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Geology

Extensional habitats of rhyolite-hosted massive sulfide deposits

Richard H. Sillitoe

Geology 1982;10;403-407
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<403:EHORMS>2.0.CO;2

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Notes

Geological Society of America

Extensional habitats of rhyolite-hosted
massive sulfide deposits
ABSTRACT
Generation of rhyolite-hosted massive sulfide deposits is
restricted to extensional habitats. These include interarc and
back-arc volcano-tectonic rifts related to orthogonal or oblique
subduction, and rifts induced by either transform faulting or
intraplate activity. Modern analogs of some of these habitats
could contain recent massive sulfide deposits.
INTRODUCTION
Massive sulfide deposits are generated at and immediately
beneath the sea floor at the vents of high-temperature h y d r o t h e r -
mal systems d o m i n a t e d by sea water. T h e deposits m a y be
assigned to three b r o a d categories on the basis of their lithologic
settings: c u p r i f e r o u s ( Zn) deposits occur in sequences of tholeiitic
basalts as parts of ophiolite complexes; and polymetallic (Cu Pb,
Zn, Ag) deposits occur either in rhyolitic volcanic sequences or in
fine-grained clastic sediments associated with s u b o r d i n a t e , if any,
volcanic rocks. T h e three categories are considered to have been
generated in three geotectonic settings: basalt-hosted deposits at
oceanic spreading centers (Sillitoe, 1972); rhyolite-hosted deposits
a b o v e s u b d u c t i o n zones, c o m m o n l y in island arcs (Mitchell and
G a r s o n , 1972; Sawkins, 1972; Sillitoe, 1972); and shale-hosted
deposits in intracontinental rifts (Sawkins, 1976).
M o r e recently, however, several workers have stressed
emplacement of specific rhyolite-hosted deposits in rift settings.
The rifts were inferred t o have been present a b o v e active s u b d u c -
tion zones in the case of the K u r o k o districts of northeast J a p a n
(Mitchell, 1976) and the Silurian deposits of New S o u t h Wales,
Australia (Scheibner and M a r k h a m , 1976), but independent of
s u b d u c t i o n in the case of the Bathurst-Newcastle district of New
Brunswick, C a n a d a (Harley, 1979), the Iberian pyrite belt of Spain
and P o r t u g a l (Sawkins and Burke, 1980), Bleida, M o r o c c o
(Leblanc and Billaud, 1978), and Bafq, Iran (Sillitoe, 1980a). This
review stresses the i m p o r t a n c e of a variety of extensional settings
for all rhyolite-hosted massive sulfide deposits, including those
generated d u r i n g active subduction.
T h e recognition that basalt-hosted deposits are integral parts
of layer 2 of ophiolite complexes p r o m p t e d the prediction (Sillitoe,
1972) that they should occur on the ocean floor at active spreading
centers. This view was confirmed recently by discovery (using
m a n n e d submersibles) of small chimneylike examples at lat 21N
on the East Pacific Rise ( F r a n c h e t e a u and others, 1979) and else-
where. T o date, however, no m o d e r n e x a m p l e of a rhyolite-hosted
deposit is k n o w n ; moreover, c o n t e m p o r a r y environments c o n d u -
cive to their f o r m a t i o n are not widely recognized. In this report, I
review the s u b m a r i n e volcano-tectonic settings of massive sulfide
deposits hosted by rhyolitic volcanic rocks a n d , with the assistance
of subaerial settings, a t t e m p t to identify suitable sites for present-
day generation.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CAULDRON SUBSIDENCE
T h e restriction of clusters of massive sulfide deposits to the
rhyolitic parts of s u b m a r i n e volcanic piles has been explained as a
result of their emplacement d u r i n g the resurgent stages of caul-
d r o n subsidence events, immediately following v o l u m i n o u s pyro-
clastic e r u p t i o n and caldera collapse. Widespread cauldron
subsidence events across restricted segments of subduction-related
GEOLOGY, v. 10. p. 4 0 3 - 4 0 / , AUGUST 1982
RICHARD H . s n n t o e
8 West Hill Park, Highgate Village
London N6 6ND, England
m a g m a t i c arcs were attributed to imposition of a n extensional tec-
tonic regime, which would permit high-level emplacement and dif-
ferentiation of batholithic m a g m a c h a m b e r s and consequent
failure of their roofs to give rise to c a u l d r o n subsidence (see Silli-
toe, 1980b, for discussion). This p r o p o s a l concurs with the sugges-
tion (Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980) t h a t rhyolite-hosted massive
sulfide deposits are generated only at tensional (Marianas-type)
subduction boundaries, defined as those with steeply dipping slabs
and actively opening back-arc basins. If regional tension is a
prerequisite for widespread c a u l d r o n subsidence, then its preva-
lence in intracontinental rifting environments is also satisfactorily
explained.
VOLCANIC SETTINGS
It is now widely recognized that most volcanic rocks may rea-
sonably be assigned to either a subduction-related basalt-andesite-
dacite-rhyolite suite or to an extension-related bimodal (broadly
basalt-rhyolite) suite lacking significant andesite ( M a r t i n and
Piwinskii, 1972). T h e felsic host rocks of massive sulfide deposits
(having > 7 0 % SiC>2 and here termed rhyolite) may be assigned to
one or the other of these two volcanic associations (Table 1).
M a n y massive sulfide deposits belong to subduction-related
suites, with b o t h low-K island-arc tholeiite and calc-alkaline series
having been recognized. In most of the subduction-related dis-
tricts, the mineralized rhyolitic sequences overlie broadly andesitic
piles (Table 1) accumulatedlargely as coalescing stratovolcanoes
in conventional m a g m a t i c arcs prior to imposition of an exten-
sional regime and the onset of c a u l d r o n subsidence. In some of the
massive sulfide districts (Table 1), volumetrically minor basaltic
volcanic rocks or doleritic sills and dikes were emplaced near the
end of or following the rhyolitic activity, thereby p r o d u c i n g a
degree of bimodality at the time of mineralization. This "superim-
posed" bimodal character, emphasized for the J a p a n e s e K u r o k o
districts by K o n d a (1974), is considered to be a response to litho-
spheric tension.
Bimodal suites unrelated to s u b d u c t i o n are believed to char-
acterize several districts (Table 1). T h e rhyolitic c o m p o n e n t c o m -
monly has calc-alkaline petrochemistry. High-silica, high-K
rhyolites are present in the Bathurst-Newcastle and A m b l e r dis-
tricts, but elsewhere, as in the Iberian pyrite belt, at M a t a g a m i
(Quebec), in the J a p a n e s e K u r o k o areas, and in the Skellefte
(Sweden) district, rhyolites are lower in S i 0 2 and are Na-rich and
K - p o o r (and therefore include dacites, sensu stricto). Rhyolites are
generally far m o r e a b u n d a n t than basalts, except at Bathurst-
Newcastle and M a t a g a m i . Inclusion of m a n y of these districts,
especially W o o d l a w n - C a p t a i n s Flat, Skellefte, and Bafq, with the
bimodal category runs counter to their usual island-arc, calc-
alkaline assignation (for example, references cited in Table 1) but
is favored here because of the paucity of associated andesitic vol-
canics as well as other evidence for subduction.
GEOTECTONIC SETTINGS
Linear belts characterized by widespread graben f o r m a t i o n
and caldera-related rhyolitic volcanism have been termed volcano-
tectonic rifts or depressions (volcanic rifts of Scheibner and
M a r k h a m , 1976). Karig (1971) considered such belts to occupy the
s a m e positions as marginal basins in island-arc systems and t o
403
 represent either latent marginal basins or the early stages of their
opening, preparatory to generation of oceanic lithosphere. A cur-
rently active example is provided by the T a u p o volcanic zone in
North Island, New Zealand, which has been interpreted as the on-
land continuation of an interarc basinthe Lau Basin-Havre
Trough (Karig, 1970) (Fig. 1). The T a u p o volcanic zone is a well-
defined graben along which rhyolitic ignimbrite and pumice erup-
tions began about 3 m.y. ago (Ballance, 1976) f r o m four composite
calderas (Healy, 1962), which have not attained the resurgent stage
characterized by rhyolite domes. Andesitic stratovolcanoes and
minor late basalts are also present (Cole, 1973). The rhyolitic vol-
canics are calc-alkalic (Ewart and others, 1977) and related to
subduction, although the late basalts suggest a superimposed bi-
modality. Therefore, the T a u p o zone has many of the attributes of
subduction-related massive sulfide districts, except for its subaerial
character and the fact that the andesitic arc constructed prior to

TABLE 1. AGE AND VOLCANIC ASSOCIATION OF RHYOLITE-HOSTED MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS

Deposit Age Pre-rhyolite Petrologie affiliation Post-rhyolite References

volcanics of ore-related rhyolites volcanics

GENERATED DURING SUBDUCTION

Undu Peninsula, Fiji Late Miocene - Basic andesite Island-arc tholeiite* Mbua Group basalts Colley and Rice (1975),
early Pliocene {Undu Volcanic Group) Gill and Stork (1979)

Kuroko districts, Mid-Miocene Andesite Calc-alkaline or Rhyolite, basalts Tatsumi and Clark
northeast Japan island-arc tholeiite (1972), Ishihara
(1974)

Pontid belt, Turkey Late Lower Basic Island-arc tholeiite* Upper Basic Series, Egin and others (1979),
Cretaceous Series, basalts, (Dacite Series) including basalts Akinci (1980)
andesites

Sierra Madre del Sur, Early Andesites Calc-alkaline Lorinczi and Miranda
Mexico (1978)
Cretaceous
East Shasta, Andesite, basalt Island-arc tholeiite(?) Albers and Robertson
California Triassic (Dekkas andesite) (Bully Hill Rhyolite) (1961)

West Shasta, Middle Devonian Copley Greenstone Island-arc tholeiite* Kinkel and others
California andesites, (Balaklala Rhyolite) (1956), Barker and
basaltic andesites others (1979)

Buchans, Newfoundland, Silurian Footwall andesite Calc-alkaline* Andesites, dacites, Thurlow and others
Canada (basaltic andesite) rhyolites (1975)

Avoca, southeast Late Ordovician Andesites, basalts Calc-alkaline* Alkaline intru- Piatt (1977),
Ireland sions , tholeiitic Stillman and Williams
dikes and sills (1978)

Prescott, Jerome, Middle Basalts, andesites Calc-alkaline Minor alkaline Anderson and Guilbert
and Bagdad, Arizona Proterozoic rocks (1979)

Noranda district, Basalts, andesites Island-arc tholeiite* Spence and de Rosen-

Quebec, Canada Spence (1975)

PROBABLY GENERATED WITHOUT SUBDUCTION

Iberian pyrite belt, Early None Bimodal* (tholeiite Basalt Soler (1973), Munha
Spain and Portugal Carboniferous to alkaline basalt) (1979)

Woodlawn and Captains Middle - Late None Bimodal Minor basalts Scheibner and Markham
Flat, NSW, Australia Silurian (1976), Gilligan and
others (1979)

Bathurst-Newcastle, Ordovician Bimodal* (Tetagouche Basalts** Whitehead and

New Brunswick, Canada Group) Goodfellow (1978),
Harley (1979)

Ambler district, Middle Minor basalt Minor basalts Kelsey and others
Brooks Range, Alaska Devonian (1980), Smith and
others (1979)

Mt. Lye11-Ros ebery, Bimodal (Mt. Read Basaltic dikes Corbett (1981)
Tasmania, Australia Volcanics)

Bafq, Iran Infracambrian None Bimodal None Gibbs (1976)

' Skellefte district, Middle None Bimodal Basalts, andesites Rickard and Zweifel
Sweden Proterozoic (1975)

Matagami, Quebec, Archean Bimodal* (tholeiitic Basalts, gabbro MacGeehan and MacLean
Canada basalts) sills (1980)

Bleida, Morocco Late Proterozoic None known None known Leblanc and Billaud
(1978)

* Petrologie affiliation better documented.

** uncertain whether basalts postdate or predate the rhyolite sequence.

404 GEOLOGY. AUGUST 1982

rifting is now located 130 km northwest as a result of p o s t - 4 m.y.
displacement on the Alpine fault zone (Ballance, 1976). Moreover,
there are several well-studied hydrothermal systems (dominated by
meteoric water, not sea water) within the volcano-tectonic
depression.
The islands of Fiji are located at the northern end of the Lau-
Colville remnant arc, which became isolated from the influence of
a west-dipping subduction zone as the Lau Basin-Havre Trough
began to form 5 m.y. ago (Gill, 1976). The Mbua G r o u p basalts,
which postdate the Undu Peninsula massive sulfide deposits on
Vanua Levu (Fig. 1), were erupted following commencement of
interarc-basin opening (Gill, 1976), whereas the rhyolites that host
them are some of the last volcanic rocks attributable to subduc-
tion. It may be concluded, therefore, that the cauldron subsidence
event, part of the products of which are believed to constitute the
Undu Group, was triggered by imposition of an extensional
regime preparatory to opening of the Lau Basin. This model is
preferred to one in which tension is attributed only to transform
faulting (Colley and Rice, 1978).
. FE LSIC
VOLCANIC ROCKS
Contours in fathoms
0 200 Km. 500
J L
Figure 1. Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand, and Undu Volcanic
Group, Vanua Levu (Gill and Stork, 1979) relative to Lau-Colville rem-
nant arc, Tonga-Kermadec frontal arc, and Lau Basin-Havre Trough
interarc basin.
405GEOLOGY.AUGUST 1982
The subduction-related setting of northeast J a p a n during
mid-Miocene formation of the Kuroko deposits is somewhat sim-
ilar. The Japanese islands were probably rifted from the Asian
continental margin in the Paleogene, following generation of
major subaerial volcano-tectonic depressions. Sea-floor spreading
in the J a p a n Sea (Fig. 2) took place first in the J a p a n Basin and
then in the Yamato Basin. As a result, continental crust of the
Yamato Rise became detached f r o m Honshu and stranded as a
remnant arc (Hilde and Wageman, 1973). The north-northeast-
trending horst and graben structures along the J a p a n Sea side of
northeast Honshu (Fujii, 1974), within which Green Tuff accumu-
lation (Fig. 2), cauldron subsidence, and emplacement of Kuroko
deposits took place, may then be interpreted in either of two ways:
(1) as a precursor, or an accompaniment, to opening of the
Yamato Basin (compare Ingle, 1975); or (2) if it is accepted that
Yamato-Basin opening ended 30 m.y. ago (Otsuki and Ehiro,
1979), as an abortive rifting away of an additional sliver of Hon-
shu. The axes of basalt fields in northeast Honshu (Fig. 2) are
believed to indicate lines of greatest extension.
Felsic volcanism and massive sulfide formation in the Pontid
belt of Turkey during the Late Cretaceous seems to have been
caused by a comparable extensional event, since the Pontid arc,
constructed by northward subduction, became detached from
Eurasia at that time by opening of a marginal basinthe present
Black Sea (Letouzey and others, 1977).
The geotectonic habitats of the older subduction-related mas-
sive sulfide districts cannot be determined with precision, although
their similar volcanic settings (Table 1) strongly support incipient
interarc rifting as a viable mechanism in the Sierra Madre del Sur,
East and West Shasta, Buchans, Avoca, and other Phanerozoic
districts. In this regard, it should be pointed out that marginal-
basin formation may be induced not only by normal interarc
Figure 2. Position of Japan relative to mainland Asia at time ot Kuroko
deposit generation in mid-Miocene. Proposed spreading centers in
Japan Sea (Hilde and Wageman, 1973); extent ol Green Tuft Forma-
tion (Sato, 1974), host to the Kuroko deposits; and axes of basalt fields
in northeast Honshu at time of Kuroko formation (Konda, 1974) are
shown.
 spreading, as in the Lau Basin a n d J a p a n Sea, but also along
"leaky" t r a n s f o r m faults generated in response to oblique subduc-
tion. This is the p r o p o s e d origin, within t h e past 11 m.y., of the
central basin of the A n d a m a n Sea (Curray and others, 1979); t o
the southeast, in S u m a t r a , m a j o r c a u l d r o n subsidence and ignim-
brite e r u p t i o n s t o o k place a l o n g late Cenozoic rift zones subsidiary
t o the S e m a n g k o t r a n s f o r m fault zone. T h e rhyolitic volcanics and
underlying andesitic pile belong t o the calc-alkaline suite (Leo and
others, 1980).
Because no post-Triassic e x a m p l e s of massive sulfide deposits
clearly associated with b i m o d a l volcanism are k n o w n , it is difficult
t o be specific a b o u t their geotectonic habitats. Nevertheless, H a r -
ley (1979) p r o p o s e d that the setting of t h e Bathurst-Newcastle dis-
trict in the O r d o v i c i a n was similar to t h a t of southwestern N o r t h
America d u r i n g middle to late Cenozoic time, when incipient rift-
ing of t h e subaerial continental margin t o o k place. A n alkali-
r h y o l i t e - d o m i n a t e d b i m o d a l association was e r u p t e d there a f t e r 25
to 30 m.y. a g o d u r i n g c a u l d r o n subsidence events, which m a y be
a t t r i b u t e d to extension imposed by cessation of s u b d u c t i o n and by
imperfections of m o t i o n on the S a n And reas t r a n s f o r m fault zone.
T h e b i m o d a l suite is locally transitional to a n d c o m m o n l y overlies
the earlier calc-alkaline pile in t h e s o u t h e r n R o c k y M o u n t a i n s and
elsewhere, but in places, as at L o n g Valley, California, the
p r o d u c t s of m a j o r calderas overlie largely nonvolcanic b a s e m e n t
the s a m e situation as in m a n y of the massive sulfide districts unre-
lated t o s u b d u c t i o n (Table 1).
As in the Bathurst-Newcastle a n d possibly also A m b l e r dis-
tricts, massive sulfide f o r m a t i o n in the M t . L y e l l - R o s e b e r y a n d
C a p t a i n s F l a t - W o o d l a w n districts occupied continental-margin
locations. A n ensialic graben, t h e C a p t a i n s Flat t r o u g h , has been
d o c u m e n t e d as the locus of volcanism at C a p t a i n s Flat and W o o d -
lawn (Scheibner a n d M a r k h a m , 1976; C a s a n d J o n e s , 1979), and
a n o t h e r m a y p e r h a p s be inferred in association with the Mt. Read
Volcanics at M t . Lyell and Rosebery ( C o r b e t t , 1981). Extension
unrelated to s u b d u c t i o n , and p e r h a p s linked t o t r a n s f o r m fault
zones a l o n g t h e continental m a r g i n , might be considered
appropriate.
T h e precise geotectonic situation t h a t prevailed at the time of
b i m o d a l volcanism a n d massive sulfide e m p l a c e m e n t in the Iberian
pyrite belt is even less clear, a l t h o u g h reconstructions suggest that
extension was intraplate rather t h a n tied to plate-margin activity
a n d a p p a r e n t l y ceased prior to actual ocean opening (Sawkins and
Burke, 1980). Extension m a y have been linked to a zone of post-
collisional t r a n s f o r m faulting ( J . P . N . B a d h a m , 1981, personal
c o m m u n . ) . In contrast, the intracontinental rifts t h a t hosted the
Bafq a n d Bleida deposits are inferred t o have developed into
oceanic tracts (Sillitoe, 1980a; Leblanc a n d Billaud, 1978).
In view of similarities of volcanic setting (Table 1), it seems
r e a s o n a b l e t o d r a w analogies between the tectonic h a b i t a t s of Pre-
c a m b r i a n massive sulfide deposits included here a n d those of their
Phanerozoic counterparts.
CONCLUSIONS
In s u m m a r y , available evidence suggests that polymetallic
massive sulfide deposits in rhyolitic volcanic sequences m a y be
e m p l a c e d either as parts of island-arc tholeiite or calc-alkalic suites
a b o v e s u b d u c t i o n zones or as constituents of b i m o d a l suites
e r u p t e d d u r i n g intracontinental extension. T h e f o r m e r a p p e a r to
characterize volcano-tectonic rift zones, which m a y either a b o r t or
c o n t i n u e t o develop into interarc or back-arc basins. As with m a r -
ginal basins themselves, a p p r o p r i a t e circumstances f o r their devel-
o p m e n t could be provided either by a t t e m p t e d splitting of a n
island a r c or rifting a l o n g a t r a n s f o r m d u r i n g oblique s u b d u c t i o n .
T h e deposits divorced f r o m s u b d u c t i o n are m o r e enigmatic, but
406
they may be emplaced d u r i n g rifting a l o n g continental margins
d u r i n g t r a n s f o r m faulting, a l o n g late-collisional or postcollisional
t r a n s f o r m s , or in a truly intraplate p o s i t i o n p r o b a b l y during
i n a u g u r a t i o n of a Wilson cycle. A c o m m o n f e a t u r e required by all
these geotectonic settings is a continental crust sufficiently thin to
permit existence of at least shallow-marine conditions d u r i n g early
stages of rifting.
C o n t e m p o r a r y s u b m a r i n e settings in which polymetallic mas-
sive sulfide f o r m a t i o n could be a c c o m p a n y i n g rhyolitic volcanism
m a y be predicted. T h e most obvious e x a m p l e is in t h e n o r t h e r n
o f f s h o r e extension of t h e T a u p o volcanic zone, New Zealand
( c o m p a r e C a s and Jones, 1979) (Fig. 1), where currently resurgent
calderas a r e a distinct possibility. Suitable s u b m a r i n e calderas
might also exist a d j o i n i n g southeast S u m a t r a , a l o n g t h e o f f s h o r e
extensions of t h e S e m a n g k o t r a n s f o r m fault zone within
S e m a n g k a Bay a n d s o u t h e a s t w a r d to K r a k a t o a ; in s o u t h e r n
Kyushu, J a p a n , where the Q u a t e r n a r y Aira a n d A t a calderas col-
lapsed beneath K a g o s h i m a Bay, a volcano-tectonic graben that
m a y be a n o r t h e a s t e r n extension of the O k i n a w a back-arc basin;
and in the s o u t h e r n Aegean, where H o l o c e n e caldera collapse (for
example, Santorini) was in a tensional back-arc setting linked t o
n o r t h w a r d s u b d u c t i o n ( J o n g s m a and others, 1977).
S u b m a r i n e b i m o d a l settings are less obvious, although
calderas in the A f a r , the n o r t h e r n extremity of the East A f r i c a n
rift system, could have been partially s u b m a r i n e d u r i n g t h e
Quaternary.
It would now be instructive t o e x p l o r e some of these currently
s u b m a r i n e rift zones, in which felsic volcanism is k n o w n to have
occurred d u r i n g the Q u a t e r n a r y , for recent polymetallic massive
sulfide deposits. Use of submersibles m a y be m o r e straightforward
in these zones t h a n at oceanic spreading centers because water
d e p t h s are likely to be less, a l t h o u g h volcanic settings could prove
to be less passive!
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Reviewed by W. E. Elston, F. J. Sawkins and S. Uyeda, and discussed
with B. C. Burchfiel.
M A N U S C R I P T R E C E I V E D J A N U A R Y 21, 1982
R E V I S E D M A N U S C R I P T R E C E I V E D MAY 4, 1982
M A N U S C R I P T A C C E P T E D MAY 5, 1982
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