Miner Deposita
DOI 10.1007/s00126-012-0452-1
ARTICLE
Timing and formation of porphyry CuMo mineralization
in the Chuquicamata district, northern Chile:
new constraints from the Toki cluster
Fernando Barra & Hugo Alcota & Sergio Rivera &
Victor Valencia & Francisco Munizaga & Victor Maksaev
Received: 16 October 2012 / Accepted: 17 December 2012
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract The recently discovered Toki cluster, which
includes the Toki, Quetena, Genoveva, Miranda, and Opache
porphyry CuMo prospects, is located 15 km southsouth-
west of the ChuquicamataRadomiro Tomic mines in north-
ern Chile. These prospects occur in an area of 56 km and
are completely covered with Neogene alluvial deposits. In-
ferred resources for the cluster are estimated at about 20 Mt of
fine copper, with Toki and Quetena contributing 88 % of
these resources. Mineralization in these deposits is associated
with tonalite porphyries that intruded andesites and dacites of
the Collahuasi Group and intrusions of the FortunaLos Picos
Granodioritic Complex. Hypogene mineralization in the Toki
cluster consists mainly of chalcopyritebornite with minor
molybdenite with mineralization grading outward to a chal-
copyritepyrite zone and ultimately to a pyrite halo. Alteration
is dominantly of the potassic type with K-feldspar and hydro-
thermal biotite. Sericitic alteration is relatively restricted to
late quartzpyrite veins (D-type veins). Previous KAr geo-
chronology for the cluster yielded ages within a range of 34 to
40 Ma. Four new ReOs ages for Toki indicate that
Editorial handling: J. Perello
F. Barra (*) : F. Munizaga : V. Maksaev
Departamento de Geologa, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
e-mail: fbarrapantoja@ing.uchile.cl
F. Barra
Andean Geothermal Center of Excellence (CEGA),
Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
H. Alcota : S. Rivera
Exploraciones Mineras Andinas S.A., Santiago, Chile
V. Valencia
School of Environment, Washington State University, Pullman,
WA, USA
S. Rivera
Coro Mining Corp, Santiago, Chile
molybdenite mineralization occurred in a single pulse at
38 Ma. ReOs ages for three different molybdenite samples
from Quetena are within error of the Toki mineralization ages.
These ages are concordant with a new zircon UPb age of
38.60.7 Ma from the tonalite porphyry in Quetena. Two Re
Os ages for Genoveva (38.10.2 and 38.00.2 Ma) are also
within error of the Toki and Quetena molybdenite ages. Four
ReOs molybdenite ages for Opache range between 36.4 and
37.6 Ma. The Miranda prospect is the youngest with an age of
36 Ma. Four new ReOs ages for the Chuquicamata deposit
range between 33 and 32 Ma, whereas nine new 40Ar/39Ar
ages of biotite, muscovite, and K-feldspar range between 32
and 31 Ma. Analyzed molybdenites have Re and Os concen-
trations that vary between 213,099 ppm and 81,231 ppb,
respectively. The highest Re and Os concentrations are found
in the Toki prospect. Three new 40Ar/39Ar ages for the Toki
cluster are younger than the ReOs mineralization ages. The
age spectra for these three samples show evidence of excess
argon and have similar inverse isochron ages of 35 Ma that
probably reflect a late hydrothermal phyllic event. The new
geochronological data presented here for the Toki cluster
indicate that molybdenite mineralization occurred within a
very short period, probably within 2 Ma, and synchronously
(at 38 Ma) in three mineralization centers (Toki, Quetena,
and Genoveva). Furthermore, mineralization at the Toki clus-
ter preceded the emplacement of the Chuquicamata deposit
(3531 Ma) and indicates that porphyry CuMo mineraliza-
tion occurred episodically over a period of several million
years in the Chuquicamata district.
Introduction
Chile is the major copper producer in the world with more
than 5.26 Mt of copper in 2011 (www.cochilco.com). Most
of the copper resources are centered in porphyry copper

deposits, and some of the largest deposits of this type, such
as Chuquicamata, Escondida, and Collahuasi among others,
are located in northern Chile. These world-class deposits
have been extensively studied and are continually under
scrutiny in order to better understand how porphyry copper
deposits form and what factors control their size or the
amount of mineral resources contained in a deposit.
Considering the high concentration of large porphyry
copper deposits in northern Chile that have been found
and are under exploitation, it is not surprising that great
efforts are made for exploration of the region. This concen-
trated exploration effort by many international companies
has been rewarded with the discovery of new copper and
gold resources (e.g., Camus and Dilles 2001; Sillitoe 2004;
Sillitoe and Perell 2005). A noteworthy example is the
extensive exploration program initiated in 1991 by
Codelco-Chile (Behn et al. 2001; Camus 2003) that yielded
the discovery of Opache in 1996, Genoveva in 1999, Toki in
2000, Quetena in 2002, and Miranda in 2006, all within the
Chuquicamata district (Fig. 1). These deposits are spatially
very close, and as a group are known as the Toki cluster.
The tendency of porphyry copper deposits to occur in clus-
ters and/or alignments has long been recognized in the Amer-
ican Southwest province (Titley 1982; Damon et al. 1983), and
numerous examples have also been documented in Chile (e.g.,
Potrerillos, Olson 1989; Marsh et al. 1997; La Fortuna-El
Negro, Perell et al. 1996; Quebrada Blanca-Collahuasi
(Rosario)-Ujina, Masterman et al. 2004; Zaldivar-Escondida-
Escondida Norte-Chimborazo, Richards et al. 2001; Padilla-
Garza et al. 2001, 2004). However, it is still unclear whether the
deposits that compose a cluster are emplaced at the same time
or during a short restricted period, or are the result of a long
protracted period of magmatichydrothermal activity.
The ReOs isotopic system applied to molybdenite pro-
vides valuable information on the timing of molybdenite
mineralization once the suitability of samples has been
determined (see Barra et al. 2003 and references therein).
Moreover, recent studies have shown that ReOs molybde-
nite ages can provide an estimation of the duration of
hydrothermal systems and the number of molybdenite min-
eralization events within a single ore deposit (Jensen 1998;
Selby and Creaser 2001; Barra et al. 2003, 2005; Maksaev et
al. 2004; Cannell et al. 2005).
In the Toki cluster, the age of mineralization has been
indirectly determined by KAr geochronology on associated
intrusives (whole rock ages) and hydrothermal biotite
(Camus 2003), but the high uncertainty associated with
these determinations does not allow for a proper evaluation
of the age and the relative timing of mineralization events
that formed the cluster. In this contribution, we present a
brief description of these recently discovered deposits (Toki,
Quetena, Genoveva, Miranda, and Opache), and we provide
a new UPb zircon age for the tonalite porphyry in Quetena,
Miner Deposita
Fig. 1 Geologic map of the Chuquicamata district showing the loca-
tion of mines and prospects (Modified from Tomlinson et al. 2001;
Tomlinson and Blanco 2008 and Codelco unpublished maps)
precise ReOs molybdenite ages, and 40Ar/39Ar ages for
these deposits and for the large Chuquicamata deposit to
better constrain the age of formation of deposits within the
Chuquicamata district.
Geologic setting
The Chuquicamata district includes the Chuquicamata and
Radomiro Tomic megadeposits, the exotic copper deposit
Mina Sur, the newly developed Ministro Hales mine (for-
merly known as Mansa Mina) located 5.5 km south of
Chuquicamata, and the deposits of the Toki cluster (Toki,
Genoveva, Quetena, Miranda, and Opache) located about
15 km SSW of Chuquicamata (Fig. 1). Total identified
resources for the Chuquicamata district are estimated at
107.4 Mt of fine copper considering a cutoff Cu grade of
0.2 wt% (Codelco Memoria Anual 2011). Inferred resources
for the cluster are estimated at about 20 Mt of fine copper,
with Toki contributing with ca. 11.2 Mt and Quetena with
3.8 Mt (Camus 2003; Rivera et al. 2006).
The deposits of the district are located in the Late Eo-
ceneEarly Oligocene (4331 Ma) porphyry copper belt that
extends for about 1,400 km, from 18S to 31S (Sillitoe
1988; Sillitoe and Perell 2005). The rocks in the area range
in age from Paleozoic to Tertiary. The main structural fea-
ture observed is the West Fault, which is part of the
Domeyko Fault System (Boric et al. 1990; Dilles et al.
1997) and divides the district in two domains: an eastern
domain and a western domain.
The oldest rocks in the area are represented by Paleozoic
schists of the Limn Verde metamorphic complex that crop
out in the western domain (Fig. 1). A PaleozoicEarly
Mesozoic volcanosedimentary sequence composed mainly
of sedimentary rocks at the base with pyroclastic flows of
dacitic composition, andesites and andesitic breccias at the
top has been identified in the Toki area. This volcano
sedimentary sequence is probably correlated with the Colla-
huasi Group (Tomlinson et al. 2001; Munizaga et al. 2008),
and are covered with alluvial deposits. The sequence has
also been recognized in nearby outcrops and in the subsur-
face close to the Ministro Hales deposit, where it was dated
at 232303 Ma by UPb in zircon (Camus 2003). A series
of granitoids of Late Paleozoic age occur in the district and
are grouped in the Cerro Chuquicamata plutonic complex
(Fig. 1) including the Chuquicamata Hills Diorite (267
273 Ma hornblende and biotite KAr ages, Tomlinson et
al. 2001), Mina Sur Granodiorite, and the Mesa Granite (K
Ar biotite age of 3054 Ma, Marinovich and Lahsen 1984;
Miner Deposita

ID-TIMS U-Pb zircon age of 296.92.1 Ma, Tomlinson and
Blanco 2008). Other relevant intrusions are the East Granodi-
orite of Triassic age (2291 Ma UPb in zircon, Tomlinson et
al. 2001) and the Elena Granodiorite. Previous geochronology
on the Elena Granodiorite yielded ages from Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous (1223.8 Ma, KAr in biotite, Ambrus 1977). A
more recent UPb age determination in zircon indicates a
Triassic age of 2272 Ma (Tomlinson et al. 2001), although
in the Carmen area, east of the Chuquicamata mine, this unit
yielded UPb zircon ages of 233.12.2 and 231.42.0 Ma 0.8 Ma, Campbell et al. 2006) and Tetera aplite porphyries
(Proffett and Dilles 2007). Other Triassic units in the Chuqui-
camata district are represented by volcanic rocks of the Colla-
huasi Group, which have been dated at 231.6 0.5 Ma
(Tomlinson et al. 2001).
In the western domain, particularly in the southwestern
quadrant of the district extensive outcrops of Jurassic rocks
composed mainly of marine sedimentary rocks (limestones
and sandstones; Caracoles Group) overlie the Paleozoic
metamorphic basement and PaleozoicTriassic Collahuasi
Group. Overlying the Jurassic sequence are Lower Creta-
ceous continental sandstones of the Cerritos Bayos Forma-
tion and volcanosedimentary deposits from the Quebrada
Mala and Icanche Formations of Late Cretaceous and Eo-
cene age, respectively. The Late Cretaceous age of the
Quebrada Mala Formation has been confirmed by UPb
dating on zircons from a sample from the Cerro Negro area
(72.53.1 Ma, Codelco internal report) immediately to the
north of the Toki cluster (Fig. 1). West of the Chuquicamata
district, the Quebrada Mala Formation is intruded by quartz
diorite to quartz monzonite plutonic rocks of the Monte-
cristo Intrusive Complex. UPb zircon dating using laser
ablation ICP-MS yielded an age of 62.70.5 Ma (Campbell
et al. 2006).
Extensive EoceneOligocene magmatism is represented
by the Los Picos Monzodioritic Complex, the Fortuna
Granodioritic Complex, and the Chuquicamata Intrusive
Complex, also known as the Chuqui Porphyry Complex
(Dilles et al. 1997; Ossandn et al. 2001). The Fortuna
Granodioritic Complex and Los Picos Monzodioritic Com-
plex crop out in the western domain and are temporally and
spatially associated with the deposits of the Toki cluster,
whereas the Chuquicamata Intrusive Complex is associated
with the Chuquicamata and Radomiro Tomic deposits in the
eastern domain and the Ministro Hales deposit in the west-
ern domain (Fig. 1). The Fortuna Granodioritic Complex is
a polyphase pluton composed of the Antena granodiorite,
Fiesta hornblende granodiorite, San Lorenzo granodiorite
and tonalite porphyries, and Tetera aplite porphyries (Dilles
et al. 1997; Tomlinson et al. 2001; Ossandn et al. 2001).
Los Picos quartz monzodiorite is the oldest unit with UPb
zircon geochronology by laser ablation ICP-MS and SHRIMP
ages between 43.10.6 and 41.80.3 Ma (Campbell et al.
2006; Table 1). The Los Picos bodies intrude the Caracoles
Miner Deposita
Group and the Quebrada Mala and Icanche Formations and is
in turn intruded by the Antena granodiorite, which has been
dated at 39.30.4 Ma (ID-TIMS U-Pb zircon age, Dilles et al.
1997) and 38.80.6 Ma (laser ablation ICP-MS UPb zircon
age, Campbell et al. 2006). The Fiesta hornblende granodio-
rite, with UPb zircon ages of 37.60.7 (Dilles et al. 1997),
39.40.5, and 38.20.3 Ma (Campbell et al. 2006), also
intrudes the Los Picos and the Antena granodiorite, and it is
intruded by the San Lorenzo tonalite porphyries (38.2
(Dilles et al. 1997; Tomlinson et al. 2001). The Chuquicamata
Intrusive Complex is composed of four porphyry units: the
West, Fine Texture, East, and Banco porphyries. Descriptions
of all these units have been reported by Ossandn et al. (2001)
and Camus (2003). Ballard et al. (2001) and Campbell et al.
(2006) reported laser ablation ICP-MS and SHRIMP UPb
zircon ages that range from 34.5 to 33.1 Ma (Table 1)
Post-mineralization continental clastic sedimentary
sequences with ash and ignimbrite intercalations are widely
distributed in the district. These sequences have been
grouped into the El Loa Group, which comprises the Jal-
quinche Formation and the Opache Formation (May et al.
2005). The Opache Formation covers the Opache prospect,
whereas Miocene and younger gravels cover the Radomiro
Tomic, Mina Sur, Ministro Hales, Genoveva, Quetena, and
Toki deposits (Fig. 1).
Geology of the Toki cluster
Lithological units
The deposits of the Toki cluster (Opache, Toki, Genoveva,
Quetena, and Miranda) are located in the western domain of
the Chuquicamata district at approximately 15 km SSW of
the Chuquicamata pit and within an area of 30 km2. The
oldest rocks recognized in the area are the Limn Verde
schists of Paleozoic age (Fig. 1). This unit is followed by a
sequence of sedimentary rocks, pyroclastic flows, andesites
and andesitic breccias, in part correlated with the Collahuasi
Group (UPb age of 232303 Ma; Tomlinson et al. 2001)
exposed in the Radomiro Tomic deposit area (Fig. 1). The
pyroclastic flows of dacitic composition have been dated
using laser ablation ICP-MS UPb zircon technique yield-
ing Permian ages of 2799 Ma in the Toki area and 273.5
11.0 Ma at Quetena (Codelco internal report). Overlying this
Permian volcanosedimentary sequence are Jurassic sedi-
ments and Cretaceous volcanic rocks.
The Fortuna Granodioritic Complex and Los Picos Mon-
zodioritic Complex intrude the Paleozoic schists, and the
Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanosedimentary sequences. In
the Toki area, these complexes include a series of porphyries
with composition ranging from diorite and monzodiorite to
Miner Deposita

40
Table 1 Compiled Ar/39Ar and UPb ages for the Chuquicamata district

Unit Age (Ma) Method/mineral dated Reference

Los Picos quartz monzodiorite 43.10.6 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
41.80.3 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
42.20.2 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
Antena granodiorite 38.80.6 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
39.30.4 UPb ID-TIMS/zircon Dilles et al. (1997)
Fiesta hornblende granodiorite 39.40.5 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
38.20.3 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
37.60.7 UPb ID-TIMS/zircon Dilles et al. (1997)
San Lorenzo rhyodacitic porphyry 38.20.8 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
East porphyry 35.20.4 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Ballard et al. (2001)
34.60.3 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Ballard et al. (2001)
33.70.2 ArAr/K-feldspar (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
33.40.4 ArAr/K-feldspar (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
32.10.2 ArAr/K-feldspar (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
33.60.2 ArAr/K-feldspar (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
31.90.2 ArAr/biotite (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
32.80.2 ArAr/biotite (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
34.00.4 ArAr/biotite (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
35.20.2 ArAr/biotite (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
33.90.3 ArAr/biotite (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
31.60.3 ArAr/K-feldspar (sericitic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
30.90.2 ArAr/K-feldspar (sericitic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
31.10.2 ArAr/sericite (sericitic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
31.20.2 ArAr/biotite (sericitic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
West porphyry 34.00.3 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Ballard et al. (2001)
33.50.2 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Ballard et al. (2001)
Bench porphyry 34.10.3 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Ballard et al. (2001)
33.30.3 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Ballard et al. (2001)
33.10.2 ArAr/K-feldspar (potassic alteration) Reynolds et al. (1998)
RT major 35.00.3 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
34.30.3 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
31.80.3 ArAr/sericite (sericitic alteration) Cuadra and Rojas (2001)
RT minor 33.90.4 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
MM porphyry 38.90.4 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Boric et al. (2009)
Quartz porphyry in Ministro Hales 35.50.6 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Boric et al. (2009)
Opache porphyry 37.31.0 UPb SHRIMP/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
37.70.6 UPb LA-ICPMS/zircon Campbell et al. (2006)
Toki tonalite 38.80.5 UPb SHRIMP?/zircon Rivera and Pardo (2004)
34.50.2 ArAr/sericite from D-vein halo Rivera and Pardo (2004)

granodiorite, tonalite, and dacite (Dilles et al. 1997; Rivera
and Pardo 2004; Tomlinson and Blanco 2008). Mineralization
in the district is associated with breccias and tonalitic to
granodioritic porphyries of the Fortuna complex, which in-
trude andesites and dacites of the Collahuasi Group, the Los
Picos Monzodiorite Complex, and the Antena granodiorite
(Figs. 2 and 3). The latter is the main host rock for the San
Lorenzo tonalite porphyries which form elongate bodies with
a NNE orientation in the Toki and Quetena area, and a WNW
orientation at Opache (Fig. 2). At Toki, the San Lorenzo
tonalite porphyry has a zircon UPb age of 38.80.5 Ma
(Rivera and Pardo 2004). At Genoveva, the host rocks to the
San Lorenzo porphyries comprise a succession of fine-grained
sandstones, laminated mudstones, local conglomerate, and
 Miner Deposita

Fig. 2 Geologic map of the Toki cluster interpreted at the 1,900-m level. Also shown are the location of drill hole samples. Precise location and
characterization of samples are indicated in Table 2 (Source: unpublished map, Exploraciones Mineras Andinas exploration team)
Miner Deposita

Fig. 3 Cross sections of the Toki, Quetena, Genoveva, and Miranda prospects showing rock types, distribution of alteration zones, and
mineralization profiles (section 7.521.400 N) (Source: unpublished sections, Exploraciones Mineras Andinas exploration team)

coarse-grained sandstones, with a SHRIMP UPb zircon age
of 300.31.8 Ma for an interbedded rhyolitic tuff (Tomlinson
and Blanco 2008). These sedimentary and volcanic rocks of
Permo-Triassic age have NS strikes and dip to the west and
have been metamorphosed by the intrusion of the Fortuna
Granodioritic Complex and the Los Picos Monzodioritic
Complex. Porphyry copper mineralization at Toki, Quetena,
and Genoveva is genetically and spatially associated with the
intrusion of the San Lorenzo tonalite porphyries.
The Opache prospect is associated with a series of
porphyry units (Early and Late San Lorenzo tonalite
porphyries) that intrude diorites, tonalites, granodiorites,

monzonites, and monzodiorites of La Fortuna and Los
Picos complexes (Camus 2003) and Permo-Triassic
metasedimentary rocks and andesites from the Colla-
huasi Group. The San Lorenzo late porphyry is locally
known as the Opache porphyry and has a laser ablation
ICP-MS UPb zircon age of 37.31.0 Ma (Campbell et
al. 2006). Associated to these porphyry units are breccia
bodies of igneous (Negra breccia) and hydrothermal
(Main breccia) origin.
The Toki cluster (Fig. 3) is almost entirely covered with
unconsolidated alluvial gravels of the El Loa Group and
other undifferentiated deposits that reach a thickness of
150 to 220 m in Toki and Miranda, about 70 to 100 m in
Quetena, and 10 to 50 m at Genoveva. A widespread thin
ash layer interbedded within the gravel cover has been dated
at 9.6 Ma (Rivera et al. 2006).
Structures
Two main structural systems control the emplacement of
the mineralization at Toki, Miranda, and Quetena
(Fig. 2). A NNE to NE system controls the emplace-
ment of tonalite porphyry bodies and its associated
primary mineralization. This system appears to be relat-
ed to structures in the Ministro Hales area which have a
similar orientation. The second structural system (NNW
to NW) controls the emplacement of late veins and the
morphology of the secondary enrichment blanket and
copper oxide mineralization. A third post-mineral fault
system with an orientation NW to WNW offsets the
supergene blanket (Rivera and Pardo 2004).
A reverse fault system (Genoveva Fault) with a NS
orientation and 6065E dip is recognized between Gen-
oveva and Quetena (Fig. 2) and extends further south
into the Opache area (Tomlinson et al. 2001). Also at
Opache, a minor structural system with an NW to SE
orientation controls the emplacement of the tonalite por-
phyries and dikes, breccia bodies, hydrothermal alter-
ation, and mineralization.
Alteration
The most dominant type of alteration in the cluster is
potassic alteration, characterized by K-feldspar and biotite
(Fig. 3) and affecting all porphyries, equigranular intru-
sions, and volcanic rocks. The margins of the minerali-
zation centers are characterized by a propylitic alteration
halo with chlorite and epidote. Phyllic (sericitic) alter-
ation is mainly associated with D-type quartzpyrite vein
halos. An alteration assemblage of quartz, K-feldspar,
andalusite, and sericite has also been recognized in Toki,
possibly associated with dacitic intrusive phases (Rivera
and Pardo 2004).
Miner Deposita
In contrast to the rest of the mineralized centers of the
cluster, Opache is characterized by sericitic alteration
(Fig. 4), predominantly in the form of thick haloes of D-
type veins. This alteration is superimposed on earlier potas-
sic alteration (K-feldspar, secondary biotite, and quartz) and
propylitic (chloriteepidote) alteration assemblages.
Mineralization
Hypogene copper mineralization in the cluster is centered on
tonalite porphyries of the San Lorenzo suite and constitutes
elongated bodies with a general NNE orientation. At Toki,
Miranda, and Quetena, the mineralization is characterized
by fine-grained disseminations of bornite and chalcopyrite
together with quartzsulfide stockworks. The ore bodies
contain central parts dominated by chalcopyrite and bornite
which is best developed at Toki over an area of approxi-
mately 2,500 m by 1,000 m along a NNE-trending body.
Opache is dominated by an assemblage of chalcopyrite and
pyrite (Fig. 4), an assemblage that is also observed at depth
in Genoveva. Typically, the hypogene mineralization is con-
centrated in the central zones of each deposit, although at
Quetena it tends to be localized at the contacts between the
causative porphyries and their tonalitic country rocks. A
general lateral zoning from a central core of chalcopyrite
and bornite grading outward into a chalcopyrite-dominated
zone and more externally into a pyrite zone is recognized
(Fig. 3). Minor hypogene chalcocite, digenite, and covellite
also occur in Toki (Rivera and Pardo 2004) and Miranda. In
the propylitic halo, pyrite veins are predominantly observed
with minor sphaleritegalenacarbonate veins.
Each central ore zone contains low-grade areas (pyrite,
pyrite with minor chalcopyrite) that interrupt the continuity
of the ore zone, and which are associated with late pyrite
veins. Figure 3 portrays the distribution of copper mineraliza-
tion within the cluster and shows that the supergene profile has
a thickness that varies from 80 m to as much as 300 m.
Copper oxides that form a blanket with a thickness that range
between 80 and 160 m dominate the upper section. The main
copper oxide zone is composed of chrysocolla, malachite,
atacamite, azurite, tenorite, and copper wad, all of which occur
in fractures and veinlets. The uppermost section of the super-
gene profile consists of leached rock with clays, hematite, and
goethite, which in certain parts of the cluster interrupt the
continuity of the oxide blanket.
Copper oxides have partly replaced secondary copper
minerals (chalcocite, covellite) defining a mixed zone under
the oxide zone. This mixed zone is characterized by the
presence of atacamite, malachite, hematite, native copper,
cuprite, chalcocite, covellite, and minor pyrite, chalcopyrite,
and bornite. This mixed zone has a thickness that ranges
between 20 and 120 m and grades downward into the
enriched sulfide blanket, below which hypogene sulfide
Miner Deposita

Fig. 4 Cross sections of the Opache prospect showing rock types, distribution of alteration zones, and mineralization profiles (section 7.515.500 N)
(Source: unpublished sections, Exploraciones Mineras Andinas exploration team)

mineralization dominates. The mixed zone is best developed
at Toki, associated with the central core of the prospect and
located between faults.
The secondary enrichment blanket has a strong structural
control with a NNW orientation and a thickness that varies
between 20 and 150 m. The mineralogy of this blanket is
characterized by chalcocite with minor covellite replacing
pyrite, chalcopyrite, and bornite. Toki also shows the
best developed enrichment blanket with a thickness of
over 300 m. A 10- to 30-m-thick layer containing exotic
oxide copper mineralization (copper wad and chryso-
colla) has also been recognized at Quetena, Toki, and
Miranda, the full potential of which has yet to be
determined.
 Miner Deposita

Table 2 Description of samples dated from the Chuquicamata, Toki, Quetena, Genoveva Miranda, and Opache porphyry copper deposits

Deposit Sample name Drill core coordinates Method/ Depth Description

(UTM) mineral (m)

Chuquicamata CHDD-7215 7,534,636 N-510,119E ReOs/mo 540.5 qtz-mo transitional B-vein in East porphyry
CHDD-7225 7,534,821 N-510,231E ReOs/mo 728.3 qtz-mo transitional B-vein in East porphyry
CHDD-7202-1 7,535,175 N-510,197E ReOs/mo 443.3 qtz-mo transitional B-vein in East porphyry
CHDD-7202-2 7,535,175 N-510,197E ReOs/mo 386.5 qtz-mo transitional B-vein in East porphyry
CHDD-7239 7,535,553 N-510,680E ArAr/bio 117.1 Deep early potassic (biotite-K-feldspar) alteration with ccp in
East porphyry
CHDD-7229 7,535,003 N-510,343E ArAr/musc 732.6 Early potassic alteration overprinted by late sericite alteration with
py-dg-bn in East porphyry
CHDD-7229 7,535,003 N-510,343E ArAr/musc 691.0 Early potassic alteration overprinted by late sericite alteration
with py-dg-bn in East porphyry
CHDD-7237 7,535,462 N-510,624E ArAr/kfs 186.4 Early K-feldspar alteration associated to bn in East porphyry
CHDD-7237 7,535,462 N-510,624E ArAr/kfs 175.8 Early K-feldspar alteration associated to bn in East porphyry
CHDD-7215 7,534,635 N-510,119E ArAr/musc 566.0 Late sericite alteration with py-en in East porphyry
CHDD-6602 7,535,497 N-510,744E ArAr/kfs 428.8 Early K-feldspar alteration associated to bn in East porphyry
CHDD-6602 7,535,497 N-510,744E ArAr/bio 474.2 Early gray-green sericite with bn-dg in East porphyry
CHDD-6602 7535497 N-510744E ArAr/musc 857.7 Late sericite alteration with py-cv in East porphyry
Toki AD-1157A 7,519,807 N-506,088E ReOs/mo 863.5 Moderate sericite alteration, qtz-ccp-mo transitional B-vein in
tonalite porphyry
AD-1005A 7,520,599 N-505,996E ReOs/mo 718.5 Moderate sericite and minor chlorite alteration, ccp-mo
transitional B-vein in tonalite porphyry
AD-1123 7,520,199 N-506,299E ReOs/mo 503.8 Moderate sericite-chlorite-silica alteration, qtz-mo transitional
B-vein in tonalite porphyry
AD-1162 7,521,799 N-505,900E ReOs/mo 690.5 Moderate sericite and minor K-feldspar and chlorite alteration,
qtz-mo transitional B-vein in hydrothermal breccia in tonalite
porphyry
AD-1123 7,520,199 N-506,299E ArAr/plg 413.6 Moderate K-feldspar and minor sericite alteration, plagioclase
from tonalite porphyry
Quetena AD-1159 7,522,000 N-504,646E ReOs/mo 575.5 Strong K-feldspar alteration, qtz-mo transitional B-vein in
tonalite porphyry
AD-1185 7,521,799 N-504,099E ReOs/mo 277.3 Minor biotite-chlorite alteration, mo transitional B-vein in
granodiorite stock
AD-1705 7,522,200 N-505,000E ReOs/mo 327.6 Minor biotite-sericite alteration, ccp-mo-kfs transitional
B-vein in tonalite porphyry
AD-1159 7,522,000 N-504,646E ArAr/bio 513.0 Moderate K-feldspar alteration, biotite (primary?) in tonalite porphyry
AD-1163 7,522,000 N-504,400E UPb/zrn 499.5 Moderate K-feldspar and minor sericite alteration, zircons
from tonalite porphyry
Genoveva AD-966 7,521,700 N-503,200E ReOs/mo 246.0 Moderate chlorite and minor biotite alteration, qtz-moccp
transitional B-vein in metandesite
AD-1012 7,521,299 N-503,401E ReOs/mo 332.7 Moderate biotite-chlorite alteration, qtz-mo transitional B-vein
in tonalite porphyry
AD-1012 7,521,299 N-503,401E ArAr/bio 214.6 Moderate sericite alteration, biotite (primary?) in tonalite porphyry
Miranda DDH-2550 7,520,478 N-507,079E ReOs/mo 636.5 Moderate chlorite-sericite-K-feldspar alteration, moccp
transitional B-vein in tonalite porphyry
DDH-2565 7,520,699 N-506,670E ReOs/mo 393.5 qtz-mo transitional B-vein
DDH-2569 7,520,900 N-506,800E ReOs/mo 782.7 qtz-mo-ccp transitional B-vein
Opache AD-432 7,517,507 N-503,652E ReOs/mo 363.0 Moderate biotite-chlorite alteration, mo-ccp B-vein in igneous breccia
AD-396 7,517,100 N-503,524E ReOs/mo 441.0 Moderate biotite-chlorite alteration, mo-ccp B-vein in igneous breccia
AD-430 7,517,500 N-503,408E ReOs/mo 333.0 Moderate chlorite-sericite alteration, mo transitional B-vein in
tonalite porphyry

All UTM coordinates are based on Datum WGS84

bio biotite, bn bornite, ccp chalcopyrite, cv covellite, dg digenite, en enargite, mo molybdenite, kfs K-feldspar, plg plagioclase, py pyrite, qtz quartz, zrn zircon
Miner Deposita
Sample preparation and analytical methods
Several samples from the Toki cluster were selected for
isotopic dating using ReOs, 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, and UPb
methods. Sample locations are shown in Fig. 2, and in
Table 2.
Molybdenite ReOs dating
Molybdenite contains high concentration of Re, usually tens
to hundreds of parts per million, and essentially no common
Os; hence, all the Os contained in molybdenite is radiogenic
(187Os). This property makes molybdenite a single mineral
chronometer for ReOs dating that has been widely used in
different mineral deposits.
Mineral separates for four molybdenite samples from
Toki, three samples from each of Quetena, Opache, and
Miranda, and two samples from Genoveva were analyzed
at the ReOs lab, Department of Geosciences, University of
Arizona, USA, according to the procedure described in
Barra et al. (2003, 2005).
Samples were digested using the Carius tube method
(Shirey and Walker 1995). About 0.5 g of sample was
loaded in the Carius tube with Re and Os spikes and
dissolved in inverse aqua regia by heating in an oven at
220 C for 12 h. After sample dissolution and homog-
enization of the solution, Re and Os were separated
using a distillation technique (Ngler and Frei 1997),
in which Os is collected into cold HBr, dried down, and
further purified by microdistillation technique (Birck et
al. 1997). Re was purified using AG1-X8 anion ex-
change column chemistry. The blank correction for mo-
lybdenite was insignificant.
Re and Os were later loaded on Ni and Pt filaments,
respectively, with Ba salts to enhance ionization. Measure-
ments were made as negative oxides using NTIMS (Creaser
et al. 1991; Vlkening et al. 1991).
40
Ar/39Ar dating
Biotite and plagioclase were handpicked from crushed
samples of tonalite porphyries from Toki, Quetena, and
Genoveva using a low-power binocular microscope. The
selected minerals were later irradiated at a 5-MW pool
reactor of Herald type in La Reina nuclear reactor,
operated by the Comisin Chilena de Energa Nuclear,
Santiago, Chile. Samples were irradiated with Fish Can-
yon sanidine as monitor (28.030.18 Ma, Renne et al.
1994). The samples studied in this paper were irradiated
for a period of 24 h.
After irradiation monitors were analyzed by total
fusion, and J factors were calculated for each monitor
grain. The samples were analyzed at the 40Ar/ 39 Ar
laboratory at the Servicio Nacional de Geologa y Min-
era, Santiago, Chile, using a CO2 laser wherein incre-
mental heating steps were achieved by successive
increases in the power of the laser. Following each three
heating steps a line blank was analyzed.
The noble gases were separated from the other evolved
gases by the use of a cold trap at 133 C (cold finger) and a
ST101 getter operated at 2.2 A. Once purified, the noble
gases were introduced into a high-resolution MAP 21550
mass spectrometer in electron multiplier mode. The isotopes
36
Ar, 37Ar, 38Ar, 39Ar, and 40Ar were analyzed and the 36/
40, 37/40, 38/40, and 39/40 ratios were calculated for time
zero (moment of introduction of the gas into the spectrom-
eter). Spectrometer bias was corrected using periodic anal-
yses of air samples, from which a correction factor
(discrimination factor) was calculated.
Nine drill core samples from the Chuquicamata deposit
were also dated by the 40Ar/39Ar technique at Stanford
University, California, USA. Detailed descriptions of sam-
ple preparation, analytical procedure, and data reduction are
provided by Marsh et al. (1997).
UPb dating
A sample was collected in the Quetena prospect from a drill
hole at a depth of 500 m. The sample was crushed and
milled. Heavy mineral concentrates of the <350-m fraction
were separated magnetically. Inclusion-free zircons from the
non-magnetic fraction were handpicked under a binocular
microscope. Zircons were mounted in epoxy and polished
for laser ablation analysis.
Single zircon crystals were analyzed with a Micromass
Isoprobe multi-collector ICP-MS equipped with nine Fara-
day collectors, an axial Daly detector, and four ion-counting
channels (Gehrels et al. 2008) at the Laserchron lab, De-
partment of Geosciences, University of Arizona, USA. The
Isoprobe is equipped with an ArF Excimer laser, which has
an emission wavelength of 193 nm. The analyses were
conducted on 35 micron spots with output energy of
32 mJ and a repetition rate of 8 Hz. Each analysis con-
sisted of a background measurement (one 20-s integration
on peaks with no laser firing) and twenty 1-s integrations on
peaks with the laser firing. Any Hg contribution to the 204Pb
mass is accordingly removed by subtracting the background
values. The depth of each ablation pit was 15 m. Total
measurement time was 90 s per analysis.
The collectors were configured for simultaneous mea-
surement of 204Pb in an ion-counting channel and 206Pb,
207
Pb, 208Pb, 232Th, and 238U in Faraday detectors. All
analyses were conducted in static mode. Inter-element frac-
tionation was monitored by analyzing fragments of SL-1, a
large concordant zircon crystal from Sri Lanka with a
known (ID-TIMS) age of 5644 Ma (2) (Gehrels et al.
 Miner Deposita

2008). The reported ages for zircon grains are based entirely
on the 206Pb/238U ratios because errors of the 207Pb/235U and
206
Pb/207Pb ratios are significantly greater. The larger errors
are the result of the low intensity (commonly <0.5 mV) of
the 207Pb signal from these young, low-U grains. 207Pb/235U
and 206 Pb/ 207 Pb ratios and ages are accordingly not
reported.
The 206Pb/238U ratios are corrected for common Pb by
using the measured 206Pb/204Pb, a common Pb composition
from Stacey and Kramers (1975), and an uncertainty of
1.0 unit on the common 206Pb/204Pb.
The weighted mean of 19 individual analyses was
calculated according to Ludwig (2004). The mean age
considered only the measurement or random errors
(errors in 206Pb/238U and 206Pb/204Pb of each unknown).
For this sample, the random error is 0.6 Ma (2), and
represents 1.6 %. Age of standard, calibration correction
from standard, composition of common Pb, and decay
constant uncertainty are the other sources that contributed
to the error in the final age determination. These uncer-
tainties are grouped and are known as the systematic
error. For this sample, the systematic error is 1.0 %.
The error in the age of the sample was calculated by
adding quadratically the two components (random or
measurement error and systematic error), which for this
sample is 1.9 % (i.e., 0.7 Ma). All age uncertainties are
reported at the 2-sigma level (2).
Results
ReOs molybdenite ages
The concentrations of Re and Os and the calculated ages
are given in Table 3. Uncertainties in age are reported
with a 0.5 % equivalent to a 2 sigma error. Total Re and
187
Os concentrations vary in the range 213,099 ppm and
81,231 ppb, respectively. The highest Re and Os

Table 3 ReOs data for por- 187 187

phyry copper deposits of the Deposit/sample name Weight (mg) Total Re (ppm) Re (ppm) Os (ppb) Age (Ma) Error (0.5 %)
Toki cluster and Chuquicamata
Chuquicamata
CHDD-7215 26 153.3 96.4 49.8 32.0 0.2
CHDD-7225 47 225.0 141.5 75.4 32.2 0.2
CHDD-7202-1 47 262.4 164.9 90.0 32.9 0.2
CHDD-7202-2 51 92.6 58.2 30.5 31.9 0.2
Chuqui molya n.r. 193.5 121.7 81.0 32.2 0.2
Chuqui moly-4a n.r. 245.2 154.2 12.9 31.7 0.2
Toki
AD-1157A 50 1,380.8 868.1 548.4 37.9 0.2
AD-1005A 47 1,157.0 727.4 456.8 37.7 0.2
AD-1123 62 3,099.2 1,948.4 1,230.9 37.9 0.2
AD-1162 41 654.6 411.5 261.2 38.1 0.2
Quetena
AD-1159 29 274.6 172.6 109.1 37.9 0.2
AD-1185 51 1,210.0 760.7 486.4 38.4 0.2
AD-1705 54 795.9 500.4 316.2 37.9 0.2
Genoveva
AD-966 42 755.5 475.0 301.8 38.1 0.2
Uncertainties in age are reported AD-1012 52 613.1 385.4 243.8 38.0 0.2
with a 0.5 % error which
includes the error in the Re de- Miranda
cay constant (0.31 %), errors in DDH-2550 52 1,392.0 871.4 525.7 36.2 0.2
measurement of isotopic ratios, DDH-2565 47 1,074.5 672.7 403.0 36.0 0.2
weighing errors, and 185Re and
190 DDH-2569 49 2,858.4 1,789.3 1,087.6 36.5 0.2
Os spike calibration uncer-
tainties (0.08 and 0.15 %, re- Opache
spectively). Ages are calculated AD-432 64 244.7 153.2 92.9 36.4 0.2
using 187Os= 187Re (et-1) where AD-396-1 74 1,536.4 961.8 602.2 37.6 0.2
=1.6661011 year1
AD-396-2 51 1,635.8 1,024.0 639.8 37.5 0.2
n.r. not reported
a
AD-430 123 20.9 13.1 8.0 36.8 0.2
Ages from Mathur et al. (2001)
Miner Deposita

concentrations were found in the Toki prospect. The four
Toki samples yielded the same age within error
(37.9 Ma). Samples from Quetena and Genoveva also
show similar ages (38 Ma). Miranda has the youngest
ages of the cluster from 36.5 0.2 to 36.0 0.2 Ma,
whereas Opache has ages ranging from 37.6 0.2 to
36.4 0.2 Ma. Three new ReOs molybdenite ages
reported here for the Chuquicamata deposit are the same
within error (32 Ma) and consistent with previous mo-
lybdenite ages reported by Mathur et al. (2001). One
sample (CHDD-7202-1) is slightly older with an age of
ca. 33 Ma.
40
Ar/39Ar ages
Three samples were analyzed by step heating using a
CO2 laser. Age spectra diagrams and correlation plots
are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 5. 40Ar/39Ar spectra are
constructed using Isoplot (Ludwig 2004). Plateau ages
are considered here when three or more consecutive
steps release more than 50 % of the 39Ar and their
respective errors overlap at the 1-sigma level. Sample
AD-1159 is biotite from the tonalite porphyry in Que-
tena. A total of nine heating steps were performed for
this sample. Initial heating steps have increasing radio-
genic yields with decreasing apparent ages suggesting
excess argon. The last five steps yielded a plateau age
(Fig. 5a) with 52 % of the 39Ar of 36.20.8 Ma (2-
sigma). The initial 40Ar/ 36Ar ratio from the inverse
isochron plot (Fig. 5b) shows a value of 56657, well
above the atmospheric value (295.5), confirming the pres-
ence of excess argon; the inverse isochron yielded an age of
35.40.8 Ma.
Sample AD-1012 is a biotite from a tonalite porphry
in the Genoveva area. The sample yielded a seven-step
age spectrum with a plateau age of 36.10.8 Ma (2-
sigma) with 75 % 39Ar (Fig. 5c). Overall, the age
spectrum shows a pattern of decreasing apparent ages
over the initial heating steps associated with increasing
radiogenic yields, indicating the presence of excess ar-
gon as also shown from the inverse isochron analysis in
which the initial 40Ar/36Ar ratio is 563110, and an
isochron age of 35.40.9 Ma (2-sigma; Fig. 5d). The
age spectrum of plagioclase sample AD-1123 from Toki
yielded a plateau age of 36.11.0 Ma (2-sigma) and
shows the characteristic U-shape pattern that indicates
excess argon (Fig. 5e). The inverse isochron initial
40
Ar/36Ar ratio of 307.14.7 confirms the presence of
excess argon above the atmospheric value (Fig. 5f). The
inverse isochron yielded an age of 34.41.3 Ma.
Nine drill core samples (four muscovites, three K-
feldspars, and two biotites) from the deeper section of the
Chuquicamata deposit were also dated by the 40Ar/39Ar
technique. Samples descriptions are shown in Table 2,
and the results are summarized in Table 4 and Fig. 6. For
the Chuquicamata samples, the plateau ages are consistent
and within error of the isochron ages (Table 4 and Fig. 6).
The overall age range is between 32 and 30 Ma.
UPb zircon age
Nineteen zircon grains were dated from a tonalite porphyry
sample in Quetena. Results are shown in Table 5 where each
line represents a spot analysis. All ages in Table 5 are
reported with uncertainties at the 1-sigma level and include
only the measurement error.

40
Table 4 Ar/39Ar step-heating data for the Toki samples and Chuquicamata deposit
39
Sample name Mineral dated Plateau age (Ma) MSWD Ar in plateau (%) Isochron age (Ma) MSWD

AD-1159 Biotite 36.20.4 0.26 51.7 35.40.8 1.0

AD-1012 Biotite 36.10.4 0.97 75.1 35.40.9 1.3
AD-1123 Plagioclase 36.10.5 1.70 50.3 34.41.3 2.2
CHDD-7239 Biotite 31.90.5 0.30 98.9 31.90.4 3.0
CHDD-7229 Muscovite 31.10.7 0.27 100 31.10.4 2.4
CHDD-7229 Muscovite 30.80.4 0.56 69.7 30.90.3 5.2
CHDD-7237 K-feldspar 30.60.4 1.18 67.2 30.50.3 11.0
CHDD-7237 K-feldspar 30.70.6 0.42 75.9 30.50.3 1.4
CHDD-7215 Muscovite 31.70.7 0.54 100 31.60.5 5.6
CHDD-6602 K-feldspar 30.60.3 0.60 64.5 30.40.3 4.4
CHDD-6602 Biotite 31.80.4 0.72 100 31.80.2 5.7
CHDD-6602 Muscovite 30.60.4 0.45 100 30.50.2 3.0

Errors in ages are reported at the 2 sigma level

MSWD mean standard weighted deviation
 Miner Deposita

Fig. 5 Plots of apparent 40Ar/39Ar age and isotope correlation diagrams for samples from the Toki cluster. See text for discussion

Zircons are clear pinkish to colorless and are doubly between 106 and 629 ppm, and U/Th ratios from 0.7 to 2.3.
terminated prisms. Zircons have U concentrations that range These zircons yielded a weighted average 206Pb/238U age of
Miner Deposita
Fig. 6 Plots of apparent 40Ar/39Ar age and isotope correlation diagrams for samples from the Chuquicamata deposit
38.60.7 Ma (2-sigma, n=19, MSWD=0.34; Fig. 7). No
older component was detected in the analyzed zircons.
Discussion
Geochronology of the Toki cluster and Chuquicamata deposit
Four molybdenite samples from the Toki deposit representing
different vein types (Table 2) were dated using ReOs
systematics. All four veinlets yielded consistent ages of
38 Ma and are similar to the ReOs molybdenite ages of
Genoveva and Quetena (Table 3 and Fig. 8). These results
indicate that molybdenite mineralization occurred almost si-
multaneously in these three porphyry copper deposits of the
cluster.
The ReOs ages from Toki are slightly younger than a
UPb zircon age of the tonalite host rock (38.80.5 Ma)
reported by Rivera and Pardo (2004). A previous KAr age
on secondary biotite of 37.31.3 Ma, dated in Toki (Rivera

Fig. 6 (continued)
et al. 2006), overlaps within error with the UPb age and
with these new ReOs ages, but more recent 40Ar/39Ar
dating of a sericitic halo from a late pyritequartz vein in
Toki yielded a much younger age of 34.520.20 Ma (Rivera
and Pardo 2004). The plagioclase inverse isochron age
obtained in this study (34.41.3 Ma, 2-sigma) is similar to
the sericite age reported by Rivera and Pardo (2004), but it
is younger than the molybdenite ages (Fig. 4). The
Miner Deposita
plagioclase age may represent thermal resetting by a youn-
ger hydrothermal event represented by the 40Ar/39Ar sericite
age, particularly since sample AD-1123 has sericitic alter-
ation and plagioclase has a low closure temperature for Ar.
In Quetena, two ReOs molybdenite ages of two differ-
ent samples hosted within the mineralized tonalite porphyry
but with different associated alteration (Table 2) are identi-
cal (37.90.2 Ma), and younger than a molybdenite within
Miner Deposita
Fig. 6 (continued)
the granodiorite stock (sample AD-1185; 38.40.2 Ma).
These results show that two mineralization events are prob-
ably present in Quetena, and that these occurred within a
very short time interval of less than 1 Ma. The UPb zircon
age obtained for the tonalite porphyry in Quetena (38.6
0.7 Ma) overlaps within error with the UPb age of the
tonalite porphyry dated at Toki. This suggests that the em-
placement of the tonalite porphyries that are responsible for
the mineralization occurred shortly after the intrusion of the
Antena granodiorite stock. The biotite inverse isochron age
of 35.4 0.8 Ma (2-sigma) is younger than the tonalite
porphyry crystallization age and the molybdenite minerali-
zation ages. The significant difference between the UPb
age and the 40Ar/39Ar age indicates that the latter might be
disturbed or might represent thermal resetting by a younger
hydrothermal event.
Table 5 Laser ablation ICPMS multicollector U-Pb zircon data

Analysis U 206Pb/ U/Th 207Pb*/ 206Pb*/ Error 206Pb*/ 207Pb*/ 206Pb*/ Best age
(ppm) 204Pb 235U (%) 238U (%) corr. 238U (Ma) 235U (Ma) 207Pb* (Ma) (Ma) (Ma)

TOKI-1 268 3,811 1.4 0.03685 8.9 0.00592 5.9 0.66 38.0 2.2 36.7 3.2 47.7 163.1 38.0 2.2
TOKI-2 196 3,431 1.8 0.03725 12.0 0.00601 5.0 0.42 38.6 1.9 37.1 4.4 58.6 266.0 38.6 1.9
TOKI-3 215 3,735 2.2 0.04011 7.5 0.00620 3.8 0.51 39.9 1.5 39.9 2.9 44.6 154.9 39.9 1.5
TOKI-4 262 3,163 0.9 0.04661 7.3 0.00614 4.5 0.61 39.5 1.8 46.3 3.3 414.7 129.7 39.5 1.8
TOKI-5 229 3,612 1.2 0.03771 12.2 0.00607 3.3 0.27 39.0 1.3 37.6 4.5 52.8 286.9 39.0 1.3
TOKI-6 133 2,225 0.8 0.05600 18.8 0.00614 7.7 0.41 39.4 3.0 55.3 10.1 812.7 360.5 39.4 3.0
TOKI-7 143 2,086 1.6 0.04577 9.3 0.00616 4.1 0.45 39.6 1.6 45.4 4.1 366.6 186.8 39.6 1.6
TOKI-8 166 2,331 1.3 0.04205 13.8 0.00594 2.2 0.16 38.2 0.8 41.8 5.6 255.3 314.0 38.2 0.8
TOKI-9 106 2,012 1.5 0.04447 19.5 0.00626 7.1 0.36 40.2 2.8 44.2 8.4 264.1 420.0 40.2 2.8
TOKI-10 239 2,296 1.8 0.07114 19.9 0.00620 5.6 0.28 39.9 2.2 69.8 13.4 1273.8 374.9 39.9 2.2
TOKI-11 274 4,325 1.5 0.04313 5.0 0.00610 2.9 0.57 39.2 1.1 42.9 2.1 253.6 94.9 39.2 1.1
TOKI-13 281 2,804 1.0 0.03692 6.6 0.00601 3.9 0.60 38.6 1.5 36.8 2.4 80.3 128.9 38.6 1.5
TOKI-14 136 1,377 1.1 0.03764 10.7 0.00622 5.0 0.47 40.0 2.0 37.5 3.9 115.8 233.1 40.0 2.0
TOKI-15 153 1,346 1.4 0.04784 19.6 0.00616 3.5 0.18 39.6 1.4 47.4 9.1 464.6 431.7 39.6 1.4
TOKI-16 145 889 1.2 0.07406 8.5 0.00620 4.3 0.51 39.9 1.7 72.5 6.0 1351.1 141.7 39.9 1.7
TOKI-17 107 1,506 1.5 0.05872 15.4 0.00620 6.9 0.45 39.9 2.7 57.9 8.7 887.9 285.8 39.9 2.7
TOKI-18 240 3,752 1.7 0.03651 10.2 0.00581 2.8 0.27 37.3 1.0 36.4 3.7 24.8 238.4 37.3 1.0
TOKI-19 187 2,863 1.6 0.04148 8.5 0.00586 3.8 0.45 37.7 1.4 41.3 3.4 255.8 174.7 37.7 1.4
TOKI-20 629 8,738 2.3 0.03908 4.7 0.00583 2.0 0.41 37.5 0.7 38.9 1.8 127.6 101.4 37.5 0.7

All uncertainties are reported at the 1-sigma level, and include only measurement errors. Systematic errors would increase age uncertainties by 12 %. U concentration and U/Th are calibrated
relative to NIST SRM 610 and are accurate to 20 %. Common Pb correction is from 204 Pb, with composition interpreted from Stacey and Kramers (1975) and uncertainties of 1.0 for 206 Pb/204 Pb,
0.3 for 207 Pb/204 Pb, and 2.0 for 208 Pb/204 Pb. U/Pb and 206 Pb/207 Pb fractionation is calibrated relative to fragments of a large Sri Lanka zircon of 5644 Ma (2-sigma). U decay constants and
composition as follows: 238 U=9.84851010 , 235 U=1.551251010 , 238 U/235 U=137.88
Miner Deposita
Miner Deposita
Fig. 7 UPb weighted average
plot for the tonalite porphyry at
Quetena
In Genoveva, the two molybdenite samples dated yielded
ReOs ages of 38 Ma (Table 3), similar to those deter-
mined for Toki and Quetena. The 40Ar/39Ar spectrum shows
evidence for excess argon, as is also shown in the inverse
isochron plot. The sample also yielded an inverse isochron
age which is identical to the biotite 40Ar/39Ar age of Que-
tena (35 Ma) and within error of the plagioclase age from
Toki.
Three different molybdenite samples were dated from
Miranda, all three ages are between 35.8 and 36.7 Ma,
and indicate that mineralization at Miranda occurred
almost 2 Ma after mineralization in Toki, Quetena, and
Genoveva.
Three samples were also dated from Opache. Sample
AD-396 was analyzed in duplicate, and both results are
consistent within error yielding an age of 37.6 Ma. This
ReOs age overlaps within error with UPb zircon ages of
37.31.0 and 37.70.6 Ma reported by Campbell et al.
(2006). The other two samples yielded ages of 36.4 and
36.8 Ma. This shows that mineralization in Opache occurred
in at least two pulses within a period of ca. 1 Ma, similar to
what is observed for Quetena (Fig. 8).
Based on the UPb ages, we can conclude that the
emplacement of the tonalite porphyries, which are related
to the CuMo mineralization, occurred shortly after the
intrusion of the Antena granodiorite stock. The ReOs mo-
lybdenite ages show that this type of mineralization oc-
curred as a single pulse at 38 Ma in Toki and Genoveva.
The new 40Ar/39Ar ages on biotite from Quetena and Gen-
oveva, and plagioclase from Toki are significantly younger
than the molybdenite mineralization ages. Hence, we infer
that these 40Ar/39Ar ages do not constrain the timing of
alteration associated with the molybdenite mineralization
but reflect a possible later thermal event.
Previous 40Ar/39Ar ages reported by Reynolds et al.
(1998) for the Chuquicamata deposit show a range of
ages from 33 to 34 Ma for K-feldspars and co-exiting
biotites from the potassic zone. On the other hand, the
quartzsericite alteration was dated at 31.10.3 Ma on
sericite. Reynolds et al. (1998) argued that this younger
quartzsericite alteration is probably related to a younger
pulse of porphyry intrusion not exposed at the current
level of the mine pit. The new 40Ar/39Ar data presented
here from the deeper levels of the deposit show biotite
plateau ages of 32 Ma, and K-feldspar and muscovite
ages in the range 3031 Ma. Both K-feldspar and biotite
samples dated in this study are associated with the deep
potassic alteration zone and might be related to the
younger porphyry intrusion as proposed by Reynolds et
al. (1998), that was probably emplaced at ca. 32 Ma.
Additionally, most of the ReOs molybdenite ages are
32 Ma (Table 4), with the exception of one sample with
an age of 33 Ma, and might also be related to this
younger (32 Ma) intrusion.
Re concentrations
Some authors have suggested that Re concentration in
molybdenites can be used to provide insights on the origin
of the deposit (e.g., Mao et al. 1999; Stein et al. 2001). Mao
et al. (1999) stated that molybdenites derived from a mantle
source have higher Re content than those associated to I- or
S-type granite-related deposits. On the other hand, Stein et
al. (2001) proposed that deposits derived from mantle

Fig. 8 Summary of geochronology for the Chuquicamata district. Data
from Table 1 and 2
underplating or metasomatism, or from melting of mafic
or ultramafic rocks have molybdenites with higher Re
contents than molybdenites associated with deposits de-
rived from the crust. The molybdenite samples analyzed
in this study provide an opportunity to test these hy-
potheses. Figure 9 plots total Re content versus age and
illustrates that there is no direct relation between age
and Re concentration. The five prospects studied here
Miner Deposita
are spatially very close (Figs. 1 and 2) and appear to
have formed within a very short timeframe (<2 Ma),
with three prospects having formed almost simulta-
neously. Overall, the deposits show a wide range of
Re content, ranging from 21 to 3,099 ppm. High vari-
ability is also observed within individual deposits (Table 3).
In Opache, the earliest molybdenite event (at 37.6 Ma)
has a high Re content (1,636 ppm), whereas the follow-
ing molybdenite pulse at 36.8 Ma has a very low Re
content (21 ppm), similar to Re concentrations found in
molybdenites associated with porphyry Mo deposits
(Berzina et al. 2005). The youngest event at 36.4 Ma
shows moderate Re concentrations (245 ppm). Regard-
ing Re content variability with age, two samples from
Quetena with an identical age of 37.9 Ma have very
different Re contents of 275 and 796 ppm. A similar
variation is also observed in Toki, where two samples
with an age of 37.9 Ma have Re concentrations of
1,381 and 3,099 ppm. We conclude then that the Re
content in molybdenite cannot be used to determine the
origin (mantle vs crust) of the deposit, and that the high
variability of Re concentration in molybdenites is likely
a function of the Cu/Mo ratio, composition, and chem-
ical conditions of the fluids and host rocks as proposed
by Berzina et al. (2005).
Timing of porphyry CuMo deposits in northern Chile
Compared to radiometric ages for the Chuquicamata
mine (3533 Ma UPb zircon ages on intrusive units
of the Chuqui Porphyry Complex; Ballard et al. 2001;
Campbell et al. 2006) and 40Ar/39Ar alteration ages
(3430 Ma; Reynolds et al. 1998, this work), magma-
tism and mineralization in the Toki cluster occurred a
few million years (23 Ma) before the formation of
the supergiant Chuquicamata deposit. Limited geochro-
nologic information for the Radomiro Tomic and Min-
istro Hales deposits indicates that these deposits formed
almost simultaneously with Chuquicamata (i.e., 31
34 Ma, Camus 2003; Campbell et al. 2006). Further-
more, the three porphyry systems in the Chuquicamata
alignment (Chuquicamata, Radomiro Tomic, and Minis-
tro Hales) appear to have formed over a long period
(4 Ma), whereas Toki and its adjacent deposits formed
within a 2-Ma period.
Published geochronology for the large Escondida dis-
trict, which includes Escondida, Escondida Norte, Zaldi-
var, and Chimborazo, indicates that mineralization
occurred in a period of about 3 Ma, from 38 to 35 Ma
(e.g., Richards et al. 1999, 2001; Padilla-Garza et al.
2001, 2004; Campos et al. 2009; Romero et al. 2011),
at the same time as in the Toki cluster. Collahuasi (Ujina
Miner Deposita
Fig. 9 Plot of total Re (parts
per million) in molybdenites
from the Chuquicamata district
versus age. See text for
discussion
and Rosario deposits) and Quebrada Blanca were formed
during the interval between 33 and 35 Ma (Masterman et
al. 2004). Several other porphyry CuMo deposits in
northern Chile were emplaced during the interval 31 to
38 Ma (Camus 2003 and references therein), but only a
few deposits are large enough that merit exploitation.
Regardless, the number of porphyry deposits formed in
the period between 30 and 40 Ma is very large (>25),
and the number increases almost on a yearly basis.
There is still no consensus regarding the time neces-
sary to form a large deposit. Numerical models show
that single intrusions are able to provide heat for the
hydrothermal system only for a few tens of thousands
of years. Field and petrographic observations indicate
that porphyry copper systems are usually formed by
the superimposition of several magmatichydrothermal
events, some of which provide Cu and/or Mo mineral-
ization whereas others are relatively barren. In this
respect, it is necessary to remember that mineralization
ages are usually determined by dating molybdenites
using the ReOs method, but that the main commodity
of interest (i.e., Cu) is usually introduced before the
main Mo-rich event. Due to this limitation, the overall
timing of mineralization is biased towards molybdenite
mineralization, and hence, the longevity of a minerali-
zation system could be underestimated.
In the few deposits where there is a large geochro-
nological database, it appears that large deposits are the
result of multiple superimposed events over a short
period (2 Ma; e.g., El Teniente, Chile Maksaev et al.
2004; Cannell et al. 2005, Rio Blanco, Deckart et al.
2005). Other deposits such as Chuquicamata and Escon-
dida also appear to have been formed by the superpo-
sition of several mineralization events, but over a larger
time span (34 Ma). Until new geochronological data
become available and new more precise methods and
instrumentation are developed, the relation between size
and timing/number of hydrothermalmineralization
events remains uncertain.
Conclusions
The Toki cluster comprises five porphyry copper prospects
(Toki, Quetena, Genoveva, Miranda, and Opache). Miner-
alization is associated with tonalite porphyries of the For-
tuna granodiorite complex that were intruded at 38 Ma.
Precise ReOs ages indicate that molybdenite mineraliza-
tion occurred almost simultaneously in three of the five
prospects at 38 Ma. Miranda and Opache are slightly
younger with ages of 3736 Ma. 40Ar/39Ar spectra for
three primary minerals show evidence of excess argon and
have similar inverse isochron ages of 35 Ma that may
reflect a late hydrothermal sericitic event that occurred
around that time. Mineralization in the Toki cluster is large
synchronous with mineralization at the large Escondida
district.
In Chuquicamata, four new ReOs molybdenite ages
range between 33 and 32 Ma and nine new 40Ar/39Ar
ages range between 32 and 30 Ma. These data agree
well with previously published ages from Chuquicamata.
The new geochronological information coupled with
previous dating of the Chuquicamata district suggests
that CuMo mineralization in the area was episodic
and occurred over a period of several million years.
Acknowledgments This contribution is the result of a collaborative
study between industry and academia. We thank Exploraciones Min-
eras Andinas S.A. and the Gerencia Corporativa de Exploraciones of
Codelco-Chile for funding this research and permission to publish. We
also thank Roberto Freraut and the Subgerencia de Geologa y

Geotecnia, Divisin Codelco Norte for permission to publish data from
the Chuquicamata deposit. We gratefully acknowledge John Dilles,
Andrew Tomlinson, and Jos Perell for their critical and constructive
comments which helped to improve the manuscript.
References
Ambrus J (1977) Geology of the El Abra porphyry copper deposit,
Chile. Econ Geol 72:10621085
Ballard JR, Palin JM, Williams IS, Campbell IH, Faunes A (2001) Two
ages of porphyry intrusion resolved for the super-giant Chuqui-
camata copper deposit of northern Chile by ELA-ICP-MS and
SHRIMP. Geology 29:383386
Barra F, Ruiz J, Mathur R, Titley S (2003) A ReOs study on sulfide
minerals from the Bagdad porphyry CuMo deposit, northern
Arizona, USA. Miner Deposita 38:585596
Barra F, Ruiz J, Valencia VA, Ochoa-Landin L, Chesley JT, Zurcher L
(2005) Laramide porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization in northern
Mexico: Age constraints from Re-Os geochronology in molybde-
nite. Econ Geol 100:16051616
Behn G, Camus F, Carrasco P, Ware H (2001) Aeromagnetic signature
of porphyry copper systems in northern Chile and its geologic
implications. Econ Geol 96:239248
Berzina AN, Sotnikov VI, Economou-Eliopoulos M, Eliopoulos DG
(2005) Distribution of rhenium in molybdenite from porphyry
CuMo and MoCu deposits of Russia (Siberia) and Mongolia.
Ore Geol Rev 26:91113
Birck JL, RoyBarman M, Capmas F (1997) ReOs measurements at the
femtomole level in natural samples. Geost Newsletter 20:1927
Boric R, Diaz F, Maksaev V (1990) Geologa y yacimientos metal-
feros de la Regin de Antofagasta. Servicio Nacional de Geo-
loga y Minera, Boletn No. 40, 246 p, 2 maps
Boric R, Diaz J, Becerra H, Zentilli M (2009) Geology of the Ministro
Hales Mine (MMH), Chuquicamata District, Chile. Actas XII
Congreso Geolgico Chileno, Santiago (electronic version)
Campbell IH, Ballard JR, Palin JM, Allen C, Faunes A (2006) UPb
zircon geochronology of granitic rocks from the Chuquicamata-El
Abra porphyry copper belt of Northern Chile: excimer laser
ablation ICP-MS analysis. Econ Geol 101:13271344
Campos E, Wijbrans J, Andriessen PAM (2009) New thermochrono-
logic constraints on the evolution of the Zaldivar porphyry copper
deposits, Northern Chile. Miner Deposita 44:329342
Camus F (2003) Geologa de los sistemas porfricos en los
Andes de Chile. Servicio Nacional de Geologa y Minera, Chile,
p 267
Camus F, Dilles JH (2001) A special issue devoted to porphyry copper
deposits of northern Chile: preface. Econ Geol 96:233237
Cannell J, Cooke DR, Walshe JL, Stein H (2005) Geology, minerali-
zation, alteration and structural evolution of the El Teniente por-
phyry CuMo deposit. Econ Geol 100:9791003
Codelco Memoria Anual (2011) http://www.codelco.com/prontus_
codelco/site/artic/20120411/asocfile/20120411124635/memoria_
codelco_abr13_1.pdf
Creaser RA, Papanastassiou DA, Wasserburg GJ (1991) Negative
thermal ion mass spectrometer of Os, Re and Ir. Geochim Cos-
mochim Acta 55:397401
Cuadra P, Rojas G (2001) Oxide mineralization at the Radomiro Tomic
porphyry copper deposit, Northern Chile. Econ Geol 96:387400
Damon PE, Shafiqullah M, Clark KF (1983) Geochronology of the
porphyry copper deposits and related mineralization of Mexico.
Can J Earth Sci 20:10521071
Deckart K, Clark AH, Aguilar C, Vargas R, Bertens A, Mortensen JK,
Fanning M (2005) Magmatic and hydrothermal chronology of the
giant Ro Blanco porphyry copper deposit, central Chile:
Miner Deposita
implications of an integrated UPb and 40Ar/39Ar database. Econ
Geol 100:905934
Dilles JH, Tomlinson AJ, Martin MW, Blanco N (1997) El Abra and
Fortuna complexes: a porphyry copper batholith sinistrally dis-
placed by the Falla Oeste. Actas VIII Congreso Geolgico Chi-
leno, Antofagasta 3:18831887
Gehrels GE, Valencia VA, Ruiz J (2008) Enhanced precision, accuracy,
efficiency, and spatial resolution of UPb ages by laser ablation-
multicollector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Geo-
chem Geophys Geosyst 9:Q03017. doi:10.1029/2007GC001805
Jensen PW (1998) A structural and geochemical study of the Sierrita
porphyry copper system, Pima County, Arizona. MSc thesis,
University of Arizona
Ludwig KR (2004) Users manual for Isoplot/Ex V. 3.20. A geochro-
nological toolkit for Microsoft Excel. Berkeley Geochronology
Center Special Publication, Berkeley, p 43
Maksaev V, Munizaga F, McWilliams M, Fanning M, Mathur R, Ruiz
J, Zentelli M (2004) New chronology for El Teniente, Chilean
Andes, from UPb, 40Ar/39Ar, ReOs, and fission track dating. In:
Sillitoe RH, Perello J, Vidal CE (eds) Andean metallogeny: new
discoveries, concepts and updates. Society of Economic Geolo-
gists, Boulder, pp 1554, Special Publication 11
Mao J, Zhang Z, Zuoheng Z, Du A (1999) ReOs isotopic dating of
molybdenites in the Xiaoliugou W (Mo) deposit in the northern
Qilian mountains and its geological significance. Geochim Cos-
mochim Acta 63:18151818
Marinovich N, Lahsen A (1984) Hoja Calama, Regin de Antofagasta,
Carta Geolgica de Chile. Servicio Nacional de Geologa y Min-
era, Chile, p 140
Marsh TM, Eunaudi MT, McWilliams M (1997) 40Ar/39Ar geochro-
nology of CuAu and AuAg mineralization in the Potrerillos
district, Chile. Econ Geol 92:784806
Masterman GJ, Cooke DR, Berry RF, Clark AH, Archibald DA,
Mathur R, Walshe JL, Duran M (2004) 40Ar/39Ar and ReOs
geochronology of porphyry coppermolybdenum deposits and
related coppersilver veins in the Collahuasi district, Northern
Chile. Econ Geol 99:673690
Mathur R, Ruiz J, Munizaga F (2001) Insights into Andean metallo-
genesis form the perspective of ReOs analyses of sulfides. III
SSAGI International Conference volume 3, Pucn, Chile
May G, Hartley AJ, Chong G, Stuart F, Turner P, Kape SJ (2005)
Eocene to Pleistocene lithoestratigraphy, chronostratigraphy and
tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Calama Basin, northern
Chile. Rev Geol Chile 32:3358
Munizaga F, Maksaev V, Fanning CM, Giglio S, Yaxley G, Tassinari
CCG (2008) Late PaleozoicEarly Triassic mamgmatism on the
western margin of Gondwana: Collahuasi area, Northern Chile.
Gond Res 13:407427
Ngler TF, Frei R (1997) Plug in plug osmium distillation. Sch Mineral
Petrogr Mitt 77:123127
Olson SF (1989) The stratigraphic and structural setting of the Potrerillos
porphyry copper district, northern Chile. Rev Geol Chile 16:329
Ossandn G, Freraut R, Gustafson LB, Lindsay DD, Zentilli M (2001)
Geology of the Chuquicamata mine: a progress report. Econ Geol
96:249270
Padilla-Garza RA, Titley SR, Pimentel F (2001) Geology of the
Escondida porphyry copper deposit, Antofagasta region, Chile.
Econ Geol 96:307324
Padilla-Garza RA, Titley SR, Eastoe CJ (2004) Hypogene evolution of
the Escondida porphyry copper deposit, Chile. In: Sillitoe RH,
Perello J, Vidal CE (eds) Andean metallogeny: new discoveries,
concepts and updates. Society of Economic Geologists, Boulder,
pp 141165, Special Publication 11
Perell J, Urzua F, Cabello J, Ortiz F (1996) Clustered, gold-bearing
Oligocene porphyry copper and associated epithermal minerali-
zation at La Fortuna, Vallenar Region, northern Chile. In: Camus
Miner Deposita
F, Sillitoe RW, Petersen R (eds) Andean copper deposits: new
discoveries, mineralization, styles, and metallogeny. Society of
Economic Geologists, Boulder, pp 8190, Special Publication 5
Proffett JM, Dilles JH (2007) SHRIMP-RG ion microprobe UPb age
determinations of intrusive rock units northeast of the Chuquica-
mata mine, Chile. Codelco internal report, p. 11.
Renne PR, Deino AL, Walter RC, Turrin BD, Swisher CC, Becker TA,
Curtis GH, Sharp WD, Jaouni A (1994) Intercalibration of astro-
nomical and radioisotopic time. Geology 22:783786
Reynolds P, Ravenhurst C, Zentilli M, Lindsay D (1998) High-
precision40Ar/ 39Ar dating of two consecutive hydrothermal
events in the Chuquicamata porphyry copper system, Chile.
Chem Geol 148:4560
Richards JP, Noble SR, Pringle MS (1999) A revised late Eocene age
for porphyry Cu magmatism in the Escondida area, northern
Chile. Econ Geol 94:12311247
Richards JP, Boyce AJ, Pringle MS (2001) Geologic evolution of the
Escondida area, northern Chile: a model for special and temporal
localization of porphyry Cu mineralization. Econ Geol 96:271305
Rivera SL, Pardo R (2004) Discovery and geology of the Toki por-
phyry copper deposit, Chuquicamata District, northern Chile. In:
Sillitoe RH, Perello J, Vidal CE (eds) Andean metallogeny: new
discoveries, concepts and updates. Society of Economic Geolo-
gists, Boulder, pp 1554, Special Publication 11
Rivera SL, Pardo R, Alcota H, Fontecilla C, Kovacic P, Pizarro J, Rojo
J (2006) Resea de la exploracion y geologia del cluster de
porfidos de cobre Toki, distrito Chuquicamata. Actas XI Con-
greso Geolgico Chileno, Antofagasta (electronic version)
Romero B, Kojima S, Wong C, Barra F, Vliz W, Ruiz J (2011)
Molybdenite mineralization and ReOs geochronology of the
Escondida and Escondida Norte porphyry deposits, Northern
Chile. Resour Geol 61:91100
Selby D, Creaser RA (2001) ReOs geochronology and systematics in
molybdenite from the Endako porphyry molybdenum deposit,
British Columbia, Canada. Econ Geol 96:197204
Shirey S, Walker R (1995) Carius tube digestion for low-blank
rhenium-osmium analysis. Anal Chem 67:21362141
Sillitoe RH (1988) Epochs of intrusion-related copper mineralization in
the Andes. JS Am Earth Sci 1:89108
Sillitoe RH (2004) Musings on future exploration targets and strategies
in the Andes. In: Sillitoe RH, Perell J, Vidal CE (eds) Andean
metallogeny: new discoveries, concepts, and updates. Society of
Economic Geologists, Boulder, pp 114, Special Publication 11
Sillitoe RH, Perell J (2005) Andean Copper Province: tectonomagmatic
settings, deposit types, metallogeny, exploration, and discovery. In:
Hedenquist JW, Thompson JFH, Goldfarb RJ, Richards JP (eds)
Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary Volume 1905
2005, Society of Economic Geologists Inc., pp. 845890.
Stacey JS, Kramers JD (1975) Approximation of terrestrial lead isotope
evolution by a two-stage model. Earth Planet Sci Lett 26:207221
Stein HJ, Markey RJ, Morgan JW, Hannah JL, Scherstn A (2001) The
remarkable ReOs chronometer in molybdenite: how and why it
works. Terra Nova 13:479486
Titley SR (1982) Geologic setting of porphyry copper deposits, south-
eastern Arizona. In: Titley SR (ed) Advances in the geology of the
porphyry copper deposits in the southwestern North America.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, pp 3758
Tomlinson AJ, Blanco N, Maksaev V, Dilles JH, Grunder A, Ladino
M (2001) Geologa de la Precordillera Andina de Quebrada
Blanca-Chuquicamata, Regiones I y II (20302230S). Ser-
vicio Nacional de Geologa y Minera (SERNAGEOMIN),
Santiago, Chile, Informe Registrado IR-01-20, 20 mapas escala
1:50.000, 444 pp.
Tomlinson AJ, Blanco N (2008) Geologa de la franja El Abra-
Chuquicamata, II Regin (21452230S). Servicio Nacional
de Geologa y Minera (SERNAGEOMIN), Santiago, Chile,
Informe Registrado IR-08-35, 5 mapas escala 1:50.000.
Vlkening J, Walczyk T, Heumann KG (1991) Osmium isotope ratio
determinations by negative thermal ionization mass spectrometry.
Inter J Mass Spectr Ion Proc 105:147159