RESOURCE GEOLOGY, vol. 48, no.

2, 237250, 1998

Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposits: Types, Tectono-Magmatic Settings

and Difficulties of Distinction from Orogenic Gold Deposits

Richard H. SILLITOE and John F. H. THOMPSON

Abstract: A spectrum of intrusion-related vein gold deposits is recognized. Representative examples are described of the fol-
lowing geochemical associations: Au-Fe oxide-Cu, Au-Cu-Mo-Zn, Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu, Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu and Au-As-Bi-Sb.
The associated intrusions range from small outcropping stocks to complex batholiths.
The different vein associations are believed to reflect the compositions of related intrusions, which themselves charac-
terize distinct tectonic settings. The Au-Fe oxide-Cu and Au-Cu-Mo-Zn associations belong to two broad groups of deposits,
Fe oxide-Cu-Au and porphyry Cu-Au, both of which are related to highly oxidized calc-alkaline intrusions emplaced in sub-
duction-related arcs. The Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association seems to be linked to somewhat less oxidized intrusions emplaced in a
similar setting. The Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu association, which possesses well-known epithermal counterparts, is also found with
highly oxidized intrusions, but of alkaline composition and back-arc location. In contrast, the Au-As-Bi-Sb association, part
of a newly recognized class of intrusion-hosted Au-Bi-W-As deposits, is related to relatively reduced intrusions, spanning the
boundary between the magnetite- and ilmenite-series. Such intrusions, which may host major bulk-mineable gold deposits,
were emplaced along the landward sides of arcs, possibly during lulls in subduction, as well as in continental collision set-
tings. Therefore, a variety of geological environments is prospective for vein and, by extrapolation, other styles of gold min-
eralization, not all of them fully appreciated in the past.
Several features of vein gold deposits, including imprecise relationships to individual intrusive phases, poorly developed
mineral and metal zoning, apparent time gaps between intrusion and mineralization and presence of low-salinity, CO2-rich fluid
inclusions, are commonly taken to indicate a non-igneous origin and to be more typical of orogenic (mesothermal) gold deposits
generated during accretionary tectonic events. However, several or all of these features apply equally to some intrusion- related
vein gold deposits and, therefore, do not constitute distinguishing criteria. The currently popular assignment of most gold-rich
veins to the orogenic category requires caution, because of the geological convergence that they show with some intrusion-relat-
ed deposits. A proper distinction between intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits is crucial for exploration planning.

1993; Goldfarb et al., 1998; Groves et al., 1998).

1. Introduction
A variety of mineralization styles characterizes gold
deposits related to intrusive rocks. The deposits occur both
within and, at varied distances, around individual intru-
sions, and include porphyry, breccia, skarn, replacement
and vein types (e.g., Sillitoe, 1991). Of these, the gold-rich
vein deposits are the most contentious in terms of genetic
models, because of their apparent convergence with so-
called mesothermal lode gold deposits (Groves et al.,
1989; Kerrich, 1991; Hodgson, 1993); these were recently
denominated by Groves et al. (1998) as orogenic gold
deposits, the name that is used herein. Orogenic gold
deposits are widely considered to have been generated
during or immediately after compressive deformation and
regional metamorphism from fluids lacking any direct
connection to intrusive rocks (e.g., Phillips and Powell,
Received on December 10, 1998, accepted on December 25,
1998
* 27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 6ND, Eng-
land
** Teck Corporation, 200 Burrard Street, Vancouver, B. C. V6T
3L9, Canada
Keywords: Gold deposits, intrusions, magma type, tectonic set-
ting, mesothermal gold, orogenic gold
A broad spectrum of intrusion-related vein gold de-
posits is recognizable and may be subdivided on the
basis of vein mineralogy and the resultant metal associa-
tion. Here we highlight five, probably transitional, asso-
ciations: Au-Fe oxide-Cu, Au-Cu-Mo-Zn, Au-As-Pb-
Zn-Cu, Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu and Au-As-Bi-Sb. The
deposits selected as examples of these associations
(Table 1) are believed to possess reasonable evidence
for a direct relationship to their host or nearby intrusions
although, as remarked later, some of the relationships
are ambiguous and other workers have assigned some of
our examples to the orogenic category.
Following summary descriptions of five typical vein
gold deposits, one for each of the associations, their mag-
matic and tectonic settings are assessed and contrasted
with those of orogenic gold deposits. Several features used
commonly to argue against an intrusion-related origin for
vein gold deposits are then discussed with reference to
examples of the five vein associations. The discussion
illustrates the geological convergence between intrusion-
related and orogenic vein gold deposits and hence under-
scores the uncertainty involved in using these parameters
as evidence for a non-igneous origin. Our purpose here
is not to debate the igneous contribution to all orogenic
gold veins. Rather we attempt to illustrate the igneous

237
238 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :

Table 1 Selected attributes of some intrusion-related vein gold deposits.

District1 Intrusion/
Size Related intrusion alteration Metal association Tectonic Reference
(country) setting
age (Ma)
Mantos de ~2 Mt @ Coastal batholith: 105/NA Au-Fe oxide- Principal arc Ruiz et al. (1965);
Punitaqui 4 g/tAu monzodiorite Cu-(Hg) Gana (1991)
(Chile) produced
Snip (Canada) 1.27 Mt @ Red Bluff quartz 195/NA Au-Cu-Mo-Zn Principal arc Rhys (1995)
27 g/tAu monzodiorite
porphyry
Parcoy-Pataz 7-8 t/yr Au Pataz batholith: 329-305/286 Au-As-Pb-Zn- Principal arc Schreiber et al. (1990);
(Peru) produced monzodiorite, Cu-Ag (?) Vidal et al. (1995)
granodiorite
Palpa-Ocona 2.5 t/yr Au Arequipa segment of 83-80/NA Au-As-Pb-Zn- Principal arc Vidal (1985);
(Peru) produced Coastal batholith: Cu-Ag Moore & Agar (1985)
granodiorite tonalite
Charters Towers 207 t Au Millchester Creek 425/417 Au-As-Zn-Pb- Principal arc Peters & Golding
(Australia) tonalite Cu-Ag (?) (1989); Perkins &
Kennedy (1998)
Linglong(China) Guojialing suite: 126/>120 Au-As-Pb-Zn- Principal arc Poulsen et al. (1990);
granodiorite Cu (?) Wang et al. (1998)
Dongping >16 Mt @ Shuiquangou 309(?)/NA Au-Te-Pb-Zn- Back arc Zhang & Mao (1995)
(China) 6 g/t Au batholith: alkali Cu
syenite
Ryan Lode 26 t Au Ester Dome: 90.4-88.9/ Au-As-Bi-Sb Cratonic side Newberry et al. (1995);
(Canada) granodiorite, granite 90.2-89.4 of inactive arc McCoy et al. (1997)
1 Deposits in bold described in more detail in text. NA, Not available.

contribution to some veins and therefore sug-

gest that additional work is required to under-
stand the distinction between igneous-related
and orogenic veins. We conclude by dis-
cussing the exploration significance of this
spectrum of vein gold deposits.

2. Selected Intrusion-Related Vein Gold

Types

2.1. Au-Fe oxide-Cu association: Mantos de

Punitaqui, Chile
The Mantos de Punitaqui vein, some 4.5
km long, is part of the Mesozoic Coastal
batholith of northern Chile, a calc-alkaline, I-
type and magnetite-series suite. The vein pro-
duced copper and subsidiary gold (3 g/t) at
the Delirio mine in its southern part, gold
(4-6 g/t) until recently from its central part
and mercury at the Azogues mine, formerly
Chiles principal mercury producer, in the
northern part (McAllister et al., 1950; Ruiz et
al., 1965). The vein is hosted by a north-strik-
ing, steeply dipping fault (Fig. 1) that is map-
pable for about 40 km and underwent sinis-
tral strike-slip displacement (Ruiz et al.,
Fig. 1 Geological map of the Mantos de Punitaqui district, northern Chile,
1965). Schistose and gneissic rocks near the showing control of the vein by major arc-parallel fault along pluton con-
vein are products of early fault motion under tact (after Thomas, 1967).
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit 239

ductile conditions and are followed by cataclasite devel- possess mineralogical similarities to Candelaria (Ryan et
opment after vein formation. The vein, averaging 4 m al., 1995).
wide and extending >300 m vertically, cuts an Early Cre- Most workers accept that the veins, as well as the brec-
taceous volcano-sedimentary sequence only a few tens of cia and replacement deposits, are related temporally to the
metres west of the contact with an equigranular monzodi- Coastal batholith. At Candelaria, radiometric ages and
orite pluton of Early Cretaceous age (Fig. 1). lead-isotopic analyses suggest a genetic relationship
The gold-rich portion of the vein is composed mainly between early batholithic intrusions and mineralization
of quartz, calcite, specular hematite, magnetite, chalcopy- (Marschik et al., 1997), although in most cases the precise
rite and pyrite. Coarse-grained massive calcite is an early phase of the batholith that is related to mineralization
vein filling in places (Ruiz et al., 1965). The magnetite remains to be determined. An alternative model for these
shows textural evidence of having formed by replace- deposits, proposed by Barton and Johnson (1996),
ment of specular hematite. Especially gold-rich vein involves large-scale circulation of connate brines to form
material comprises massive specular hematite with regional sodic-calcic alteration and Fe oxide-Cu-Au min-
chalcopyrite distributed throughout it. The mercury in eralization. While the extent of regional alteration in some
the Azogues sector occurs as schwatzite (mercurian areas is consistent with the Barton and Johnson model, the
tetrahedrite) and cinnabar, which are believed to be par- lead-isotopic data at Candelaria (Marschik et al., 1997)
agenetically late (McAllister et al., 1950; Ruiz et al., and the presence of Fe oxide-Cu veins in some porphyry
1965). Sericitic alteration borders the vein. copper districts (e.g., Copper Mountain, British Columbia;
A reconnaissance fluid-inclusion study of vein quartz Stanley et al., 1995) support a genetic link to magmatism.
and subsidiary calcite revealed homogenization temper-
2.2. Au-Cu-Mo-Zn association: Snip, British Columbia,
atures of 123378C and salinities of 0.244 wt% NaCl
Canada
equivalent, although the saline (polyphase) inclusions
are reportedly scarce (Collao and Ortega, 1998). The The Snip Au-Cu-Mo-Zn vein, in the Stewart-Iskut
fluid cooled northwards from an average of 255C in River area of northwestern British Columbia, lies adja-
the copper-rich Delirio sector to aver-
age 206C in the gold-rich part of the
vein, although corresponding fluid
salinities lack any systematic recorded
change (Collao and Ortega, 1998). Ele-
vated CO2 contents are not reported.
Mantos de Punitaqui is one of the most
gold-rich examples of a group of quartz-
specular hematite-chalcopyritemag-
netite vein deposits controlled by major
faults within and alongside the Coastal
batholith of northern Chile (Ruiz and
Ericksen, 1962; Ruiz et al., 1965). Their
mineralogy and, by inference, conditions
of formation are similar to much larger
breccia-hosted and replacement copper-
gold deposits within and near the Coastal
batholith, such as Punta del Cobre (in the
same district as, and related to, the Can-
delaria copper-gold deposit) and Manto
Verde (Marschik and Fontbot, 1996;
Vila et al., 1996). Like Candelaria, the
Punta del Cobre and Manto Verde
deposits may be assigned to the newly
recognized Fe oxide-Cu-Au category
(Sillitoe, 1992). Indeed, some of the
quartz-specular hematite-chalcopyrite- Fig. 2 Geological map of the Snip gold deposit, British Columbia, Canada,
showing the relationship of proximal gold-copper veins and distal zinc-
gold veins are transitional downwards to
1ead veins to the Red Bluff porphyry (after Rhys, 1995). The broad
quartz-actinolite-magnetite-chalcopyrite-
extent of biotite alteration within and beyond the gold-copper zone sug-
gold veins (Espinosa et al., 1996) that gests existence of a larger intrusion at depth.
240 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :

cent to the Red Bluff porphyry, an Early Jurassic calc-

alkaline, I-type, magnetite-series intrusion of quartz
monzodioritic composition. The porphyry hosts a quartz
-magnetite-hematite stockwork containing a low-grade
gold-copper resource (Rhys, 1995), Similar intrusions
associated with porphyry copper-gold mineralization
occur throughout the region and were emplaced over an
approximately 10 m.y. time period in the Early Jurassic
(Macdonald et al., 1996). The lead-isotopic signatures
of the intrusions, porphyry mineralization and related
veins fall in a tight cluster (Godwin et al., 1991).
The Snip mine exploits the Twin zone shear-vein sys-
tem, which starts approximately 600 m from the Red
Bluff intrusion and extends for >1000 m to the west-
northwest (Fig. 2). The vein, hosted by Triassic sedi-
mentary rocks, averages 2.5 m in width and dips 30-60
to the southwest (Rhys, 1995). The vein is characterized
by internal mineralogical banding, typically parallel lay-
ers of chlorite-biotite, calcite, quartz and pyrrhotite-
pyrite, with wallrock alteration dominated by inner biotite
and outer K-feldspar-calcite-quartz-sericite (Rhys, 1995).
The mining and reserve grades average 2730 g/t Au,
with elevated copper (0.150.5 %), minor molybdenum
(0.010.05 %) and zinc (Zn: Cu<5:1) (Rhys, 1995).
Structural features in the Twin zone indicate oblique-
directed shearing under semi-brittle conditions (Rhys,
1995).
The shear fabrics associated with the gold mineraliza-
tion in the Twin zone are similar to those described from Fig. 3 Geological map of the Parcoy-Pataz vein gold dis-
many orogenic vein gold deposits. The metal association trict, northern Peru, showing relationship of veins to the
in the veins (Au-Cu-Mo-Zn) and the importance of potas- Pataz batholith emplaced along a major reverse fault
sic alteration suggest a magmatic origin for the ore fluid, zone (after Schreiber et al., 1990).
This is supported by the proximity of the Twin zone to
the Red Bluff porphyry as well as the lead-isotopic data matite bodies. The batholith and coeval submarine vol-
(Rhys, 1995). Veins more distal with respect to the Red canic rocks have been interpreted as products of subduc-
Bluff porphyry contain higher zinc, lead and silver con- tion (Vidal et al., 1995), although Schreiber et al. (1990)
tents as expected in a zoned porphyry system (Fig. 2). noted the similarity of the trace-element contents with
The veins in the district can therefore be classified as those typical of post-collisional settings.
porphyry-related, similar to those in many other porphyry 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Pataz batholith yielded ages
copper systems, although the Twin zone is unusual ranging from 321 Ma for a biotite separate to 305 Ma for
because of its economic grades and widths, the metal a hornblende separate (Schreiber et al., 1990). Bearing in
suite and the synchroneity of mineralization and semi- mind a U-Pb zircon age of 3295 Ma (Vidal et al., 1995),
brittle deformation. a Late Carboniferous age for intrusion seems assured.
2.3. Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association: Parcoy-Pataz district, However, coarse muscovite from vein-related alteration
Peru gave an appreciably younger K-Ar age of 286.56.4 Ma
(Vidal et al., 1995).
The 70-km long Parcoy-Pataz belt of gold veins is Numerous quartz-sulphide veins, including ten or so
located in the Eastern Cordillera of northern Peru. The principal deposits, are up to 2 km long and 2 m wide, and
veins are hosted by the elongate, 200-km2 Pataz batho- crop out between elevations of 1700 and 4200 m a. s. l.
lith, which is calc-alkaline, I-type and magnetite-series (Schreiber et al., 1990). The veins are controlled by
(Schreiber et al., 1990), and its immediate Proterozoic west-vergent, east-dipping (av. 45) thrust faults, with
metasedimentary wallrocks (Fig. 3). Most of the north- ore shoots tending to be localized by the shallower parts
west-trending batholith comprises granodiorite and mon- of the structures (Schreiber et al., 1990; Vidal et al.,
zodiorite phases cut by monzogranite, aplite and peg- 1995). The veins reveal the presence of two gold-bear-
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit
ing stages. The first comprises quartz,
coarse muscovite, pyrite, arsenopyrite
and traces of wolframite; the second
pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopy-
rite. Alteration haloes to the veins are
relatively restricted, but attain widths of
several tens of metres in places, and are
characterized by quartz, muscovite and
pyrite (Schreiber et al., 1990; Vidal et al.,
1995). Traces of late calcite and siderite
post-dated both gold stages. Ore shoots
in the veins generally contain 515 g/t
Au, but average values of 50100 g/t Au
occur locally.
Fluid inclusion studies reveal that
mineralization took place at moderate Fig. 4 Geological map of the Shuiquangou syenite-monzonite complex and
temperatures (130320C) from fluid of Shangyi -Chongli-Chicheng deep-seated fault zone, northern China, show-
moderate salinities (425 wt% NaCl ing the relationship with Dongping and other vein gold deposits (after Zhang
equivalent) (Schreiber et al., 1990). and Mao, 1995).
Boiling and appreciable CO2 contents
were not reported. A lead-isotopic study showed that
lead in galena from the veins is similar to that in the
Pataz batholith, but significantly less radiogenic than in
the Proterozoic wallrocks (Vidal et al., 1995).
The close association between the Pataz batholith and
the gold veins. combined with the fluid-inclusion and
lead-isotopic results, led both Schreiber et al. (1990) and
Vidal et al. (1995) to conclude that there is a close genet-
ic relationship between intrusion and gold mineralization.
Vidal et al. (1995) drew attention to the apparent age dif-
ference (3154 m.y.) between the dated intrusion and
vein formation, but proposed the possibility that the ore
fluid was generated by undated end-stage intrusions, pos-
sibly the monzogranite bodies. Alternatively, the younger
alteration age range may reflect a combination of varying
closure temperatures among different minerals, different
dating techniques and differential uplift within the batho-
lith. Although opting for a genetic relationship to intru-
sion, Vidal et al. (1995) also noted the geological simi-
larities between the Parcoy-Pataz veins and orogenic gold
deposits in Precambrian greenstone belts and younger
rocks (e.g., Mother Lode, California).
2.4. Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu association: Dongping, Hebei
province, China
Several important gold-bearing quartz vein deposits, of
which Dongping is the largest, occur in spatial associa-
tion with the late Paleozoic Shuiquangou batholith (Fig.
4), an aegirine- and augite-bearing syenite-monzonite
complex emplaced along a deep-seated fault zone into
amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphic rocks of the
Archean North China craton (Nie and Wu, 1995; Nie,
1997). The Shuiquangou batholith appears to occupy the
cratonic side of the arc and to have been emplaced during
241
basement uplift and extension (Miller et al., 1998).
The Dongping veins cut syenite and alkali feldspar
syenite and fill moderately dipping (3055), north-
northeast-striking faults. They extend along strike for
several kilometres, down dip for 600 m and average 3 m
wide (Zhang and Mao, 1995). The veins are composed
of quartzK-feldspar, and are associated with broad K-
feldspar haloes as much as >10 m wide (Zhang and Mao,
1995). The multi-stage vein fillings comprise <5 volume
% opaque minerals, mainly pyrite, specular hematite,
calaverite and other tellurides, galena, sphalerite and
chalcopyrite (Zhang and Mao, 1995). Gold contents
average about 6 g/t. The telluride contents of the veins
increase at shallower levels. Lead, zinc and copper val-
ues are each <500 ppm (Miller et al., 1998). Late car-
bonates and barite complete the vein paragenesis.
Inclusions in vein quartz are characterized by low-
salinity (1.510, av. 5.3 wt% NaCl equivalent), CO2-
rich fluid and yield temperatures of 240350C and
even 1ower (120185C) for the post-gold carbonate-
barite vein stage (Zhang and Mao, 1995). Using the
CO2 concentrations, mineralization is estimated to have
taken place at 500690 bars. The lead-isotopic composi-
tions of vein galena and the Shuiquangou intrusive rocks
overlap each other, but differ from those of the Archean
wallrocks (Zhang and Mao, 1995).
Miller et al. (1998) concluded that Dongping and all
other Paleozoic gold veins within or near alkaline intru-
sions in the North China craton are unusual examples of
orogenic gold deposits rather than possessing an intrusion
-related origin. In contrast, Nie and Wu (1995), Nie
(1997) and Zhang and Mao (1995) favoured the Shui-
quangou batholith as a direct source of the ore-forming
fluid, although the last authors proposed leaching of the
242 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :

gold and tellurium from the intrusions rather than con-

tributing them directly in magmatic fluid. Bearing in
mind the close genetic connection between telluride-rich
gold deposits and alkaline rocks elsewhere in the world
(Bonham, 1988; Richards, 1995), in both epithermal and
plutonic settings, the same genetic affiliation may rea-
sonably be proposed in the North China craton.
2.5. Au-As-Bi-Sb association: Ryan Lode, Alaska, U.S.A.
The Fairbanks district, central Alaska, has a long his-
tory of gold production from placers and small schist-
hosted quartz veins and shears. In the last 10 years, how-
ever, the district and adjoining areas have become a
major focus for gold exploration following the discovery
and development of the bulk-mineable Fort Knox deposit
(Bakke, 1995) and the more recent discovery of True
North (Harris and Gorton, 1998) and Pogo (Smith, 1998).
Ryan Lode, discovered in the heart of the district during
this period, consists of major shear-hosted veins (Table 1)
and subeconomic, porphyry-hosted stockwork veins
(Newberry et al., 1995). The majority of the mineraliza-
tion at Ryan Lode occurs in north-northeast- and north-
northwest-trending shear veins (Fig. 5), consisting of
granulated quartz, quartz flooding, sericite, fault gouge
and breccia (Newberry et al., 1995). The shear system is
hosted by a Cretaceous granodiorite to granite porphyry
intrusion and the adjacent schists (Fig. 5). Hornblende
and biotite from the intrusion returned 40Ar/39Ar ages of
90.10.3 and 89.20.3 Ma, respectively (McCoy et al.,
1997). Alteration white mica produced 40Ar/39Ar ages of
89.70.3 and 89.80.4 Ma from intrusive rock and schist,
respectively, thereby documenting an intimate temporal
relationship between the intrusion and mineralization.
In addition to shear zone-hosted mineralization, sube-
conomic stockwork veins occur in the intrusion. Stock-
work veins are divided into quartz-albite veins with
albitic alteration and quartz-calcite veins with sericitic
alteration (Newberry et al., 1995). Both the shear veins
and stockwork veins contain >1 volume % sulphides,
Fig. 5 Geological map of the Ryan Lode gold deposit,
including arsenopyrite, stibnite, sphalerite, scheelite, Alaska, showing spatial relationship of the shear veins
chalcopyrite, molybdenite, boulangerite and lead-bismuth to small granitic intrusion (after Newberry et al., 1995).
sulphosalts (Walsh and Rao, 1991). Up to 10 volume %
arsenopyrite occurs in shear veins and the quartz-calcite
stockwork veins, but is less abundant in the quartz- albite These inclusions homogenize at 280350C and have
stockwork veins. Gold mineralization contains high bis- salinities of 08 wt% NaCl equivalent; the upper part of
muth (20620 ppm), arsenic (>7000 ppm), antimony this range occurs predominantly in the intrusion-hosted
(170>2000 ppm) and tellurium (18 ppm), with a strong veins (McCoy et al., 1997). Fluid inclusions from a cal-
gold-bismuth correlation (Newberry et al., 1995). Molyb- cite-stibnite-rich vein indicate lower temperatures (Th:
denum and tungsten, as molybdenite and scheelite, are 206277C) and the presence of 310 mole% CH 4
present locally, particularly in the intrusion-hosted stock- (McCoy et al., 1997). Although the data are limited,
work veins. temperature, salinity and gas compositional differences
Fluid inclusions from gold-bearing shear and stock- between the vein types suggest the existence of two flu-
work veins at Ryan Lode are CO2-bearing (12 mole%) ids, a CO2-rich magmatic one in the intrusion and main
and indicate formation at <1 kbar (McCoy et al., 1997). shear veins mixed with a more dilute CH4-bearing one
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit 243

in the quartz-stibnite veins.

Stockwork vein mineralization at Ryan
Lode shows mineralogical and geochemical
similarities to mineralization at Fort Knox
(Bakke, 1995) and other intrusion-hosted
stockwork and sheeted vein occurrences in
central Alaska and Yukon (McCoy et al.,
1997; Baker et al., in review). Thompson et
al. (1999) define a distinctive class of intru-
sion-related gold mineralization that
includes the examples in Alaska-Yukon and
several other areas of the world. Mineraliza-
tion of this type occurs in continental arc
magmatic provinces characterized by
reduced I-type intrusions hosting variable
amounts of tungsten and/or tin mineraliza-
tion. Detailed work in the Fairbanks district
(McCoy et al., 1997) and the Tombstone
plutonic suite of contiguous central Yukon
(Baker et al., in review), along with general
comparisons to other areas (Thompson et al., Fig. 6 Schematic plot of degree of fractionation, shown by Fe content of
1999), provides compelling evidence for the magmas, versus oxidation state (fO2) for calc-alkaline to alkaline
magmatic-hydrothermal origin of this style magmas associated with magmatic-hydrothermal copper, copper-
of gold mineralization. Although the bulk of molybdenum, molybdenum, tungsten and tin mineralization (after
Thompson et al., 1999). Generalized positions of vein gold deposits
the potentially economic mineralization at
described in this paper are shown along with approximate boundary
Ryan Lode occurs in shear zones, the tempo- between Ishiharas (1977) magnetite- and ilmenite-series magmas.
ral and geochemical relationship to the intru-
sion supports a genetic connection. Ryan
Lode is, therefore, an example of magmatic fluid being of alkaline type. While relatively minor amounts of tel-
focused from an intrusion into discrete proximal struc- lurium are reported from some of the Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu
tures, perhaps in a similar manner to the Au-Cu-Mo-Zn and Au-As-Bi-Sb veins, it appears to be abundant only
shear-vein mineralization at Snip. It is interesting to note where the veins accompany alkaline intrusions. In
that some of the more recent discoveries in central Alas- marked contrast, the Au-As-Bi-Sb association is hosted
ka (True North and Pogo) are also structurally confined by calc-alkaline intrusions, ranging from granodiorite to
and higher in grade than the Fort Knox-type gold miner- granite, that appear to be distinctly more reduced,
alization. roughly spanning the boundary between Ishiharas mag-
netite- and ilmenite-series (Thompson et al., 1999; Fig.
3. Magmatic and Tectonic Settings 6). It is this association that gives rise to the claim that
gold deposits are favoured by reduced rather than oxi-
All five vein-type gold associations are related to I- dized intrusions (e.g., Leveille et al., 1988; Newberry et
type intrusions (Chappell and White, 1974). No major al., IP95). Baker et al. (in review) describe the presence
gold-bearing vein deposits seem to be related to S- of either ilmenite or magnetite in individual intrusions
types. The specular hematite-bearing Au-Fe oxide-Cu of the Tombstone plutonic suite in the Yukon, and there-
and Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu vein types are the best examples fore suggest intermediate oxidation states designated
of the oft-cited link between oxidized intrusions and reduced I-types.
gold-copper deposits (e.g., Blevin and Chappell, 1992). The Au-Fe oxide-Cu and Au-Cu-Mo-Zn veins and
Nevertheless, the Au-Cu-Mo-Zn and Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu probably most of the Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu veins were gener-
associations are also related to intrusions assignable to ated in association with intrusions emplaced at Cordiller-
Ishiharas (1977) magnetite series, albeit probably with an margins above active subduction zones (Fig. 7A), the
somewhat lower redox states (Fig. 6). The Au-Fe oxide- least equivocal examples being those in northern Chile,
Cu, Au-Cu-Mo-Zn and Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu associations Peru and British Columbia (Table 1). The Au-Te-Pb-
are hosted by calc-alkaline intrusions, dominantly mon- Zn-Cu veins of alkaline affiliation occupy back-arc set-
zodioritic to granodioritic in composition, whereas the tings (Fig. 7A), a position commonplace for their
Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu association is restricted to intrusions epithermal counterparts (Richards, 1995). Again in
244 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON RESOURCE GEOLOGY :

Fig. 7 Schematic tectonic settings of intrusion-related and orogenic vein gold deposits: A. deposits described herein from arc
and back-arc terranes, with position of orogenic gold deposits shown for comparison; B. reduced I-type plutons and related
vein gold deposits in continental collision setting, with position of orogenic gold deposits shown for comparison.

strong contrast to the rest, the Au-As-Bi-Sb association
lacks a well-defined tectonic niche. Thompson et al.
(1999) conclude that these deposits are generated on the
inner cratonic sides of Cordilleran arcs, only locally
with concrete evidence for contemporaneous subduction
and arc construction along their trenchward sides, as
well as in collisional settings (Fig. 7A and B).
A unifying tectonic theme for orogenic gold deposits
has evolved in which these deposits are generated as a
result of major accretionary tectonic events, involving
either exotic terranes at convergent margins or a pair of
continental plates (e.g., Groves et al., 1998; Fig. 7A and
B). This tectonic scenario is best documented for
younger deposits (e.g., Goldfarb et al., 1997), but has
also been invoked for Archean examples (e.g., Kerrich
and Wyman, 1990). The mineralized reverse faults in
the Parcoy-Pataz belt, the major arc-parallel fault zone
hosting Mantos de Punitaqui and the semi-brittle condi-
tions at Snip could all be used to suggest an orogenic
gold environment. Similarly, the collisional setting of
some Au-As-Bi-Sb veins (Fig. 7B) is regarded as an
environment typical of the orogenic gold environment.
However, in the accretionary model for orogenic gold,
there is no specific importance attached to the composi-
tion of any intrusions associated with mineralization or,
for that matter, even to the presence of intrusions, where-
as the Au-As-Bi-Sb vein association, for example, occurs
in or close to a specific type of intrusion.
4. Discussion
Four principal criteria have been invoked widely over
the last 10 years or so as a basis for assigning vein gold
deposits in plutonic terranes to the orogenic rather than the
intrusion-related category: (1) compositionally similar
veins are hosted by several different intrusions within a
single batholith or plutonic belt; (2) mineral and metal
zoning is poorly developed or absent over appreciable ver-
tical and horizontal distances; (3) available radiometric
age determinations suggest time gaps between intrusion
and vein formation; and (4) fluid inclusions possess low
salinities and are rich in CO2 rather than being saline and
CO2-poor. Current evidence, however, suggests that all
four parameters are ambiguous and potentially applicable
equally to both orogenic and intrusion-related gold
deposits, as discussed below.
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit 245

4.1. Vein/intrusion relations 1995), and other veins in the same district exhibit changes
in metal composition with stratigraphic level and distance
In the case of some of the gold vein deposits listed in
from the Red Bluff porphyry as expected around a por-
Table 1, there is a clear spatial, temporal and geochemi-
phyry copper system. Similarly, but over a much greater
cal connection to single intrusions. In the best examples,
interval (2.5 km), there are some indications of higher
Snip and Ryan Lode, the adjacent intrusions host stock-
base-metal contents at deeper levels in the Parcoy-Pataz
work mineralization that is similar mineralogically to
vein system (Schreiber et al., 1990). However, mineralogi-
the veins themselves. These relationships strongly sup-
cally similar veins in the Charters Towers district (Table
port a genetic connection, with magmatic-dominated
1) have metal contents that remain unchanged over at
fluids focused along structures. The structural controls
least 600 vertical metres (Peters and Golding, 1989).
and resultant fabrics, however, show superficial similar-
At Dongping, China, tellurium contents and tellurium/
ities to those documented in orogenic gold systems.
precious-metal ratios increase upwards (Zhang and Mao,
In other cases, the relationship to a single intrusion or
1995). However, this weak zoning is not observed in
intrusive phase is not clear-cut. A particularly good
other systems with this metal signature, even in high-
example is provided by the 70 or so gold-bearing quartz
1evel systems of epithermal character. For example, at
veins in the Palpa-Ocoa belt of southern Peru, which
Cripple Creek, Colorado, mineral and metal zoning are
occur in several different felsic intrusions (Table 1).
subtle throughout this major district over a vertical inter-
Veins in the northern part of the belt occur within the
val of >1000 m (Lindgren and Ransome, 1906; Thomp-
Tiabaya superunit, comprising a sequence of tonalite,
son, 1998).
granodiorite and monzogranite, whereas farther south
At Ryan Lode, the shear veins are not zoned, but
they are hosted by the cross-cutting Incahuasi superunit,
there are differences in the abundance of minerals
made up of quartz diorite, quartz monzodiorite, granodior-
between early stockwork veins in the intrusion and later
ite, monzonite and monzogranite units (Vidal, 1985).
stockwork and shear veins. In the same area, the Fort
The age difference between the two superunits, based
Knox sheeted-vein deposit displays a downward
on K-Ar isochrons, is 23 m.y. (Moore and Agar, 1985).
increase of tungsten at the expense of gold over an inter-
Nevertheless, the fact that the Palpa-Ocoa veins are con-
val of several hundred metres (Bakke, 1995).
fined to a restricted segment of the Mesozoic Coastal
The limited zoning exibited by these intrusion-related
batholith along with their overall geological characteris-
vein deposits provides little direct evidence bearing on
tics suggests that the gold mineralization is intrusion-
the origin of the mineralization. The minor zoning that
related, although the precise intrusion(s) responsible
does occur varies between the vein associations and, in
remain elusive.
some cases, may reflect proximity to magmatic sources.
Trumbull et al. (1992) made the same type of observa-
tions for parts of the North China craton, where miner- 4.3. Age differences
alogically and structurally similar vein gold deposits of
Most of the vein gold deposits and their host intru-
the Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association occur with calc-alka-
sions listed in Table 1 have been the subjects of very
line intrusions of various compositions and, therefore,
limited radiometric dating. The ages for several of the
according to these workers, are unlikely to have been
districts were obtained using more than one dating
generated from magmatic fluid. Nevertheless, other
method and some of the results are likely to be of low
observers drew a contrary conclusion (Poulsen et al.,
reliability, especially when the complex thermal events in
1990; Poulsen and Mortensen, 1993). In both the
the areas of some of the deposits and relatively old ages
Jiaodong Peninsula district, including Linglong (Table
are considered.
1), and elsewhere in the North China craton and the
In the case of the best example with detailed
Palpa-Ocoa belt of Peru, more work is needed to 40Ar/39Ar data for both the intrusion and the vein-relat-
examine the relationship of veins to specific intrusive
ed alteration, Ryan Lode, the ages of intrusion and min-
phases. The same conclusion also applies to the Au-Fe
eralization are within error. However, at other deposits,
oxide-Cu deposit at Mantos de Punitaqui and to Fe oxide-
the existing data suggest an apparent age gap between
Cu-Au deposits in general which, as remarked earlier,
the dated intrusion(s) and the vein-related alteration. In
commonly possess ill-defined intrusive progenitors.
the Parcoy-Pataz belt, the gap could be as great as 54 m.
4.2. Lack of zoning y. but, as emphasized by Vidal et al. (1995), the youngest
intrusions in the batholith that are the best candidates as
Zoning in the deposits listed in Table 1 is limited or
progenitors for the gold mineralization remain undated,
non-existent, except for the copper-gold-mercury
and the reported alteration age may be suspect. A similar
sequence developed over a lateral distance of 4 km in the
situation is revealed in the Charters Towers district,
Mantos de Punitaqui vein. Minor changes in mineralogi-
where a 40Ar/39Ar total fusion age of ca. 417 Ma for
cal abundance occur in the Snip vein deposit (Rhys,
246 R. H. SILLITOE and J. F. H. THOMPSON
alteration sericite is some 8 m.y. younger than a Rb-Sr
age for the host Millchester Creek tonalite (Perkins and
Kennedy, 1998). Some, possibly all, of the vein gold
mineralization, including Linglong, in the Jiaodong
peninsula took place between 126 Ma, the youngest U-
Pb zircon age for the Guojialing granitoid suite, and 120
Ma, the best U-Pb zircon age for post-vein dykes (Wang
et al., 1998). Wang et al. (1998) interpreted these data to
signify a time gap between intrusion and gold mineral-
ization, although none is required, and to support classi-
fication of the veins as orogenic in type.
4.4. Fluid compositions
Fluid compositions and conditions are poorly con-
strained in the examples discussed in this paper, as they
are for many vein gold deposits worldwide. The avail-
able data summarized above for Parcoy-Pataz, Dong-
ping and Ryan Lode, as well as those for veins at Char-
ters Towers (Peters and Golding, 1989) and Jiaodong
peninsula and elsewhere in the North China craton (Qiu,
1989; Poulsen and Mortensen, 1993; Trumbull et al.,
1992), are fairly similar, with low to moderate homoge-
nization temperatures (130350C) and salinities (025
wt% NaCl equivalent). The higher-salinity inclusions in
the Parcoy-Pataz veins differ significantly from the typi-
cal fluid in orogenic vein gold deposits, as do the even
higher salinities reported for a few inclusions in quartz
from the Mantos de Punitaqui vein.
Elevated CO2 contents are reported at Dongping and
Ryan Lode which, in both cases, allow pressure esti-
mates to be made with similar results: 500690 bars at
Dongping and <1 kbar at Ryan Lode. The Charters Tow-
ers and Jiaodong peninsula (including Linglong) veins
also possess high CO2 contents. Elevated CO2 contents
are ubiquitous in undisputed orogenic vein gold systems
of Phanerozoic and Precambrian age (e.g., Phillips and
Powell, 1993). As a result, the presence of CO2 is often
taken as evidence for classifying a vein deposit as oro-
genic, with the common assumption that fluid was of
metamorphic or deep-crustal/mantle origin. However, it
is clearly possible to generate magmatic fluid with vari-
able and, in some cases, appreciable CO2 contents. High
CO2 contents are common in fluid associated with some
vein and fluorine-deficient porphyry molybdenum and
tungsten deposits (Roedder, 1984). Furthermore, the
intrusion-hosted gold deposits of Alaska, such as Fort
Knox, and similar occurrences in the Yukon (McCoy et
al., 1997; Baker et al., in review) contain CO2-rich fluid
inclusions, which these authors concluded to be magmatic
in origin. Ryan Lode is a more structurally restricted style
of the same type of system and, therefore, the CO2-rich
fluid is also likely to be magmatic. Clearly, elevated
CO2 contents alone are not diagnostic of the type of
gold system. The convergence in terms of fluid type was
RESOURCE GEOLOGY :
illustrated nicely by Burrows and Spooner (1987) who
noted the existence of similar fluids in an Archean intru-
sion-hosted molybdenum occurrence, presumably of
magmatic-hydrothermal origin, and Archean vein gold
deposits, the type examples of the orogenic class.
The limited fluid-inclusion data summarized herein are
insufficient to define the fluid type or, by inference, the
deposit type. However, there is more variation, especially
in terms of salinity, in several of our examples than is
found in most orogenic gold deposits. Furthermore, the
available data, including elevated CO2 contents, are not
inconsistent with magmatic-dominant fluid.
In some of the vein deposits discussed herein, the vari-
ation in fluid-inclusion compositions may suggest the
existence of more than one fluid (e.g., Mantos de Puni-
taqui, Parcoy-Pataz, Ryan Lode). If the initial fluid is
magmatic, it is likely that non-magmatic fluid will enter
an extensive vein system, particularly if the vein extends
several kilometres away from the intrusive source. These
secondary fluids, whether derived from the immediate
wallrocks or from circulating meteoric or connate
sources, may play a role in mineral deposition or, if the
composition is appropriate, transport metals away from
the intrusive source. A fluid-mixing model involving
magmatic and reduced wallrock fluids has been pro-
posed for the Proterozoic Cosmopolitan Howley gold
deposit in the Northern Territory, Australia, a deposit
that shows structural and vein features characteristic of
many orogenic gold deposits (Matthi et al., 1995).
In addition to fluid mixing, reactions with wallrocks
may be a significant process in the deposition of gold
and other metals in vein systems of magmatic origin, as
it is in orogenic gold deposits. In the case of vein deposits
of magmatic origin, the intensity of wallrock reactions
is likely to increase with distance from the magmatic
source and decreasing fluid temperature, although pre-
cipitation on vein walls may ultimately armour the vein
channel and decrease fluid-wallrock interaction. The
lack of zoning observed in some veins suggests that
fluid conditions and wallrock reactions were relatively
constant over appreciable distances.
5. Concluding Remarks
The balance of evidence is believed to indicate that
the vein gold deposits listed in Table 1 are related genet-
ically to their host or nearby intrusions. If this conclu-
sion is accepted, it is apparent that a spectrum of intru-
sion compositions displaying a range of redox condi-
tions is capable of generating vein-type and, by analogy,
other styles of gold deposits. In particular, vein gold
deposits are related to highly oxidized calc-alkaline and
alkaline intrusions as well as to relatively reduced calc-
alkaline intrusions, all of I-type.
vol. 48, no. 4, 1998 Intrusion-Related Vein Gold Deposit
In the case of the gold veins, and potentially other
mineralization styles, there is a convergence of geologi-
cal characteristics with deposits generally assigned a
non-igneous, commonly metamorphic or deep-crustal/
mantle origin. The criteria used for these assignations
are commonly several or all of those discussed in the
previous section. The current state of confusion is high-
lighted by consideration of just three major vein gold
deposits that are traditionally regarded to be of orogenic
type: Grass Valley, California, Kirkland Lake, Ontario,
Canada and Omai, Guyana. The granodiorite-hosted
Grass Valley veins (Johnston. 1940), at the northern end
of the Mother Lode belt, are closely comparable to
members of the Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association, especial-
ly Charters Towers (Morrison, 1988). The Kirkland
Lake veins in the Archean Abitibi greenstone belt cut a
fault-localized syenitic intrusion (Thomson et al., 1950)
and possess obvious similarities to the Au-Te-Pb-Zn-Cu
association of alkaline-rock affiliation. Indeed, syenite
intrusions of similar age in the Abitibi belt apparently
generated disseminated-gold mineralization (Robert,
1997). The Omai veins cut a relatively reduced quartz
syenite and monzonite intrusion in an early Proterozoic
greenstone belt (Crpeau et al., 1996) and are reminiscent
of the Au-As-Bi-Sb association.
Clearly, we have a major problem on our hands, with
current distinctions between intrusion-related and oro-
genic deposits being impossible to apply meaningfully,
even in Phanerozoic provinces. We concur with investi-
gators, like Goncharov (1983) and Newberry et al.
(1995), in distinguishing both intrusion-related and oro-
genic vein gold deposits, although their distinction cri-
teria appear to be too parochial for worldwide applica-
tion. The currently popular assignment of most vein
gold deposits throughout broad regions to the orogenic
category, as promoted by Phillips and Powell (1993),
Goldfarb et al. (1997, 1998), Groves et al. (1998) and
Miller et al. (1998), is an oversimplification that needs
to be re-examined. An intrusion-related model will not
be appropriate in many cases, and may even be proven
incorrect in some of the examples that we use herein, but
it requires more serious consideration and evaluation.
6. Exploration Implications
This paper highlights a spectrum of intrusion-related
vein gold deposits, including examples related to highly
and moderately oxidized, calc-alkaline intrusions in mag-
matic arcs, highly oxidized alkaline intrusions in back-
arc settings and moderately reduced calc-alkaline intru-
sions, spanning the boundary between Ishiharas (1977)
magnetite- and ilmenite-series, on the landward sides of
convergent plate boundaries as well as in continental col-
lision belts. This variety of veins and, by extrapolation,
247
other deposit styles expands the geological environment
that is usually considered to be prospective for intru-
sion-related gold.
Intrusion-related gold deposits in arc and back-arc
positions are widely known to be important economical-
ly, but it is also recognized that moderately reduced
intrusions beyond these traditional tectonic settings can
give rise to major, multi-million ounce deposits, as
exemplified by Fort Knox in Alaska, Mokrsko in the
Czech Republic and elsewhere (Thompson et al., 1999).
Many of these chalcophile metal-deficient gold deposits
occur in provinces better known for their tungsten and
tin potential. There is an increasing tendency for explo-
ration to target veins rather than bulk-tonnage mineral-
ization because of the greater possibility of encounter-
ing high gold grades, as exemplified by recent activity
in the Alaska-Yukon region following the discovery of
the Pogo vein deposit (Smith, 1998). Veins, whether
intrusion-hosted or developed alongside genetically
related intrusions, may be extensive although not neces-
sarily well-mineralized throughout their strike and
down-dip extents.
Research directed at distinguishing better between
closely similar intrusion-related and orogenic vein gold
deposits is considered a priority if gold exploration pro-
grams are to be conducted in a proper fashion. The dis-
tinction between igneous and non-igneous gold deposits
is of crucial importance at the area selection stage as
well as during detailed exploration, because neither
activity can be optimized if the fundamental mineraliza-
tion controls intrusive suite of specific composition,
major arc-parallel fault zone or both are poorly defined.
Acknowledgements: RHS thanks both the organizers of
the Society of Resource Geology/Society of Economic
Geologists Joint Symposium on Granitoid Types and
Mineralization for the invitation to participate and the
President of the Metal Mining Agency of Japan for
defraying the costs involved in travelling to Tokyo. Con-
stantino Mpodozis and Ricardo Muhr kindly provided
copies of the Gana (1991) and Collao and Ortega (1998)
reports, respectively, and gave permission to cite them.
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