Maricris C.

Mercado

1. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other
organisms. Nearly every cell in a persons body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the
cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the
mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA
Your genome is made of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short.
DNA contains four basic building blocks or bases: adenine (A), cytosine(C), guanine (G) and
thymine (T).
The order, or sequence, of these bases form the instructions in the genome.
DNA is a two-stranded molecule.
DNA has a unique double helix shape, like a twisted ladder
A DNA molecule consists of two long polynucleotide chains composed of four types
of nucleotide subunits. Each of these chains is known as a DNA chain, or a DNA strand. Hydrogen
bonds between the base portions of the nucleotides hold the two chains together (Figure 4-3). As
we saw in Chapter 2 (Panel 2-6, pp. 120-121), nucleotides are composed of a five-
carbon sugar to which are attached one or more phosphate groups and a nitrogen-containing
base. In the case of the nucleotides in DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose attached to a single
phosphate group (hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid),

2. And the nitrogenous base may be either adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine (T).
The nucleotides are covalently linked together in a chain through the sugars and phosphates,
which thus form a backbone of alternating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate (see Figure 4-3).
Because only the base differs in each of the four types of subunits, each polynucleotide chain in
DNA is analogous to a necklace (the backbone) strung with four types of beads (the four bases A,
C, G, and T). These same symbols (A, C, G, and T) are also commonly used to denote the four
different nucleotidesthat is, the bases with their attached sugar and phosphate groups

3. Replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce

two identical DNA molecules. DNA replication is one of the most basic processes that occurs
within a cell. Each time a cell divides, the two resulting daughter cells must contain exactly the
same genetic information, or DNA, as the parent cell. To accomplish this, each strand of existing
DNA acts as a template for replication.
How is DNA replicated?
Replication occurs in three major steps: the opening of the double helix and separation of the
DNA strands, the priming of the template strand, and the assembly of the new DNA segment.
During separation, the two strands of the DNA double helix uncoil at a specific location called
the origin. Several enzymes and proteins then work together to prepare, or prime, the strands
for duplication. Finally, a special enzyme called DNA polymeraseorganizes the assembly of the
new DNA strands. The following description of this three-stage process applies generally to all
cells, but specific variations within the process may occur depending on organism and cell type.
What triggers replication?
Figure 1: Helicase (yellow) unwinds the double helix.
The initiation of DNA replication occurs in two steps. First, a so-called initiator protein unwinds a
short stretch of the DNA double helix. Then, a protein known as helicase attaches to and breaks
apart the hydrogen bonds between the bases on the DNA strands, thereby pulling apart the two
strands. As the helicase moves along the DNA molecule, it continues breaking these hydrogen
bonds and separating the two polynucleotide chains (Figure 1).
Figure 2: While helicase and the initiator protein (not shown) separate the two
polynucleotide chains, primase (red) assembles a primer. This primer permits the next
step in the replication process.
Figure Detail
Meanwhile, as the helicase separates the strands, another enzyme called primase briefly
attaches to each strand and assembles a foundation at which replication can begin. This
foundation is a short stretch of nucleotides called a primer (Figure 2).
How are DNA strands replicated?
Figure 3: Beginning at the primer sequence, DNA polymerase (shown in blue) attaches
to the original DNA strand and begins assembling a new, complementary strand.
After the primer is in place on a single, unwound polynucleotide strand, DNA polymerase wraps
itself around that strand, and it attaches new nucleotides to the exposed nitrogenous bases. In
this way, the polymerase assembles a new DNA strand on top of the existing one (Figure 3).

Figure 4: Each nucleotide has an affinity for its partner. A pairs with T, and C pairs
with G.
Figure Detail
As DNA polymerase makes its way down the unwound DNA strand, it relies upon the pool of free-
floating nucleotides surrounding the existing strand to build the new strand. The nucleotides that
make up the new strand are paired with partner nucleotides in the template strand; because of
their molecular structures, A and T nucleotides always pair with one another, and C and G
nucleotides always pair with one another. This phenomenon is known as complementary base
pairing (Figure 4), and it results in the production of two complementary strands of DNA.

Figure 5: A new DNA strand is synthesized. This strand contains nucleotides that are
complementary to those in the template sequence.
Base pairing ensures that the sequence of nucleotides in the existing template strand is exactly
matched to a complementary sequence in the new strand, also known as the anti-sequence of
the template strand. Later, when the new strand is itself copied, its complementary strand will
contain the same sequence as the original template strand. Thus, as a result of complementary
base pairing, the replication process proceeds as a series of sequence and anti-sequence copying
that preserves the coding of the original

The cells in your body constantly divide, regenerate, and die, but for this process to occur, the
DNA within the cell must be able to replicate itself. During cell division, the two strands of DNA
split, and the two single strands can then be used as a template in order to construct a new
version of the complimentary strand. As A always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C, its
possible to work out the sequence of bases on the one strand using the opposite strand, and its
this that allows the DNA to replicate itself. This process is carried out by a family of enzymes
called DNA polymerases

DNA replication starts with an initiator protein binding, such as dnaA in E. coli bacteria, or a complex of
proteins, like the origin recognition complex in yeast. The function of initiators is to pry apart the two strands of
DNA so that replication can begin. This situation is not unlike a jack lifting your car when you change a tire.
(Because we all know how to do that, right?) If you don't know how to change a tire, then call a tow company
and ask them how they do it. After they tell you how, scream: "That's exactly like DNA Replication!" hang up the
phone, and then pray that you never need to change a tire again.

DNA replication ends in bacteria and viruses with circular genomes when the two replication forks meet each
other on the opposite side of the chromosome from the origin of replication, in a magnificent game of chicken.
The brave replication terminator protein steps in and pauses DNA replication so that they don't crash into each
other. However, the mechanism of termination leads to two interlocked circular chromosomes stuck to each
other like magician's rings. Topoisomerase enzymes, such as DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, which are
responsible for nicking DNA, temporarily cut one chromosome so that the other can pass through. There we
go, ruining magic tricks for everyone.

4. Recombinant DNA, which is often shortened to rDNA, is an artificially made DNA strand that is
formed by the combination of two or more gene sequences. This new combination may or may
not occur naturally, but is engineered specifically for a purpose to be used in one of the many
applications of recombinant DNA.
This article will go into further detail about what DNA is, how rDNA is made and what it can be
used for.
Background Information on DNA
DNA, also known scientifically as deoxyribonucleic acid, has a double helix structure and contains
a combination of the nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. Although these
four bases are the same in all organisms, they can be paired together and arranged in an infinite
number of ways, such that each organism has a unique combination for their DNA strands.
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA, or rDNA, is the term used to describe the combination of two DNA strands
that are constructed artificially. Genetic scientists can do this to create unique DNA strand for
different purposes, using several types of techniques.
Like naturally occurring DNA, recombinant DNA has the ability to produce recombinant proteins.
It is often these proteins that play the key role in the application of recombinant DNA.
Formation of rDNA
In most cases, rDNA is created in a laboratory setting using a process of molecular cloning. This
method allows in vivo DNA replication, in the living cells of the subject.
A cloning vector is a DNA molecule that replicates inside a living cell and is used to form rDNA.
The cloning vector is usually a small part of a DNA strand that holds the genetic information that
is needed for the replication of cells. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is another method that can
be used to replicate a specific DNA sequence and create rDNA, which is used to replicate DNA in
a laboratory test tube.

The standard method of making recombinant DNA involves:

Choosing the appropriate host organism and cloning vector.
Preparation of vector DNA and DNA to be cloned.
Creation of recombinant DNA.
Introduction of rDNA to host organism.
Screening for rDNA with specific properties sought from host organisms
5. DNA replication is important because it creates a second copy of DNA that must go into one of the two
daughter cells when a cell divides. Without replication, each cell lacks enough genetic material to provide
instructions for creating proteins essential for bodily function.

If DNA never replicated, meiosis and mitosis would slowly halve the size of the genome until each cell would
die, which probably would not take long. Therefore, it is important that DNA doubles itself to account for the
cells splitting during mitosis/meiosis. DNA replication is similar to RNA transcription.