Mineralium Deposita (1999) 34: 323334
ARTICLE
J. F. H. Thompson R. H. Sillitoe T. Baker
J. R. Lang J. K. Mortensen
Intrusion-related gold deposits associated
with tungsten-tin provinces
Received: 13 March 1998 / Accepted 14 January 1999
Abstract An under-recognized and economically im-
portant class of intrusion-related gold deposits, which
occur within magmatic provinces best known for tung-
sten and/or tin mineralization, is described with refer-
ence to seven major deposits (Fort Knox, Mokrsko,
Salave, Vasilkovskoe, Timbarra, Kidston and Kori
Kollo). These gold deposits contain a metal suite that
includes some combination of bismuth, tungsten, arse-
nic, tin, molybdenum, tellurium and antimony, and
contrasts with that found in the more widely-developed
gold-rich porphyry copper and related deposits. The
gold deposits associated with tungsten and/or tin prov-
inces are located in cratonic margins, in a landward or
back-arc position relative to continental margin arcs
(where recognized), or within continental collisional
settings. The deposits are related genetically to felsic
domes, stocks or plutons of intermediate oxidation state,
both magnetite- and ilmenite-series magmas are repre-
sented. The intrusion-hosted gold deposits are most
commonly of sheeted vein/veinlet type, although grei-
sen-like, disseminated and breccia deposits are also de-
Editorial handling: R. Goldfarb
J.F.H. Thompson1 (&)
Mineral Deposit Research Unit,
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences,
University of British Columbia,
6339 Stores Road, Vancouver,
B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada
R.H. Sillitoe
27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 6ND, UK
T. Baker J.R. Lang J.K. Mortensen
Mineral Deposit Research Unit,
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences,
University of British Columbia,
6339 Stores Road, Vancouver,
B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada
Present address:
1
Teck Corporation, 200 Burrard Street, Vancouver,
B.C. V6C 3L9, Canada
Springer-Verlag 1999
scribed. Gold may also be concentrated more distally (1
3 km) with respect to the intrusions, where deposits may
be of skarn, disseminated replacement or vein types. K-
feldspar, albite and/or sericitic alteration assemblages,
commonly including carbonate, accompany the gold
mineralization. In sheeted vein deposits, alteration is
normally restricted to narrow envelopes around veins,
whereas more pervasive alteration occurs in greisen-like,
disseminated and shallow (<3 km) deposits. The gold
mineralization is commonly present with low total sul-
phide contents (<3%), mainly pyrite and lesser ar-
senopyrite. In several deposits, bismuth minerals are
closely associated with gold, and bismuth-gold and tel-
lurium-gold correlations exist. Most deposits contain
tungsten, tin, molybdenum and antimony, although
generally these do not correlate with gold; tungsten and
molybdenum concentrations may increase with depth or
may occur in separate zones. Base metals generally are
present in minor amounts (e.g. <100 ppm Cu). The
distinct spatial association with felsic intrusions, com-
bined with the consistent metal signature, suggests a
magmatic-hydrothermal origin. Fluid inclusions studies
indicate the presence of high-salinity uids in some de-
posits, and low-salinity and carbonic uids in most
deposits, similar to the composition of uids in intru-
sion-related tungsten deposits. Variations in mineral-
ization style largely reect depth of formation and lo-
cation relative to the intrusive centre. Several deposits in
this class contain >100 tonnes (3 million oz) of gold,
thereby highlighting the gold potential of intrusion-re-
lated deposits beyond the more traditionally explored
gold and copper provinces in arc terranes.
Introduction
Intrusion-related gold deposits are an important ore
type, especially in Phanerozoic arc settings (e.g. Sillitoe
1991). Most of these deposits, whether of porphyry or
non-porphyry type, are characterized by a chalcophile
metal association. Major deposits of porphyry type
324

range from copper-gold (Grasberg, Indonesia) to gold-

Long et al. (1992)

Selected reference

Tullemans (1990)
Burshtein (1996)
only (Refugio, Chile), and typically are associated with

Moravek (1995)

Simmons et al.
As, Sb, Mo, W, Zn, Cu Harris (1980)
Bi, Te, Mo, As, Sb, W Bakke (1995)
highly oxidized, calc-alkaline to alkaline, intermediate

Baker and
(diorite-monzonite) I-type intrusions (Sillitoe 1993). The

(1996)
oxidized character of the magmatic uid responsible for
gold copper introduction is emphasized by a com-
mon abundance of hydrothermal magnetite in ore-
bearing K-silicate alteration assemblages (Sillitoe 1993).
Intrusion-related gold deposits of non-porphyry type are

Zn, Cu, Mo, W, Pb,

Bi, Mo, Sb, As, Ag
As, Sb, W, Pb, Cu,

Ag, As, Sb, Sn, Bi,

related to broadly similar I-type intrusions, but may

Cu, Zn, Pb, W

As, Bi, Te, Sn
349 12a As, Bi, Te, Mo,
display associations with zinc, lead and silver rather than

W, Sb, Cu
copper (e.g. Porgera, Papua New Guinea; Richards and

Metal suite

Bi, Te
Kerrich 1993). Gold enrichment in these porphyry and
non-porphyry systems has been attributed to a number
of factors, including the presence of an oxidized and
metasomatized mantle source (McInnes and Cameron

age (Ma)
1994), saturation of the source magma with sulfate

245238
Deposit
rather than sulde (Candela 1989), and high-tempera-

332b

Sheeted veins and 15.7

443
92

285
ture transport of gold as an aqueous chloride complex
(e.g. Seward 1991).
In contrast to these gold-rich porphyry and related

Breccia-hosted
Sheeted veins
Sheeted veins
Sheeted veins

Disseminated

Disseminated
Deposit type
systems, intrusion-related molybdenum, tungsten and

(greisen)

veinlets
tin deposits are associated typically with more felsic
(granodiorite-granite) intrusions which, in the case of
tungsten and tin, tend to be more reduced and partly of
S-type. These systems are not regarded normally as
potential hosts for gold mineralization (e. g. Blevin and
Porphyritic granite

Rhyolite porphyry
Chappell 1992). Nevertheless, a number of intrusion-

Dacite porphyry
related gold deposits worldwide (Table 1), including
Granodiorite

Granodiorite
Granodiorite
composition

Fort Knox in Alaska, Mokrsko in the Czech Republic,

Intrusion

Salave in Spain, Vasilkovskoe in Kazakstan, Timbarra

Granite
and Kidston in Australia, and Kori Kollo in Bolivia
occur in regions known for intrusion-related tungsten-
tin mineralization, and possess a metal association sim-
Siliciclastic metasedimentary

ilar to the tungsten-tin deposits (e.g. bismuth, tungsten,

Quartzite, siltstone, shale
arsenic, tin, molybdenum, tellurium and antimony). This
Quartzite, slate, gabbro

Metasedimentary rocks
Mac and felsic ows

study documents the geological settings and character-

Metamorphic rocks,
Mica-quartz schist

istics of these deposits preparatory to drawing up a se-

ries of general conclusions and exploration implications.
granodiorite
Country rocks

and tus

rocks

Intrusion-related gold deposits

Table 1 Selected charactersitics of deposits described

with bismuth, tungsten and arsenic

(million) (g/t Au)

Intrusion-related mineralization characterized by a metal assem-

Tonnes Grade

0.73

1.48

2.26
1.62
0.83

3.7
1.5

blage of gold, bismuth, tungsten and arsenic is recognized in several

2

Age from Perkins and Kennedy (1998)

areas of the world (Fig. 1). The mineralization is hosted by, or is

related spatially to, intrusions of granodioritic to granitic compo-
oxide: 10

sition that range from relatively large equigranular plutons to small

porphyritic stocks and domes. The intimate association of miner-
80

17

94

64
158

15
66

Age from Holub et al. (1997)

alization to these intrusions, a similar geochemical signature re-

gardless of wallrock rock type and metal zoning in some deposits
Fort Knox Alaska, USA

suggest a genetic, in addition to spatial, relationship to magmatic

processes. Other metals that occur at the deposit, camp, or regional
Kidston, Queensland,

Kori Kollo, Bolivia

scale include tin, molybdenum, antimony, silver, zinc and lead. The
degree of enrichment in dierent metals in and around the intru-
Timbarra, NSW,
Mokrsko, Czech

sions may reect magma chemistry, proximity of peripheral min-

Vasilkovskoe,
Salave, Spain

Kazakstan

eralized zones to intrusions and local conditions of ore formation.

Australia

Australia
Republic

Although several of these elements are associated with typical

Deposit

porphyry copper-gold deposits, the location of the gold deposits

described here within lithophile element provinces and the common
association of gold with bismuth and tungsten contrasts with
b
a
 325

typical porphyry copper-gold deposits and suggests a lithophile Fig. 1 Locations of the principal gold deposits described. Note their
element association for this group of intrusion-related gold de- worldwide distribution
posits. The critical features of seven representative deposits are
listed in Table 1 and summarized later. The rst ve deposits are
extensive crustal involvement in the intrusions (Anderson 1988;
hosted by intrusions and appear to have formed from similar uids
McCoy et al. 1997). The intrusive belt occurs on the cratonic
at similar palaeodepths. The last two deposits comprise dierent
margin of the Cretaceous orogen. McCoy et al. (1997) suggested
styles of mineralization, which probably formed at shallower pal-
that magmatism was subduction-related, implying a back-arc po-
aeodepths. If, as argued herein, these two deposits are accepted to
sition, but the locations of the subduction zone and related arc
be part of this class, then the shallow depths of formation and
volcanism are uncertain.
related styles of mineralization indicate a range of characteristics
The gold mineralization at Fort Knox occurs in early peg-
similar to that found in porphyry copper-gold systems of varying
matite veins, sheeted quartz K-feldspar veins and late quartz
palaeodepths.
shear veins that cut a small stock composed of three phases of
porphyritic granite plus aplite/pegmatite dykes (Fig. 2). The pre-
Fort Knox, Alaska dominant sheeted quartz veins are 215 cm thick, typically 10
50 cm apart and reect district-wide structural controls (Bakke
The Fort Knox gold deposit (>7 million oz) in the Fairbanks
district, Alaska, is the prime example of this deposit class. The
deposit is a signicant producer, has well-established characteristics
(Bakke 1995) and occurs in an extensive belt of Late Cretaceous
stocks and plutons, many of which host similar mineralization
(Newberry et al. 1995; Thompson et al. 1995; Mortensen et al.
1996; McCoy et al. 1997). The intrusive belt is divided into the
Tombstone plutonic suite of central Yukon and the Fairbanks
intrusions of central Alaska, separated by the dextral strike slip
Tintina fault (Mortensen et al. 1995; Newberry et al. 1995). In this
study intrusions throughout the belt are referred to collectively as
the Tombstone suite.
The Tombstone suite intrusions are subalkaline, metaluminous,
and range from granodiorite to granite in composition. Magnetite
is absent in intrusions within the Fairbanks district and rare in
those in the Yukon, whereas minor amounts of ilmenite are com-
mon throughout, suggesting that the intrusions are moderately
reduced and assignable to the ilmenite series (McCoy et al. 1997).
Intrusions throughout the belt were emplaced over a short time
interval (9589 Ma based on U-Pb zircon ages, Mortensen et al.
1995; 9386 Ma based on 40Ar-39Ar ages, McCoy et al. 1997) into Fig. 2 Representative geological section of the Fort Knox deposit,
miogeoclinal to basinal sedimentary sequences of Proterozoic and Alaska showing sheeted quartz veins hosted by three main granite
Palaeozoic age. Isotopic data (Pb, Nd, Sr) indicate moderate to phases (modied from Bakke 1995)
326

1995). The veins have low total sulphide contents (<0.5 vol%),
mainly pyrite, marcasite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, bismuthinite,
and molybdenite, and narrow alteration envelopes dominated by
K-feldspar, albite or muscovite. Quartz veins contain signicant
bismuth (up to 2000 ppm), tungsten (up to 600 ppm) and tellu-
rium (up to 20 ppm) (McCoy et al. 1997). Gold correlates well
with bismuth and tellurium, but not with tungsten, molybdenum,
arsenic or antimony (Bakke 1995; McCoy et al. 1997). Recon-
naissance uid inclusion studies by McCoy et al. (1997) showed
that pegmatite and quartz veins at Fort Knox contain CO2-rich,
low-salinity (28 wt.% NaCl equivalent) uid trapped at 1.251.5
kbars and 270330 C. Some of the other occurrences in the
Tombstone suite contain high-salinity uid inclusions (30
40 wt.% NaCl equivalent; McCoy et al. 1997; Baker et al. 1998),
but similar inclusions have not been recognized during recon-
naissance uid inclusion studies at Fort Knox. The interpreted
depth of formation varies among mineralized intrusions
throughout the Tombstone suite (0.53 kbars McCoy et al. 1997;
Baker et al. 1997 in review).
Separate zones of tungsten gold mineralization occur, usu-
ally as skarns, adjacent to several of the gold-bearing intrusions in
the Tombstone suite (e.g. Dublin Gulch; Lennan 1986). Mineral-
ization which is more distal to intrusions (13 km) and formed
beyond their contact aureoles, as at Brewery Creek in the Yukon Fig. 3 Geological map of the Mokrsko-West zone, the main gold
and True North in the Fairbanks district, is more strongly enriched zone in the Mokrsko deposit, Czech Republic, at the adit level
in arsenic and antimony and lacks the tungsten-bismuth associa- (modied from Moravek 1995). The zone of sheeted quartz veins,
tion. The disseminated style of mineralization in parts of these conned largely to the granodiorite, is shown
deposits is similar to sediment-hosted gold mineralization of Carlin
type (Poulsen 1996; Harris and Gorton 1998). In zoned systems
(e.g. Dublin Gulch; Hitchins and Orssich 1995), outer zones of granodiorite. Gold deposition took place from dilute, CO2-rich
mineralization (25 km from the intrusion) are dominated by uid at minimum temperatures of 330 20 C and pressures of 1
quartz-carbonate veins enriched in lead-zinc-silver, similar to the 1.5 kbars (Boiron et al. 1995).
outer zones around more typical porphyry copper and molybde-
num deposits.
Salave, Spain

Mokrsko, Czech Republic
The Mokrsko gold deposit is part of the Central Bohemian met-
allogenic zone, in which gold and tungsten-dominated mineraliza-
tion straddles the contact between high- and low-grade
metamorphic terranes. Tin-tungsten deposits of similar age are
concentrated farther north in the Bohemian massif. During the
early post-collisional stages of the Hercynian orogeny, at
350 12 Ma (Holub et al. 1997), the Central Bohemian pluton
was emplaced. The pluton is an I-type, calc-alkaline gabbro-diorite-
tonalite-granodiorite-granite complex, with a composition that re-
ects mantle-crust interaction during extension (Holub et al. 1995;
1997). The Mokrsko deposit is hosted by an early hornblende-
biotite granodiorite apophysis to the pluton, at the contact with
greenschist-facies volcano-sedimentary rocks of late Proterozoic
age (Moravek et al. 1989).
The granodiorite and its immediate wallrocks at Mokrsko are
cut by a 2 km long, east-striking, steeply dipping zone of granite
porphyry, aplite and pegmatite dykes and sheeted quartz veins and
veinlets, with which the gold mineralization is related (Moravek
et al. 1989; Moravek 1995; Fig. 3). Veinlets, typically <1 cm thick,
characterize the granodiorite in the pre-eminent Mokrsko-West
zone, whereas veins, 5100 cm thick, are present in the wallrocks at
Mokrsko-East. Sulphide contents, mainly arsenopyrite, are gener-
ally <1 vol%. Pyrite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite, scheelite and
chalcopyrite are less common and high-neness gold is accompa-
nied by a suite of bismuth and bismuth-telluride minerals. Gold
was introduced with arsenic, bismuth, molybdenum, tungsten and
silver. Arsenic concentrations decrease from < 1000 ppm and
tungsten concentrations increase to > 200 ppm downwards to at
least 600 m as intensities of quartz veining and gold mineralization
decline (Moravek 1995). The quartz veins contain minor amounts
of hydrothermal microcline, amphibole and biotite, minerals that
are also present in subtle alteration haloes to the veins and veinlets
(Moravek 1995). Scheelite is also present in amphibole-pyroxene
hornfels and skarn developed in the contact aureole of the
The Salave gold deposit is centred on a small late Hercynian biotite
granodiorite pluton emplaced into Cambro-Ordovician siliciclastic
metasedimentary rocks and an older gabbro body. The magnetite-
series granodiorite is part of the youngest calc-alkaline Hercynian
plutonic suite, which was emplaced in northwestern Spain follow-
ing the main Hercynian collisional event (Corretge et al. 1990).
The gold mineralization occurs in the apex of the granodiorite
pluton and its immediate wallrocks, which were pervasively altered
to a texture-destructive muscovite-carbonate (calcite and dolo-
mite)-albite-sulphide assemblage (Harris 1980). The coarse mus-
covite-rich nature of the alteration is reminiscent of greisen in
lithophile-metal deposits. The alteration resulted in a marked re-
duction of the quartz content of the granodiorite (Harris 1980).
Veinlets containing the same mineral assemblage as the alteration
are also present. The sulphides comprise pyrite, arsenopyrite,
stibnite, molybdenite, and subordinate sphalerite and chalcopyrite,
which are accompanied by high-neness gold. Tungsten is also
enriched in the ore zone. Inclusions in quartz associated with the
gold mineralization contain a dilute, CO2-rich uid (Harris 1980).
Vasilkovskoe, Kazakstan
The Vasilkovskoe gold deposit, northern Kazakstan, is part of the
Altaid orogen that was constructed by Palaeozoic subduction and
accretion processes along the southern margin of the Siberian
craton (Sengor et al. 1993). Vasilkovskoe is hosted by a
granodioritic intrusion, which belongs to a suite of calc-alkaline, I-
type, magnetite-series tonalite-granodiorite plutons of Late Ordo-
vician age. The magmas were emplaced within the Kokshetau
Precambrian massif during the late stages of collision and accretion
(Burshtein 1996; Spiridinov 1996).
Vasilkovskoe comprises sheeted quartz veins and veinlets with
sericitic alteration envelopes within broad areas of feldspar alter-
ation. The sulphide content of gold-bearling veins is low (35%)
and includes arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, bismuthinite,

chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, molybdenite, stibnite and tennan-
tite. Scheelite and bismuth-telluride minerals are also present, with
gold and bismuth being closely correlated (Bespaer et al. 1996).
Spiridinov (1996) noted that antimony contents decrease whereas
bismuth, tungsten and tellurium contents, and Au/Ag and As/Sb
ratios, increase on passing from shallow (<3 km) to deeper
(>3 km) parts of the northern Kazakstan gold systems. The ore
uid in these deposits was relatively cool (280370 C) and dilute sions. A low-salinity uid containing appreciable CO2 is associated
(<11 wt.% NaCl equivalent) and, in early paragenetic stages, was
rich in CO2 (Spiridinov 1996).
Timbarra, New South Wales, Australia
The Timbarra gold deposit, located in the southern part of the New
England fold belt in New South Wales, is hosted by a phase of the
Stanthorpe Adamellite, part of a suite of post-orogenic, I-type
high-K granites of Permo-Triassic age (Blevin and Chappell 1996).
The granitoid intrusions cut a deformed siliciclastic sedimentary
sequence that accumulated as an accretionary prism during sub-
duction. The granite suite hosts mineralized zones containing mo-
lybdenum, tin, tungsten and bismuth (Gilligan and Barnes 1990).
The Timbarra deposit is hosted by a magnetite-series, metalu-
minous to peraluminous granite body, which comprises two
porphyritic to equigranular phases cut by pegmatite, ne-grained
granite, and highly fractionated microgranite dykes (Simmons et al.
1996). The gold mineralization occurs in the miarolitic and gran-
ophyric roof facies of the more fractionated granite, where it is
present in primary miarolitic cavities, disseminated between min-
erals of the granite, in dissolution cavities in K-feldspar, and in
minor sheeted veins. Gold was also mined previously from peg-
matitic sheets where it occurs on microfractures in quartz (Sim-
mons et al. 1996). Alteration is developed only weakly and
characterized by albite, sericite, chlorite and carbonates. The dis-
seminated gold mineralization is associated intimately with bis-
muthinite and molybdenite, and also associated, albeit less closely,
with disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite. Fluid inclusions in
quartz deposited with gold consist of CO2-rich and low-salinity (5
7 wt.% NaCl equivalent), H2O-rich types (Simmons et al. 1996).
Kidston, Queensland, Australia
The Kidston gold deposit is located in the Proterozoic Georgetown
Inlier of northeastern Queensland, and is related to igneous rocks
that belong to a mid-Carboniferous-Permian magmatic province
characterized by intrusion of granitic plutons and eruption of co-
magmatic continental silicic volcanic rocks. The intrusive rocks
range from small stocks and ring complexes to extensive batholiths,
are mostly siliceous I-types (Richards 1980) and are interpreted to
be largely of crustal derivation (Champion and Chappell 1992). A
variety of tin (Herberton-Irvinebank-Mount Garnet), tungsten
(Wolfram Camp), molybdenum, bismuth and gold and base-metal
mineralization is present in the igneous province, with gold deposits
being concentrated in the Georgetown Inlier (Murray 1986). The
relationship of the widespread, predominantly felsic igneous rocks
to subduction processes is uncertain.
Gold mineralization at Kidston is mined from an orthomag-
matic breccia pipe that is related genetically to a small multiphase
rhyolite porphyry stock and dyke complex (Baker and Tullemans
1990). Dykes pre- and post-dated brecciation, and a composite
stock is cut by the breccia, but is present mainly alongside the pipe
at depth. The pipe contains clasts of metamorphic and granodiorite
wallrocks, as well as rhyolite, and extends to a depth of at least
1300 m. Gold mineralization is best developed in the uppermost
250 m of the pipe, where it is present with quartz in concentric,
inward-dipping, sheeted fractures and as cavity ll in nearby
breccia (Baker and Tullemans 1990). The gold occurs with pyrite,
pyrrhotite, and lesser amounts of sphalerite, chalcopyrite, mo-
lybdenite, galena, arsenopyrite and bismuthinite, and is accompa-
nied by quartz-sericite-carbonate alteration (Baker and Tullemans
1990). This gold- and base metal-rich mineralization occupies the
top of a zonal sequence above a deep zone of molybdenum-tung-
327
sten mineralization developed within the composite porphyry stock
(Morrison et al. 1996).
A complex uid history has been documented at Kidston
(Baker and Andrew 1991). Early high-temperature brines are as-
sociated with molybdenum-tungsten mineralization in the rhyolite
porphyry, as indicated by high-salinity (2050 wt.% NaCl equiv-
alent), high-homogenization-temperature (340600 C) uid inclu-
with quartz veins that formed prior to the main stage of gold in-
troduction. The main gold stage is related to a low-salinity (210
wt.% NaCl equivalent), low-temperature (170350 C) aqueous
uid, and is interpreted to have formed 3.5 km beneath the pal-
aeosurface from condensation of vapour generated during phase
separation from a high-temperature magmatic brine (Baker and
Andrew 1991). Although the style of mineralization at Kidston
diers from the examples of intrusion-hosted gold mineralization
described above, it is included in this class because of its location in
a region known for tin-tungsten deposits, the presence of molyb-
denum and tungsten in the Kidston system, similar uid compo-
sitions, and the association of gold with bismuth minerals. McCoy
et al. (1997) also noted specic similarities between the Kidston
deposit and its setting and the intrusion-related gold mineralization
in the Fairbanks district of Alaska. Kidston diers from the other
deposits described herein in its higher base metal content within
auriferous sheeted veins.
Kori Kollo, Bolivia
The Kori Kollo gold deposit, in the La Joya district of south-
western Bolivia, is located in a north-trending Miocene belt of
polymetallic vein deposits, most of which are dominated by tin and
silver, but lack gold (e.g. Potos ; Turneaure 1960). The deposits are
centred on isolated dacite to rhyodacite porphyry stocks, domes
and dykes, which are high-K calc-alkaline to weakly alkaline and of
I-type. The intrusive rocks are commonly reduced and assignable
to the ilmenite series, possibly as a result of emplacement through
an underlying sequence, up to 10 km thick, of Palaeozoic silicic-
lastic metasedimentary rocks rich in organic carbon (Lehmann
1994). Magmatism and mineralization occurred in the Bolivian
polymetallic belt following the initiation of high-velocity orthogo-
nal subduction and a related Late Oligocene inland shift of magma
generation into a continental back-arc position. At the same time,
the underlying crust underwent thrust-related shortening and was
thickened to 75 km (Baby et al. 1997; Lamb et al. 1997). Petro-
chemical and isotopic data dene a predominantly crustal or crust-
mantle signature (Miller and Harris 1989; Davidson and de Silva
1992), a likely result of magma generation during the crustal
thickening (Redwood and Rice 1997).
The producing Kori Kollo deposit is hosted by two phases of a
dissected dacite porphyry dome complex and comprises a steeply-
dipping, sheeted array of gold-bearing pyrite veinlets (1.5% of the
rock) bordered by quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration (Redwood 1987;
Columba and Cunningham 1993; Long et al. 1992). The veinlets,
0.115 cm thick, consist of early pyrite with trace arsenopyrite and
chalcopyrite and late minor amounts (<1%) of jamesonite, galena,
stannite, bournonite, bismuthinite-stibnite, sphalerite, tetrahedrite
and realgar (Petersen and Fitzmayer, 1998). Approximately 60% of
the gold is associated with the late polymetallic sulphides in the
veins, with the remainder occurring with pyrite in veins and dis-
seminated in the wallrock porphyry. The gold/silver ratio is ap-
proximately six and gold occurs with elevated arsenic, antimony,
copper, zinc, lead, tin, tungsten and bismuth contents (Long et al.
1992). Unlike other deposits described in this paper, copper occurs
with gold at Kori Kollo; however copper concentrations in the
deposit average <100 ppm. The veinlet minerals were deposited
from a saline uid (1023 wt.% NaCl equivalent) at temperatures
of 300400 C (Long et al. 1992; Petersen and Fitzmayer, 1998).
Petersen and Fitzmayer (1998) described alunite-sericite alter-
ation of the dome and reported the presence of aluminum phos-
phate-sulphate (APS) minerals in the nal vein stage at Kori Kollo.
Alunite and APS minerals are abundant in some advanced argillic
328
lithocaps preserved in the shallow parts (<1000 m below palaeo-
surface) of several tin-silver systems elsewhere in southwestern
Bolivia (Sillitoe et al. 1998). Using uid inclusion evidence, Peter-
sen and Fitzmayer (1998) also concluded that gold mineralization
at Kori Kollo formed at shallow depths (400800 m). The dome
complex, alteration mineralogy and depth estimates all suggest that
mineralization at Kori Kollo formed in the root zone of a now-
eroded lithocap.
Gold occurs in minor amounts in several other silver-tin
deposits in the Miocene Bolivian polymetallic belt (e.g. Oruro,
Pulacayo, Quisma Chata, Tasna and Ubina). At Tasna, gold
mineralization is associated spatially with advanced argillic alter-
ation, the probable root to a lithocap, while the deeper parts of the
vein system are dominated by tungsten and bismuth (Sillitoe et al.
1998; Thompson et al. 1996).
Mineralizing environment
Tectono-magmatic setting
The precise tectonic setting of most of the mineralized
districts discussed in this report is dicult to dene,
particularly with respect to subduction processes and
timing. The magmatic belts that host the gold deposits
described herein were all generated inboard of conti-
nental margins and were superimposed on older base-
ment, in most cases part of an underlying craton. In
some cases, for example the Tombstone plutonic suite of
Alaska-Yukon, the intrusions associated with gold
mineralization occupy the innermost parts of areally
extensive magmatic provinces. Although occupying an
inboard position, a back-arc environment is not proven
in most cases because a spatial relationship to coeval
arc magmatism is not dened. The exception is the
Kori Kollo deposit where the back-arc position in which
Miocene magmatism is associated directly with
crustal shortening and thickening is well documented
(Fig. 4; Baby et al. 1997; Lamb et al. 1997). The tim-
ing of gold mineralization and magmatic activity relative
to tectonic events also varies. Several of the aurif-
erous magmatic belts were emplaced in collisional or
Fig. 4 Cross-sectional tectonic
reconstruction of the central
Andes to show the environment
of felsic magmatism and poly-
metallic mineralization, includ-
ing the Kori Kollo gold deposit,
of southwestern Bolivia (modi-
ed from Lamb et al. 1997).
Note the apparent linkage be-
tween thrusting and magma
generation
post-collisional settings (Hercynian, northern Queens-
land, New England), and local extension is evident
in some cases (parts of the Tombstone suite; Poulsen
1996).
The intrusions that host or are related to these gold
deposits are parts of magmatic suites that show varied
oxidation states. Some intrusions contain magnetite
whereas others are ilmenite-bearing. As a whole, they
are best described as reduced I-type magmas, that is I-
type magmas as dened by Chappell and White (1974)
with intermediate oxidation states around the boundary
between the magnetite and ilmenite series of Ishihari
(1977). More reduced and locally peraluminous intru-
sions of similar age occur in some of the belts, although
their relationship to the gold-bearing suites is uncertain.
The relatively reduced character of the gold-bearing
suites may reect passage through thick upper-crustal
sequences of reduced marine siliciclastic rocks, which
constitute the host for ve of the seven gold deposits
(Table 1). Variation in oxidation state may be consistent
with a change in metallogeny from tin-rich to tungsten-
gold-rich systems (Fig. 5).
The intrusions are predominantly felsic, typically
ranging from granodiorite to granite. In many cases, the
gold mineralization is hosted by more fractionated
members of intrusive suites. McCoy et al. (1997) docu-
mented evidence from intrusions in the Fairbanks dis-
trict, the location of the Fort Knox deposit, for gold
enrichment during fractionation, particularly above a
fractionation index of 80, which they suggested reects
the incompatible behaviour of gold in ilmenite-series
granitic magmas.
The available isotopic and geochemical data from
these suites indicate the presence of signicant crustal
components, although the source of these components
has not been identied. More mac magmas of potential
mantle origin, some with alkaline arc or lamprophyric
character, occur in several belts (e.g. Tombstone suite,
Bolivian belt). The presence of more primitive mac

Fig. 5 Schematic plot of degree of fractionation, shown by the Fe
content of magmas, versus oxidation state (f O2) for calc-alkaline to
alkaline magmas associated with magmatic-hydrothermal copper,
copper-molybdenum, molybdenum, tungsten and tin mineralization.
The generalized position of the deposits described, with their tungsten
(partial lithophile) association, is shown and compared to the position
of more typical copper-gold (chalcophile) systems. The approximate
boundary between Ishihara's (1977) magnetite- and ilmenite-series
magmas is also shown
magmas suggests involvement of asthenospheric or
lithospheric mantle magmatic processes, and raises the
possibilities of magma mixing and a contribution from
329
more juvenille magmas to the metallogeny of these belts.
Redwood and Rice (1997) documented mac shoshoni-
tic magmas parental to the high-K calc-alkaline suite
that gave rise to the Bolivian polymetallic belt and the
Kori Kollo gold deposit. In addition, bulk-rock and
melt-inclusion geochemistry for one of the tin-mineral-
ized porphyry stocks indicate that mac magma was
added to a highly fractionated granitic melt at depth
(Dietrich et al. 1997).
Mineralization styles
The intrusion-hosted gold deposits discussed herein
possess a range of styles, which are interpreted to reect
depths of magma emplacement and/or erosion based on
geological criteria and uid inclusion data summarized
above (Fig. 6). The shallowest depths, probably <1 km,
reveal sheeted auriferous pyrite veinlets in a dacite
porphyry dome complex (Kori Kollo). At intermediate
levels, 3.5 km or less, hydrothermal breccia-hosted
mineralization is associated with a rhyolite stock
(Kidston). Intermediate to deep levels (about 36 km)
are characterized by sheeted quartz veins in equigranular
to porphyritic granitic rocks (Fort Knox, Mokrsko,
Vasilkovskoe) or greisen (Salave) and disseminated
Fig. 6 Schematic model showing the dierent styles of gold deposits
described in the text in relation to emplacement depth of their
genetically related intrusions. Note that the mineralization may have
formed discontinuously over vertical intervals of approximately 6 km
330
(Timbarra) styles of mineralization. Even within indi-
vidual belts, such as the Tombstone suite, variations in
depth of formation have been documented (McCoy et al.
1997; Baker et al. 1998). Decreasing depth in the
Tombstone suite systems correlates with an increasing
importance of brittle fractures, increasing antimony and
decreasing molybdenum and tungsten. Similar correla-
tions are suggested by other deposits (Mokrsko, Va-
silkovskoe, Kidston). The increasing importance of
pyrite at very shallow levels (Kori Kollo) may reect the
inuence of near-surface processes, such as enhanced
magmatic degassing, suggested by lithocap formation.
The range of depths of formation suggested by these
deposits is similar to the range indicated for intrusion-
related gold deposits, which also show variations in the
style of mineralization with formational depth (Sillitoe
1991).
None of these deposits constitutes a porphyry gold
deposit in a strict sense, although the term ``plutonic
porphyry gold deposit'' was employed by Hollister
(1992) to describe Fort Knox and Mokrsko. The hall-
marks of true porphyry systems, multidirectional
quartz-veinlet stockworks generated in zones of perva-
sive K-silicate alteration as a result of hydraulic frac-
turing, are absent. Rather, the styles of mineralization
are reminiscent of those displayed by granite-hosted
stockwork and vein tungsten and tin deposits (e.g.
Taylor 1979). Such deposits seem to have formed during
relatively passive ascent of magmatic uid through
fracture systems related to district-wide stress regimes.
Gold mineralization also occurs in other styles
including quartz veins, structures and disseminated in
sills, metasediments and calcarous sediments. Mineral-
ization of these types may occur adjacent to intrusions
or more distally (0.53 km) from intrusions. Even
in distal cases, a spatial, temporal and geochemical
association can be made with intrusions (e.g. Brewery
Creek; Poulsen 1996).
Alteration and uid characteristics
The character and mineralogy of alteration vary with the
style of intrusion-related gold mineralization described
in this study. Alteration associated with sheeted quartz
veins is characterized by muscovite, K-feldspar and/or
albite, commonly accompanied by carbonate, and is
generally restricted to narrow envelopes around indi-
vidual veins. However, more pervasive sericitization
occurs in many deposits where it may be associated with
mineralization (e.g. Salave, Kori Kollo, Kidston).
Two major types of uid inclusion are described from
gold mineralization in the Tombstone plutonic suite in
the Yukon (Baker et al. 1997; Baker et al. 1998) and
Alaska (McCoy et al. 1997): impure carbonic inclusions
with salinities of 012 wt.% NaCl equivalent and halite-
bearing inclusions with salinities of 3065 wt.% NaCl
equivalent. The relative importance of these two types
may reect depth, with carbonic inclusions being more
important at deeper levels. This conclusion would ex-
plain the data saline inclusions at shallow levels (Kori
Kollo, early stages at Kidston), but carbonic inclusions
in more deeply emplaced deposits (Fort Knox, Mo-
krsko, Vasilkovskoe, Salave, Timbarra).
Metal association
The gold deposits of this class are typically sulphide-
poor, although the shallowly emplaced deposit at Kori
Kollo is a notable exception. The principal sulphide in
all deposits is pyrite, which is followed in importance by
arsenopyrite. Bismuth is the metal best correlated with
gold at most deposits, along with tellurium in several
deposits and molybdenum at Timbarra. Tungsten is
broadly associated with gold, but commonly earlier
paragenetically, and is reported to increase at the ex-
pense of gold with depth in the veins at Mokrsko
(Moravek 1995), Fort Knox (Bakke 1995), and Va-
silkovskoe (Spiridinov 1996). Antimony is also a com-
monly associated metal, and tin is present locally. Silver
contents are highest in the shallowest deposit, Kori
Kollo, and decrease markedly in the deeper deposits.
Base metals are relatively low (typically <500 ppm of
combined copper, zinc and lead). In zoned systems like
Kidston, however, base metals are more abundant and
occur with gold above the molybdenum-tungsten zone.
Discussion
A distinctive class of intrusion-related gold deposits can
be recognized with a characteristic metal signature
consisting of bismuth, tungsten, arsenic, tin, molybde-
num, tellurium and antimony. This metal association, in
part consisting of lithophile elements, is a dening
characteristic that dierentiates this class of gold min-
eralization from the more widely recognized and better
described copper-gold association. These dierent metal
assemblages are illustrated schematically with reference
to degree of fractionation and oxidation state for metal-
bearing magmas in Fig. 5. While not fully quantied,
this diagram illustrates the probable distinctive compo-
sition and oxidation state where gold may be concen-
trated with lithophile elements, particularly tungsten.
Although the most important deposits of the type dis-
cussed are intrusion-hosted, most commonly in the form
of sheeted veins/veinlets, a variety of other styles occurs,
including breccia deposits, disseminated deposits in
calcareous clastic rocks and veins. Disseminated and
vein deposits may occur outside contact aureoles, up to
3 km from the intrusive centres. Veins adjacent to in-
trusions are typically rich in arsenopyrite and gold,
whereas more distal veins are dominated by silver, lead
and zinc. The style of gold mineralization and its at-
tendant alteration are thought to be inuenced greatly
by formational palaeodepth (Fig. 6).

The presence of intrusion-related gold mineralization
with a bismuth-tungsten-arsenic signature in several re-
gions worldwide suggests that a common set of genetic
processes was operative. The concentration of metals in
magmas reects some combination of source region,
fractionation and oxidation state (e.g. Blevin and
Chappell 1992). There is evidence for the involvement of
the continental crust in magmas from all the areas de-
scribed here. However, the role of the crust as a distinct
source of metals, particularly for gold, is not clear. In
Alaska and the Yukon, for example, the Tombstone
suite represents a temporally restricted magmatic epi-
sode associated with gold mineralization. The 750-km
length of the narrow (50 km) Tombstone plutonic belt
traverses a variety of host rocks, ranging from conti-
nental-margin clastic sequences to high-grade meta-
morphic belts, and therefore it is unlikely that a special
gold-rich crustal source was tapped. Furthermore, older
Cretaceous (11295 Ma) intrusive suites emplaced in
some of the same host rock sequences in this region lack
similar gold mineralization (Mortensen et al. 1996),
suggesting that distinctive mineralizing processes oper-
ated in conjunction with the Tombstone suite.
Although a range of intrusive compositions is pres-
ent in the areas described, gold mineralization occurs
with a relatively restricted range of compositions,
granodiorite-granite, with mineralization commonly
hosted by more fractionated bodies (Newberry et al.
1995; McCoy et al. 1997). Fractionation of felsic
magma may concentrate gold so long as it behaves
incompatibly. Gold may be removed from magmas by
the crystallization of sulphides, particularly iss (inter-
mediate solid solution) and, to a lesser extent, magne-
tite (Cygan and Candela 1995). Compatible behaviour
and removal of gold may be limited by low sulphur
contents, low iron contents or high oxidation states
leading to sulphate stability. Within this framework,
magmatic-hydrothermal processes operated to concen-
trate and deposit gold with bismuth, tungsten and ar-
senic. These processes operated extensively throughout
the Tombstone suite, but in contrast, only operated
eciently in one occurrence, Kori Kollo, in the Boliv-
ian tin-polymetallic belt at least at the current level of
erosion.
Hydrothermal uids related to intrusion-hosted gold
deposits of the type described herein range from high to
low salinity, the latter being vapour-rich in some cases.
Carbonic uid, with variable CO2 contents (<1 to >99
mol% CO2), is present in the deeper systems, which
emphasizes further the frequent association with tung-
sten mineralization (see Newberry et al. 1995); carbonic
uid is reported widely from tungsten and tungsten-
molybdenum deposits (Roedder 1984). Although it is
tempting to conclude that emplacement depth is a major
control on whether saline or carbonic uid predominates
in these gold deposits, as stated already the inuence of
magma composition, degree of fractionation and oxi-
dation state on the generation of carbonic uid is un-
certain. For example, McCoy et al. (1997) proposed that
331
saline uid is liberated early in the dierentiation of a
magma suite, leaving only carbonic uid for release from
late-stage fractionated phases. Baker et al. (1998) also
report carbonic and saline uid inclusions from many
mineralized systems associated with the Tombstone suite
intrusions in the Yukon, but the saline inclusions are
dominantly secondary, and therefore later than primary
carbonic inclusions. At Mike Lake in the Yukon, saline
uid inclusions co-exist with CO2-only inclusions sug-
gesting that immiscibility occurred.
Experimental studies on rhyolitic melts have shown
that H2O is ten times more soluble than CO2 (Fogel and
Rutherford 1990; Blank et al. 1993), leading Nablek and
Ternes (1997) to suggest that when such melts contain-
ing CO2 and H2O attain uid saturation, the initial uid
released must be CO2-rich. Subsequent uid evolved
from the magma will become H2O-rich and will be more
saline due to higher chloride solubility in aqueous than
carbonic uid. These results support the inferred para-
genesis in the Yukon systems.
The emphasis in this discussion is on a magmatic-
hydrothermal origin for CO2-rich uid in these intrusion-
related systems. CO2-rich uid occurs in other types of
gold systems, for example lode gold deposits, where a
metamorphogenic origin is commonly proposed for the
uid (e.g. Phillips and Powell 1993). Based on this asso-
ciation, the predominance of carbonic uid was used as
evidence for the existence of metamorphic mineralizing
uids at Fort Knox (Goldfarb et al. 1997), Mokrsko
(Moravek et al. 1989; Moravek 1995) and Vasilkovskoe
(Spiridinov 1996). We prefer a magmatic origin for CO2-
rich uids in the intrusion-related deposits described
herein because of the spatial relationship to intrusions,
evidence for similar uids in related pegmatities in some
areas (McCoy et al. 1997) and the association with
moderate- to high-salinity uids in some deposits (e.g.
the Tombstone suite; Baker et al. 1998). In addition,
evidence for magmatic concentration of gold, the metal
association including high bismuth (>100 ppm and in
many cases >1000 ppm), the common bismuth-gold
correlation and vertical and lateral zoning of metals in
and around intrusions all contrast with lode gold de-
posits and support a magmatic-hydrothermal origin for
the mineralization and therefore the CO2-rich uids.
Where isotopic data exists, low-salinity uids also have
magmatic signatures, for example at Kidston (Baker and
Andrew 1993), but in the absence of similar data from all
deposits, an external, possibly meteoric, origin for low-
salinity uids in some deposits cannot be ruled out.
The types of aqueous complexes responsible for metal
transport are uncertain due to the presence of high-sali-
nity, low-salinity and CO2-rich uids in the intrusion-
related gold deposits. It seems reasonable to suppose that
gold in the shallow deposits, like Kori Kollo, containing
saline uid, was transported as a chloride complex,
whereas bisulphide gold transport seems to have been
more likely in the deeper sheeted vein and disseminated
deposits that lack a detected saline uid component.
However, carbonate complexes have been suggested as
332
possible transport species for tungsten (Higgins 1980),
and may also be able to transport gold (Boyle et al. 1975).
Implications for exploration
Essentially all exploration for intrusion-related gold
deposits is conducted in arc and back-arc terranes where
oxidized calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatic rocks are
targeted, whether explicitly or not. We propose that gold
exploration should be extended to cover widespread
felsic magmatic provinces in which intrusions are char-
acterized by lower oxidation states that broadly span the
boundary between Ishihara's (1977) magnetite- and il-
menite-series (Fig. 5). Siliciclastic (meta)sedimentary
sequences seem to provide particularly favorable sites
for generation of such magmatic provinces, which range
in age from Precambrian to Tertiary (Table 1) and
where documented, include continental innermost arc,
back-arc and collisional settings. Potentially favourable
magmatic systems range in exposure level from high-
level domes and stocks, locally with preservation of
volcanic products, through to deep equigranular granitic
plutons.
Magmatic provinces known to contain tungsten and/
or tin mineralization are considered to be particularly
prospective because the presence of these lithophile metals
shows that magmatic and post-magmatic processes con-
ducive to metal concentration were active at the present
erosion level. Reports of hardrock or placer gold miner-
alization, however minor, enhances the prospectivity of a
tungsten-tin province. Clearly, numerous mineralized
centres in any province would need to be screened because
the examples of intrusion-related gold deposits described
suggest that major gold concentrations may be restricted
to an individual deposit (e.g. Kori Kollo) or to discrete
parts of provinces (e.g. northwestern Spain and the Cen-
tral Bohemian metallogenic zone in the Hercynian; the
Georgetown block in northern Queensland). Where
mineralization is more widespread (e.g. the Tombstone
suite in Yukon and Alaska), more detailed screening is
required to prioritize targets.
This study highlights the characteristics of gold de-
posits in well-documented tungsten-tin provinces in the
northern Cordillera of North America, the Hercynides
of Europe, the Altaid orogen of central Asia, the Tas-
man orogen of eastern Australia and the polymetallic
belt of southwestern Bolivia. Recent reports of wide-
spread gold with lithophile-element mineralization far-
ther east in the Altaid orogen, in the Tien Shan province
(Kudrin et al. 1990), and in the Soviet Far East (Gory-
achev and Goncharov 1995), suggest that this distinctive
type of intrusion-related gold mineralization may prove
to be widespread in the former Soviet Union. Similarly,
other tungsten-tin provinces in China, some with known
gold mineralization, deserve consideration.
Finally, it should be emphasized that intrusion-re-
lated gold deposits of the type described represent an
economically important exploration objective, given that
ve of the examples described already contain in excess
of 100 tonnes (>3 million oz) of gold (Table 1). The
largest deposits currently known are of the sheeted vein
type. However, major gold concentrations may occur in
skarns, wallrock disseminations or replacements and
veins more distal (up to 3 km) with respect to the min-
eralizing intrusion. Given the initial exploration em-
phasis on the intrusions themselves, it is thought likely
that more distal styles of mineralization will be found in
the future, and such targets should not be ignored. As
exploration continues, it seems likely that mineralization
will be discovered in the full range of proximal and distal
environments that characterize the better-explored por-
phyry copper-gold systems.
Acknowledgements JFHT, JRL, TB and JKM acknowledge the
nancial support of 19 mining companies and NSERC to the
MDRU ``Magmatic-hydrothermal'' project, through which work
on the Tombstone suite was accomplished. JFHT and JRL also
acknowledge Corriente Resources, which supported their work in
the Bolivin tin belt. JFHT thanks Carlos Inverno for introducing
him to gold-lithophile metal occurrences in Portugal, and RHS
thanks Carl Swensson for drawing attention to the Timbarra gold
deposit. The manuscript was reviewed by Rod Kirkham, Bernd
Lehmann and Peter Pollard, and was improved further by com-
ments from two Mineralium Deposita reviewers.
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