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Geology

Are porphyry copper and Kuroko-type massive sulfide deposits incompatible?

Richard H. Sillitoe

Geology 1980;8;11-14
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1980)8<11:APCAKM>2.0.CO;2

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Notes

Geological Society of America

 Are porphyry copper and Kuroko-type massive
sulfide deposits incompatible?
Richard H. Sillitoe
Department of M i n i n g Geology, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College of Science and Technology
Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BP, England

ABSTRACT
It is suggested that porphyry copper deposits and Kuroko-type massive
sulfide deposits are incompatible because the former are generated beneath
andesitic-dacitic stratovolcanoes, whereas the latter are precipitated during
or after rhyolitic to rhyodacitic volcanism within resurgent calderas.
Episodes of lithospheric tension in subduction-related arcs may favor
cauldron subsidence at the expense of stratovolcano development.

INTRODUCTION
Porphyry copper-molybdenum-gold
deposits and polymetallic, Kuroko-type
massive sulfide deposits are both generated
in dominantly calc-alkalic volcano-plutonic
arcs at convergent plate boundaries (for
example, Sawkins, 1972; Sillitoe, 1972).
Kuroko-type deposits are generated only
in submarine magmatic arcs, whereas
porphyry copper deposits are emplaced in
both submarine (for example, Highland
Valley, British ColumbiaOsatenko and
Jones, 1976; Recsk, HungaryBaksa and
others, 1974) and subaerial arcs. Moreover,
in island arcs, proximity of subaerial and
submarine environments is commonplace.
Consequently, the presence of only one of
the two ore-deposit types in any one dis-
trict poses an enigma, which has perplexed
many workers, particularly in Japan (for
example, Ishihara, 1974). In the few cases
where a fairly close spatial relationship
between porphyry and Kuroko-type de-
posits exists, as in Baluchistan, Pakistan
(Sillitoe, 1978), and in central Queensland
(Moonmera porphyry copper and Mt.
Morgan massive sulfide), it appears to be
fortuitous because an appreciable gap
separates their times of emplacement. This
report suggests that the apparent incom-
patibility may in fact be real and that it
may be due to fundamental differences
in the volcano-plutonic settings of the
two ore-deposit types.
MASSIVE SULFIDES AND CALDERAS
Cauldron subsidence was a widespread
phenomenon across appreciable segments
of calc-alkalic magmatic arcs during spe-
cific time intervals. During such intervals,
volcanic fields dominated by andesitic-
dacitic stratovolcanoes gave way to over-
lapping caldera complexes and areally ex-
tensive fields of silicic ignimbrite (Smith
and Bailey, 1968; Elston and others, 1976a;
Steven and Lipman, 1976). Ignimbrite is
erupted from highly differentiated, near-
surface magma chambers along ring frac-
ture zones, thereby resulting in subsidence
of crustal blocks as much as 40 km in
diameter. Ignimbrites, or, in a submarine
environment, silicic tuffs, partially fill the
collapse calderas and accumulate, also,
as thinner outflow sheets for considerable
distances beyond the ring fracture zones
(Fig. IB). Many calderas undergo post-
collapse resurgence, which commonly
entails doming of the subsided block as a
result of emplacement of silicic flow-dome
complexes and underlying stocks and
plutons, both centrally and localized
by ring fracture zones.
A subordinate role for metallization in
the caldera cycle was proposed by McKee
(1976) on the basis of studies in Nevada,
and it is clear that caldera collapse is a
mechanism whereby volatiles and con-
tained metals are dissipated as components
of ignimbrite (Elston, 1978a), as opposed
to their concentration and eventual release
during cooling of subvolcanic magma
chambers. Nevertheless, resurgent magma-
tism has been claimed as a potential ore-
forming event in the subaerial mid-Tertiary
cauldron subsidence province of the south-
ern Rocky Mountains (Elston and others,
1976b), although only a structural control
by ring and radial fractures rather than a
true genetic connection of most of the
base- and precious-metal veins and skarn
deposits also has been proposed (Lipman
and others, 1976).
Recently, however, submarine resurgent
calderas have been proposed as the princi-
pal sites for generation of Kuroko-type
massive sulfide deposits (Hodgson and
Lydon, 1977; Fig. IB). The enhanced per-
meability resulting from collapse-induced
ring and radial fracturing permits establish-
ment of convective hydrothermal systems
(for example, Taylor, 1974), at the outlets
of which Kuroko deposits are precipitated
(for example, Ohmoto and Rye, 1974).
Nevertheless, several lines of evidence also
support a crucial magmatic contribution
to the sea-water-dominated ore fluids
(Sato, 1977; Ishihara and Sasaki, 1978;
F. J. Sawkins and J. Kowalik, 1979, per-
sonal commun.). If Kuroko deposit gen-
eration is related to resurgence of sub-
marine calderas, then an explanation is at
hand for (1) the ubiquitous occurrence of
the deposits in silicic pyroclastic sequences,
commonly near their tops, and, further-
more, for the close association of many
Kuroko deposits with felsic lava domes
and accompanying breccias; and (2) their
restriction to a small percentage of sub-
marine volcanic provinces and, within
individual districts, their generation in
clusters at a specific stratigraphie horizon.
In northeastern Japan, some 70 mid-
Miocene Kuroko deposits were emplaced
above a thick silicic tuff sequencenow
interpreted as a product of caldera col-
lapseand are commonly located on the
flanks of rhyolitic to dacitic lava domes,
the positions of which now are thought to
be controlled by ring fracture zones rather
than by the margins of sedimentary basins
(Ohmoto, 1978). In the pre-eminent Hoku-
roku district, five resurgent cauldrons,
each having Kuroko deposits (Kouda and
Koide, 1978), are nested within the 20-km-
wide basin first recognized as a subsidence
structure by Tanimura (1973).
In the Eastern Pontid province of north-
eastern Turkey, 19 Kuroko deposits of
Jurassic-Neocomian age and 54 of Late
Cretaceous age occur at the tops of thick
rhyodacitic pyroclastic units, which them-
selves overlie basaltic and andesitic se-
quences. Pejatovic (1977) documented

G E O L O G Y , v. 8, p. 1 1 - 1 4 , J A N U A R Y 1980 11
caldera collapse during silicic eruption and
noted postmineralization volcaniclastic
sedimentation within the subsided blocks.
Similarly, in the Noranda district, Quebec,
Spence and de Rosen-Spence (1975) recog-
nized that the Archean massive sulfide
deposits were emplaced above rhyolite
flows, in association with domes and
breccias, within a cauldron subsidence
structure. The Undu district of Vanua
Levu, Fiji, the Bathurst-Newcastle dis-
trict of New Brunswick, the Buchans dis-
trict of Newfoundland, and the Woodlawn
and Captains Flat areas of New South
Wales and the Mt. Lyell-Rosebery area
of Tasmania also have histories that sug-
gest massive sulfide formation in silicic
pyroclastics that were accumulated during
cauldron subsidence.
PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS AND
STRATOVOLCANOES
It has been proposed that many por-
phyry copper deposits are generated during
the final consolidation of high-level
magma chambers remaining beneath ande-
sitic-dacitic stratovolcanoes after eruptive
activity has mostly ceasedthe fumarolic
stage (Sillitoe, 1973; Fig. 1A). The por-
phyry copper-bearing stocks may intrude
the basal parts of the volcanic edifice,
but more commonly they appear to be
present within the subvolcanic "base-
ment." Since all or much of a volcanic
edifice is likely to have been eroded from
the vicinity of a porphyry copper-bearing
stock by the time it is exposed, it is com-
monly difficult to identify the andesitic-
dacitic volcanic rocks with which it is co-
magmatic. However, several good exam-
ples are known. In the Faralln Negro
district of northwestern Argentina, five
porphyry copper-gold deposits occur
within the basal remains of an isolated
Neogene stratovolcano, which locally is
less than 3 m.y. older than the mineralized
dacite porphyry stocks (Caelles and others,

A. Stratovolcano Stage

VOLCANICLASTIC
SEDIMENTS

V V V ANDESITIC-DACITIC
|v V v V vl VOLCANIC ROCKS

SUBSTRATOVOLCANO
PLUTON

SUBVOLCANIC
BASEMENT, with
i LIMESTONE HORIZON

o 5 km

B. Caldera Stage
SEA LEVEL

MOAT SEDIMENTS

SILICIC LAVA DOME

*
RESURGENT PLUTON
X- -y
SILICIC
ji'j PYROCLASTIC
PYROCI ROCKS

* X- SUBCALDERA
PLUTON

MINERALIZATION
KUROKO-TYPE DEPOSIT <fft VEIN DEPOSITS | l ( SKARN DEPOSIT
PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSIT ^ SULFIDE SYSTEM [ l H

Figure 1. Mineralization associated with stratovolcano fields and caldera complexes. (A) Subaerial cluster of stratovolcanoes underlain by sub-
volcanic, intermediate-composition pit;ton and flanked by volcaniclastic sediments. One cupola has p o r p h y r y c o p p e r system, including peripheral and
suprajacent vein deposits. Others have vein and skarn deposits. (B) Submarine resurgent caldera developed as result of subsidence of stratovolcanic
cluster. O u t f l o w and caldera facies of pyroclastics erupted f r o m upper part of subcaldera p l u t o n . Postcollapse plutons emplaced during resurgence fed
lava domes a r o u n d ring fracture zone and in central graben. Vein, skarn, and Kuroko-type deposits were generated during resurgence.

12 JANUARY 1980
1971) and still retains vestiges of its origi-
nal form (Sillitoe, 1973). At Safford, Ari-
zona, radiometric dating has shown that
andesitic volcanism, stock and dike intru-
sion, and development of four porphyry
copper deposits spanned only 5 m.y.
(Dunn, 1978). In the Baguio district of
the Philippines, andesitic-dacitic volcanic
rocks of middle to late Miocene age are
in part coeval with prophyry copper-
bearing stocks at Santo Tomas II and
Black Mountain (Balce and others, 1979).
Similarly, in the Highland Valley district
of British Columbia, the composite
Guichon Creek batholith, host to nine
porphyry copper deposits, is considered
to be comagmatic with enclosing andesitic
volcanic rock (McMillan, 1976). More
commonly, however, the age of pre-
mineralization andesitic-dacitic volcanic
rock relative to that of the porphyry de-
posits is poorly known, although in parts
of several provinces, including southwest
United States-northwestern Mexico, the
Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Car-
pathian-Balkan belt, and the central
Andes, a comagmatic relationship is sus-
pected. Moreover, where immediately
premineralization volcanic rocks are
present, silicic representatives, particularly
ignimbrites, are conspicuous by their scar-
city, as for example in the southwestern
United States (Titley, 1972). The appar-
ently subordinate role played by ignim-
brites and silicic tuffs in volcanic sequences
closely related to porphyry copper deposits
suggests that their emplacement is not
favored by cauldron subsidence settings,
a conclusion supported by the notable
paucity of annular features, such as ring
fractures and dikes, in the vicinity of
porphyry copper deposits.
Furthermore, cauldron subsidence
provinces generally lack known major
porphyry copper deposits and seem to
have only a few incipient developments.
In the southern Rocky Mountains of
Colorado and New Mexico, a mid-Tertiary
subaerial cauldron subsidence province
lacks contemporaneous porphyry copper
deposits, in strong contrast to the preced-
ing Laramide interval, although minor,
pyritic disseminated sulfides have been
reported (Elston and others, 1976b;
Lipman and others, 1976), and porphyry
copper deposits may occur in depth be-
neath prominent zones of advanced argillic
alteration and silicification, as at Summit-
ville, Colorado (Sillitoe, 1977). The ex-
tensive, silicic volcanic province of Late
Cretaceous-early Tertiary age on the inner
side of southwest Japan and adjoining
southern Korea is interpreted as having
developed by cauldron subsidence and has
only minor porphyry-type mineralization
(Sillitoe, 1980a). Similarly, the minor
porphyry-type occurrences recently de-
scribed from northeast Queensland,
Australia, by Horton (1978) occur in a
GEOLOGY
Permian-Carboniferous subaerial cauldron
subsidence province dominated by rhyo-
dacitic ignimbrites (Branch, 1966).
The submarine cauldron subsidence
provinces mentioned above as the locales
for Kiiroko-type mineralization also are
devoid of porphyry-type mineralization.
In both northeastern Japan and the East-
ern Pontid belt, for example, tonalitic and
granodioritic stocks were emplaced im-
mediately after massive sulfide deposition,
probably during resurgence, but they have
no porphyry deposits (Ishihara, 1974;
Pejatovic, 1977), although in northeastern
Japan they are associated with epithermal
base- and precious-metal veins (Yamaoka,
1976).
The subordinate role of porphyry
copper-type mineralization during resur-
gent plutonism may be tentatively ex-
plained (Sillitoe, 1980b) by a combination
of (1) depletion of magma chambers in
magmatic-hydrothermal fluids and energy
during ignimbrite eruption, thereby allow-
ing an insufficient build-up of fluids to
cause retrograde boiling, their explosive
release, and consequent porphyry copper
formation; (2) progressive rather than ex-
plosive loss of magmatic-hydrothermal
fluids (to give massive sulfide, vein, and/or
skarn deposits) because of the "leaky"
structural setting induced by ring and
radial fracturing; and (3) the lesser time
interval for evolution of magma chambers
in comparison to that available beneath
stratovolcano fields.
STRATOVOLCANOES VERSUS
CALDERAS
A fundamental problem is posed by
the relatively abrupt initiation of cauldron
subsidence across appreciable segments
of subduction-related stratovolcanic arcs.
It is suggested here that the regional
imposition of an extensional tectonic
regime, possibly due to a slowing or ces-
sation of subduction or a change in direc-
tion or angle of subduction, would favor
cauldron subsidence. Under regional
lithospheric tension, near-surface emplace-
ment of large magma chambers and failure
of their roofs would be facilitated, thereby
assisting ignimbrite eruption and caldera
collapse. Although interarc extension
occurs, regional tension might be more
likely to develop as back-arc settings are
approached, a suggestion supported by
transitions from late Cenozoic caldera-
ignimbrite provinces on continental crust
to marginal ocean basins: the Taupo zone
of New Zealand to the Lau basin, and
Sumatra to the Andaman basin.
Elston (1978b) attributed the onset of
mid-Tertiary cauldron subsidence in the
southern Rocky Mountains to the develop-
ment of a back-arc tensional regime, con-
sequent upon a relaxation of compressive
stresses across the continental margin as
subduction slowed. The same explanation
also was offered by Lambert (1974) for the
inception of Eocene subaerial cauldron
subsidence in the Sloko province of British
Columbia and the Yukon. In northeastern
Japan, extensional conditions giving rise
to regional graben development parallel
to the trench prevailed during Kuroko
emplacement (for example, Ishihara, 1974)
and, as in the Eastern Pontid belt during
at least the Late Cretaceous Kuroko-
forming event (Pejatovic, 1977), the mag-
matic arc was constructed on the trench
side of an actively opening marginal ocean
basin. Regional extension is further sup-
ported by the occurrence in these cauldron
subsidence provinces of subordinate vol-
umes of basalt in close association with
the calc-alkalic volcanic rocks. Further-
more, Scheibner and Markham (1976)
considered that the Kuroko-type deposits
at Woodlawn, Captains Flat, and else-
where in New South Wales, Australia,
were localized by interarc rift zones along
a Silurian island-arc system.
CONCLUSIONS
An incompatibility of Kuroko-type
and porphyry copper-type deposits re-
sults from the predominance of the former
in resurgent calderas and the latter beneath
stratovolcanoes. This explanation also
accounts for the prevalence of rhyolitic
to rhyodacitic pyroclastic rocks as hosts
for Kuroko deposits, in contrast to the
largely andesitic to dacitic composition
of volcanic rocks associated with porphyry
copper provinces. An example is the ab-
sence of porphyry copper deposits from
Japan, where the principal episodes of
calc-alkaline magmatism, during Late
Cretaceous-early Tertiary and mid-Tertiary
time, were dominated by cauldron sub-
sidence, in strong contrast to the Philip-
pines, where Cenozoic magmatism is
largely andesitic-dacitic in composition
and porphyry copper deposits are
widespread.
Although it is widely appreciated that
search for Kuroko-type deposits is best
concentrated in submarine, silicic volcanic
sequences, it may also be concluded that
porphyry copper exploration is best con-
ducted in volcanic provinces dominated
by andesites and not rhyolites. If cauldron
subsidence provinces are to be explored
for porphyry copper deposits, then stocks
related to remnants of precollapse strato-
volcano fields could offer the most
promising targets.
Finally, the incompatibility favored
here casts serious doubts on models
(Branch, 1976; Colley, 1976) that consider
porphyry copper and massive sulfide
deposits of Kuroko type to have been
generated in the same hydrothermal sys-
tem, albeit at deep and surficial levels,
respectively.
13
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
R e v i e w e d by W. E. E l s t o n , S. I s h i h a r a , a n d
F. J . S a w k i n s . Visits t o K u r o k o d e p o s i t s in
n o r t h e a s t e r n J a p a n , o r g a n i z e d by t h e S o c i e t y
of Mining G e o l o g i s t s of J a p a n , a n d d i s c u s s i o n s
w i t h H . F. B o n h a m , J r . , C. W. B u r n h a m , a n d
Elston w e r e v a l u a b l e .
M A N U S C R I P T R E C E I V E D A P R I L 19, 1 9 7 9
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED OCT. 26, 1979
JANUARY 1980