sponsors, funders and employers: Researchers should recognise
their general and specific obligations to sponsors, funders and employers whether
these are contractually defined or are only the subject of informal, and often
unwritten, agreements.
3. Relations with and Responsibilities towards, Colleagues and the Discipline:
a. Individual responsibility: Researchers bear responsibility or the good reputation of
the discipline and its practitioners. In considering their methods, procedures,
content and reporting of their enquiries, behaviour in the field and relation with
 research participants and field assistants they should therefore try to ensure that
their activities will not jeopardize future research.
b. Sharing research material: Researchers should give consideration to way in which
research data and findings can be shared with colleagues and with research
participants.
c. Collaborative and tear research: In some case, a researcher may have to
collaborate with researcher in other disciplines, as well as with research and field
assistants, clerical staff, students etc. In such cases they should make clear their
own ethical and professional obligation and similarly take account of the ethical
principles of their collaborators. Care should be taken to clarify role, rights and
obligations of team members in relation to matter such as division og labours,
responsibility, access to rights in data and field notes, publication, co-authorship,
professional liability, etc.
d. Responsibilities towards research students and field assistants: Academic
supervisors and project directors should ensure that students and assistants are
aware of the ethical guidelines and should discuss with them potential (as well as
actual) problems which may arise during fieldwork or writing up.
4. Relations with Own and Host Governments:
a. Conditions of access: Researchers should seek assurance that they will not be
required to compromise their professional and scholarly responsibilities as a
condition of being granted research access.
b. Cross-national research: Research conducts outside ones own country raises
special ethical and political issues, relating to personal and national disparities in
wealth, power, the legal status of the researcher, political interest and national
political systems.
5. Responsibilities to the Wider Society:
a. Widening the scope of social research: Researcher should use the possibilities
open to them to extend the scope of social inquiry, and to communicate their
findings, for the benefit of the widest possible community.
b. Considering conflicting interests: Social inquiry is predicated on the belief that
greater access to well-founded information will serve rather than threaten the
interests of society.
c. Maintaining professional and scholarly integrity: Research can never be entirely
objective the selection of topics may reflect a bias in favour of certain cultural or
personal values; the employment base of the researcher, the source of funding and
various other factors may impose certain priorities, obligations and prohibitions
 but anthropologists should strive for objectivity and be open about known barriers
to its achievements.

Q.12: Write note on Plagiarism.

Ans: There are various issues in research. Some of the ethical issues in research are
connected with the research process. The ethical issues relating to research process are
concerned with research design, sample size, data collection, data processing, data analysis
and interpretation, and so on. However, the ethical issues relating to research process can be
avoided by systematic planning for research and by following ethical norms in conducting the
research.

One of the major ethical issues in research involves PLAGIARISM. Its the presentation of
the work of another person as ones own or without proper acknowledgement.

Plagiarism includes copying of material word for word from books, journals, internet sites,
other researchs notes, etc. it could be material that is paraphrased but closely resembles the
original source. Paraphrasing is using your own words to express someone elses ideas whilst
still preserving the main ideas of the original source.

Plagiarism does not refer to words alone it can refer to copying images, graphs, tables, and
ideas. Presentation is not limited to written work. It also includes oral presentations,
computer assignments and artistic works. If you translate the work of another person into
French or English and do not cite the source, this is also plagiarism. If you cite your own
work without the correct citation, this too is plagiarism.

Therefore, one should not copy, paraphrase or translate anything from elsewhere without
stating the source of the original text.

Reasons to Cite the Source:

To give your writing credibility. You show that you have gathered idea from
worthwhile sources.
To help the reader. You enable the reader to go and check and read those sources if
he/she so wishes.
To protect yourself from plagiarism. When you cite all your sources, no one can say
that you stole or copied ideas from someone else.
Sources of Others Ideas:

All words quoted directly from another source.

All ideas paraphrased from a source.
All ideas borrowed from another source: Statistics, Graphs, Charts.
All materials taken from the Internet.

Direct quotations:

When you are using someone elses exact words, you need to place quotations marks ()
around the words. You also need to be careful not to rephrase or reorganize the words;
otherwise you would be guilty of misrepresenting the author. If you want to leave out part of
authors sentence you can use three ellipsis points () to show the words which have been
omitted, directly after the quotation, you should indicate where the information come from,
using one of the standard methods (such as MLA and APA) to document your source. For
more specifics, refer to the hand-outs on MLA/APA documentation, available in H 662 or AD
103 or Go to the Concordia University Libraries Citation Guides.

Paraphrasing:

Many students are unclear about paraphrasing. It is not acceptable to take the original
phrasing and to rearrange a few of the original words in order to produce a paraphrase;
neither is it acceptable to use the same sentence structure but just rephrase a few key words.

Example:

Original: Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes and as a result their
overuse quotation in the final research paper. Probably only about 10% of your final
manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the
amount of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes.

Lester, J. D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976) 46-47

Acceptable paraphrase: In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to keep
quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note
taking, it is essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester, 1976).

A plagiarized version: Students often use too many direct Quotations when they take notes,
resulting in too many of them in final research paper. In fact, probably only 10% of the final
copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of
source material copied while taking notes (Lester, 196).

When you paraphrase, make sure to understand what the original is saying, then close the
book and write the passage in your own words. Also, note that you need to cite a source for a
paraphrase even through you did not quote from the source directly. In the examples above,
the source, Lester, is given after the paraphrase. When you are paraphrasing rather than using
exact words, mentioning the page number in the source parentheses is optional, but check
with your professor as some may prefer you to include it.

Ways to Avoid Plagiarism:

To avoid plagiarism in research one need to state the source from where the information is
obtained. In the research paper, some or most of the ideas may be from the researcher.
However, some ideas may have been borrowed from other source or from the people who
have been interviewed on subject. Therefore, one needs to correctly state the source from
which the information is obtained.

1. Paraphrase: So you have found information that is perfect for your research paper.
Read it and put it into your own words. Make sure that you do not copy verbatim
more than two words in a row from the text you have found. If you do use more than
two words together, you have to use quotation marks. We will get into quoting
properly soon.
2. Cite: Citing is one of the effective ways to avoid plagiarism. Follow the document
formatting guideline (i.e. APA, MAL, Chicago, etc.) used by educational institution or
the institution that issued the research request. This usually entails the education of
the author(s) and the data of the publication or similar information. Citing is really
that simple. Not citing properly can constitute plagiarism.
3. Quoting: When quoting a source, use the quote exactly the way it appears. No one
wants to be misquoted most institutions of higher learning frown on Block Quotes
or quotes of 40 words or more. A scholar should be able to effectively paraphrase
most material. This process take time, but the effort pays off! Quoting must be done
correctly to avoid Plagiarism allegations.
4. Citing Quotes: Citing a quote can be different than citing paraphrased material. This
practice usually involves the addition of a page number, or a paragraph number in the
case of web content.
 5. Citing Your Own Material: If some of the material you are using for your research
paper was used by you in your current class, a previous one, or anywhere else you
must cite yourself. Treat the text the same as you would if someone else wrote it. It
may sound odd, but using material you have used before is called self plagiarism,
and it is not acceptable.
6. Referencing: One of the most important ways to avoid plagiarism is including a
reference page or page of works cited at the end of your research paper. Again, this
page must meet the document formatting guidelines used by your educational
institution. This information is very specific and includes the authors, data of
publication, title, and source. Follow the direction for this page carefully. You will
want to get the reference right.

Q.13. Explain the use of SPSS Statistics for Data Analysis and Reporting.

Ans: It stands for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. SPSS Statistics is a software
package used for analysis. Long produced by SPSS Inc., it was acquired by IBM in 2009. The
current versions (2014) are officially named IBM SPSS Statistics. Companion products in the
same family are used for survey authoring and deployment (IBM SPSS Data Collection), data
mining (IBM SPSS Modeler), text analytics, and collaboration and deployment (batch and
automated Scoring Services).

The software name stands for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), reflecting
the original market, although the software is now popular in other fields as well, including the
health sciences and marketing.

SPSS id a widely used program for statistical analysis in social science. It is also used by
market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, govt., Education researchers,
marketing organisations, data miners, and others. The original SPSS manual has been
described as one of Sociologys most influential books for allowing ordinary researchers to
do their own statistical analysis. In addition to statistical analysis, data management and data
documentation are features of the base software.

Statistics included in the base software:

Descriptive Statistics: Cross tabulation, Frequencies, Descriptives, Explore,

Descriptive Ratio Statistics.
 Bivariate Statistics: Means, t-test, ANOVA, Correlation(bivariate, partial, distances),
Nonparametric tests
Prediction for numerical outcomes: Linear regression
Prediction for identifying groups: Factor analysis, cluster analysis and so on.

Creating the Data File using SPSS:

Having collected the data, the first step is to create the data file in SPSS. To do this, open
SPSS and you will see a blank spreadsheet ready for data input.

Example: To create a data file, we can take an example. A closed ended questionnaire is
developed to understand consumer behaviour relating to readymade garments. The questions
are related to individuals age, gender, education, occupation, monthly income and brand
preference.

Defining the Data:

You could start entering data now, but it makes more sense to first define the data so that it is
easier to keep track of where you are as you enter it. Defining the data involves giving each
variable a name and specifying missing values. SPSS offer two views of the data file. You
switch from one to the other by clicking the tabs at the bottom left hand side of the screen.
Variable view is where you define the variable names and specify any other information you
want to about the variable.

Naming Variables:

Data are defined variable by variable in variable view (i.e. one row at a time). To do it, click
on cell where it says NAME. Type a meaningful name in the cell. In this case, Ive named the
first variable age. The name can be up to eight characters long and must begin with a letter.

Missing values:

Missing values are what they sound like: data points for which you have no score. For
example, some participants might not have turned up for a data collection session but you still
have other data from them that you want to use. So you need to enter the data you do have
whilst taking account of missing data points. With questionnaires, people often fail to
complete one or more items. This may be purely accidental, in which case the missing at
random because there is no systematic reason for their omission.
Saving the File:

If you havent done so already, you should now save the file so that all your work doesnt go
down the pan if your Machine crashes! Click on file then save from the dropdown menus to
get the save as dialogue box. SPSS data files should be given the Save file name extension,
which is the default when saving a spreadsheet. That way SPSS will always recognise the file
as a data file. Give the file a meaningful name in the file name box, choose where you want
to save it to from the save in box, then click on OK to save it. Remember to save your work
periodically as you enter the data.

Entering the Data:

Now you can enter the data. Switch to Data view by clicking on the tab at the bottom left-
hand of the screen. Now simply enter each cases scores into the appropriate cells, with each
case taking one row. You can use the arrow keys on the keyboard or the mouse to move from
cell to cell. The value you type wont appear in the cell until you move to another cell but it
does appear in the box above the spreadsheet. If you have missing scores, type in the missing
value that you assigned to that variable.

Coding Categorical Variables:

The variable sex is categorical and needs to be coded to differentiate between males and
females. Any numbers will do; in this case I entered 1 for males and 2 for females. Any such
categorical variable needs to be coded in this way. For example, if you have sata from an
experimental study, a code will need to be given to each group; say, 1 for a treatment group
and 2 for a control group.

Labelling Variables:

In addition to naming variable, you can label them. This means assigning a longer and more
descriptive name to the variable which can make reading the output of any analyses easier.
Label can be up to 256 characters long and can include spaces.

Youll find that the variable label will appear when you mouse over a variable name in the
column heading n Data View. You can get SPSS to print either variable names, or labels, or
both in any outputs by clicking on Edit then Options from the dropdown menus and then
choosing what format you want from the Output Labels tab.
Labelling Variable Values:

You can even assign labels o variable values. For example, you might want to label the values
for sex so that any output that uses this variable will say male and female instead of just
giving the numbers 1 and 2. To do this, in variable View click on the appropriate cell in the
values column, then on the little grey box that appears there to get the value Label dialogue
box. Now type 1 in the Value box, then male in the Value Label Box, and then click on the
Add button.

Measure/Compute:

The level of measurement used for a variable should be correct; otherwise the analysis may
go wrong. It depends on the Qualitative or Quantitative nature of the variable.

Qualitative Variables: Nominal/Ordinal Scale They can be measured with numeric

scale level, even when their categories are coded with number. Like in the case of
gender, we have coded 1 for male and 2 for female.
Quantitative Variable: they can be measured at ordinal level. Like monthly income of
an individual can be measured by numeric scale. If monthly income is classified as
low, Medium, High, we can treat it at ordinal level.

After creating the variable, click data view to enter data in the cells. You can use the editor
window like a spread sheet and enter the values accordingly.