Mineralium Deposita (1998) 33: 539546 Springer-Verlag 1998

ARTICLE

R. H. Sillitoe G. B. Steele J. F. H. Thompson

J. R. Lang

Advanced argillic lithocaps in the Bolivian tin-silver belt

Received: 13 February 1998 / Accepted: 11 March 1998

Abstract Zones of advanced argillic alteration consti-

tuting lithocaps are commonplace in the shallow parts of
Introduction
porphyry copper systems. Similar lithocaps are also
Lithocaps
recognized in the shallowly eroded southern part of the
Bolivian tin-silver belt, where mineralization typically is
Lithocaps are large, topographically prominent masses
centred on felsic volcanic domes. A well-preserved lit-
of advanced argillic and argillic alteration that are lo-
hocap at Potos is dominated by vuggy residual quartz
cated between the subvolcanic intrusive environment
and contained the world's largest silver resource,
and the palaeo-surface, where they commonly constitute
whereas the basal remnant of a lithocap at Pulacayo is
the upper parts of porphyry copper systems (Sillitoe
composed of barren quartz-alunite. Minor gold occurs
1995). Lithocaps comprise large volumes of altered rock
in the structurally controlled roots of a lithocap at
and, prior to erosional degradation, commonly occupy
Tasna. The mineralization in these lithocaps is of high-
several tens of km2 and attain thicknesses of >1 km.
sulphidation type and was generated in the epithermal
Lithocaps may host high-sulphidation (acid-sulphate)
environment. In contrast, the tin- and base metal-bear-
epithermal precious-metal mineralization of a variety of
ing massive sulphide veins and associated sericitic and
styles.
quartz-tourmaline alteration that underlie the Bolivian
Lithocaps are also recognized in the shallow parts of
lithocaps are typied by sulphides of low sulphidation
some lithophile element-enriched deposits, most notably
state, but are dominantly mesothermal rather than epi-
in the Bolivian tin-silver belt (Sillitoe 1995; Fig. 1). This
thermal in character. Magma chemistry is believed to
report briey characterizes these Bolivian lithocaps in
account for the characterization of Bolivian lithocaps by
the context of a generalized model for alteration and
silver-tin-antimony and porphyry copper lithocaps by
mineralization in Bolivian tin-silver systems. The char-
gold-copper-arsenic. Low-grade, bulk-tonnage silver
acterization is based on three contrasting examples of
mineralization within Bolivian lithocaps and high-grade
advanced argillic alteration, at Potos (Sillitoe 1988;
tin-bearing veins concealed beneath them both consti-
Steele 1996), Pulacayo (Sillitoe 1988) and Tasna
tute attractive exploration objectives.
(Thompson et al. 1996). The lithocap that forms the
upper parts of Cerro Rico at Potos was described
Editorial handling: DR originally by Turneaure (1960) as a zone of silicication,
which Sillitoe et al. (1975) compared to the silicication
R.H. Sillitoe (&)
27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, accompanying argillic/advanced argillic alteration in the
London N6 6ND, England shallow parts of porphyry copper systems.
G.B. Steele
Rio Tinto Mining and Exploration Limited, Casilla 440,
Liparita 251, Barrio Industrial, Antofagasta, Chile
Bolivian tin-silver deposits
J.F.H. Thompson1 J.R. Lang
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, The Bolivian tin belt occupies the back-arc portion of
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences,
University of British Columbia, 339 Stores Road, the central Andes. The youngest (2312 Ma; Grant et al.
Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada 1979) and least eroded deposits in the belt are in its
Present address: southern part. There, the shallower erosion levels result
1
Teck Exploration Ltd., Suite 600, 200 Burrard Street, in partial preservation of the upper, silver-rich parts of
Vancouver, B.C. V6C 3L9, Canada deposits (Turneaure 1971) and a number of lithocaps
540
(Fig. 1). The Bolivian tin-silver deposits are associated
typically with felsic volcanic domes (Cunningham et al.
1991) of broadly rhyodacitic composition. These frac-
tionated igneous rocks are relatively reduced and as-
signable to the ilmenite series (Sugaki et al. 1988;
Lehmann et al. 1990). Their reduced character probably
reects the elevated organic carbon content of the thick
underlying prism of early Palaeozoic meta-sedimentary
rocks (Lehmann 1994), which underwent thick-skinned
compressive tectonism at the time of magma generation
(Lamb et al. 1997).
The tin-silver deposits are characteristically of vein
type, with the ore comprising polymetallic massive sul-
phides accompanied by only relatively minor amounts of
gangue (Turneaure 1960; Ludington et al. 1992). How-
ever, mineralized veinlet stockworks and hydrothermal
breccias are also commonplace. Widespread sericitic
alteration and tourmalinization accompany the miner-
alization. Well-developed metal zoning typies many of
Fig. 1 Location of the Potos , Pulacayo, Tasna and other lithocaps in
the tin-silver belt of the Eastern Cordillera, southwestern Bolivia (see
inset)
the vein systems, with base metals and silver tending to
increase both upwards and outwards at the expense of
tin, bismuth and tungsten (Turneaure 1960).
Lithocap characteristics
Potos
The lithocap at Cerro Rico crops out over 1 km2 and
exceeds 400 m in thickness (Fig. 2), much of it hosted by
rhyodacite porphyry (Fig. 3a). The upper 250 m consist
of cryptocrystalline quartz, which is largely vuggy
(Turneaure 1960; Sillitoe et al. 1975) and residual in
origin (Fig. 3a; Sillitoe 1988). Zones of massive silici-
cation are the product of local quartz introduction. The
underlying 150 m consist of quartz-dickite alteration
(Sillitoe 1988; Steele 1996). Traces of pyrophyllite are
present with this assemblage near the base of the litho-
cap (Steele 1996). The quartz-dickite alteration shows a
gradational contact with the underlying sericitic altera-
tion which, in turn, grades into quartz-tourmaline al-
teration in the deepest parts of the deposit (Fig. 3a;
Sillitoe 1988; Steele 1996). Hypogene aluminium phos-
phate-sulphate (APS) minerals (Storegen and Alpers
1987), most notably svanbergite, are abundant within
the quartz-dickite zone and common within the lower
portions of the vuggy quartz zone (Steele 1996).
The lithocap is host to disseminated silver mineral-
ization of both hypogene and supergene origin. Ar-
gentite, the principal hypogene silver mineral, inverted
to acanthite and is associated spatially with disseminated
barite (Steele 1996). A sheeted zone of polymetallic veins
cuts the lithocap (Turneaure 1960), with the upper parts
of the veins containing chalcedonic quartz and barite.
Both the veins and the disseminated hypogene mineral-
ization throughout the lithocap underwent pervasive
supergene oxidation in the weathering environment.
Pockets of pyritic hypogene mineralization that escaped
the oxidation demonstrate that the lithocap originally
contained 510 vol % of disseminated sulphides. Veins
of porcellanous supergene alunite were generated im-
mediately beneath the lithocap during the sulphide oxi-
dation. The lithocap at Cerro Rico hosts the world's
largest silver resource, amounting to at least 86 000 to-
nnes (2800 million oz) of silver metal prior to colonial
exploitation.
Pulacayo
The lithocap remnant at Pulacayo is conned entirely to
the dome. It is approximately 40 m thick and occupies
the highest parts of the district, although hypogene ad-
vanced argillic alteration extends at least 300 m deeper
along faults (Fig. 3b; Sillitoe 1988). The lithocap is
composed of pervasive quartz-alunite alteration, which
contained about 10 vol % pyrite before supergene oxi-
dation. Minor pyrophyllite is present at the base of the

lithocap. However, much of the underlying host dome
underwent alteration to chlorite and, locally, sericite.
Appreciable silver values are absent from the lithocap,
although remnants of galena and stibnite are noted in
minor chalcedonic veins and breccias. The main silver
concentration at Pulacayo, Bolivia's second largest his-
torical silver producer with a total of 5000 tonnes
(160 million oz) of silver metal, was the Tajo massive
sulphide vein beneath the dome (Fig. 3b; Ahlfeld and
Schneider-Scherbina 1964).
Tasna
The Tasna deposit is believed to be more deeply eroded
than either Potos or Pulacayo because porphyritic in-
trusions, as small bodies and dykes, are more volumi-
nous at the upper elevations (Fig. 3c). The intrusions are
interpreted as the root zone of an eroded dome complex.
At depths >200 m beneath the summit of Cerro Tasna,
the deposit contains a horizontal layer of pervasive
quartz-tourmaline alteration, hosted by folded siltstone
and shale, which passes up into fracture- and lithologi-
cally controlled advanced argillic alteration dened by
dumortierite, pyrophyllite, diaspore, zunyite, topaz,
rubellite (iron- and magnesium-free variety of tourma-
line), APS minerals and minor alunite (Fig. 3c;
Thompson et al. 1996). The advanced argillic alteration
541
Fig. 2 The Cerro Rico lithocap at Potos , Bolivia, viewed from the
northeast. The vuggy residual quartz zone occupying the upper half of
Cerro Rico has a darker-brown colour than the underlying alteration.
The base of the vuggy quartz zone coincides roughly with the change
from grey sulphidic to brown oxidized material on the numerous mine
dumps. Photograph: G.B. Steele
is most intense along the brecciated margins of the
porphyry bodies, and also occurs in association with
open fractures lined by coarse-grained quartz plus hy-
pogene tungsten and bismuth minerals with minor na-
tive gold. Tasna was exploited previously for bismuth,
tungsten and tin, and is considered the world's largest
known deposit of bismuth (Ahlfeld and Schneider-
Scherbina 1964). It was explored recently for gold.
Genetic model
A generalized alteration-mineralization model for vol-
canic dome-hosted tin-silver deposits in the southern
part of the Bolivian tin belt may be constructed from the
alteration and mineralization patterns observed at Pot-
os , Pulacayo, Tasna and elsewhere (Fig. 4). Alteration
typically changes downwards from advanced argillic to
sericitic and/or quartz-tourmaline, which is paralleled
ideally by a change in mineralization from silver, anti-
mony and lesser tin, through tin and base metals to
tungsten, bismuth and lesser tin. However, the lithophile
542
Fig. 3ac Typical cross sections through a Potos (Sillitoe 1988; Steele
1996), b Pulacayo (Sillitoe 1988) and c Tasna (Thompson et al. 1996)
deposits, Bolivia, to show extent of advanced argillic lithocaps and
other alteration and mineralization features. Horizontal and vertical
scales are the same for a, b and c
metals are poorly represented to at least a depth of
1000 m at Pulacayo (Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina
1964) and the tin-base metal zone is preserved only in
the marginal parts of the Tasna district. The advanced
argillic alteration locally overprints the underlying al-
teration types, a relationship that is most obvious where
it is structurally controlled within, and even beneath, the
domes (Fig. 4). The shallow, advanced argillic-altered
parts of systems are cut locally by chalcedony and barite
veins.
The origin of these tin-silver systems may be attrib-
uted to magmatic uid channelled upwards into the
domes along their dyke feeders and controlling fault
systems from parent magma chambers at depth (Fig. 4).
The polymetallic massive sulphide veins are the products
of metalliferous brine which became progressively less
saline upwards, as well as at any one point over time, as
a result of dilution by meteoric water (Grant et al. 1980).
Separation of brine from vapour containing acidic
volatiles took place as a result of depressurization during
ascent (Henley and McNabb 1978), a process that may
have caused concentration of relatively non-volatile
boric acid in the brine and resultant tourmalinization
(Lynch and Ortega 1997) of meta-sedimentary wallrocks
at depth beneath the domes (Fig. 4). Indeed, uid-
inclusion studies at Potos (Steele, 1996) and Tasna
(J.R. Lang and J.F.H. Thompson unpublished results)
show that the phase separation took place beneath the
advanced argillic lithocaps, within which vapour-domi-
nant inclusions are prevalent.
The ascendant vapour eventually was absorbed by
cool meteoric water, with the HCl, HF and SO2 in the
vapour generating the acidic uid that leached the rock
to produce advanced argillic alteration in the lithocap
environment. The acidity of the uid increased pro-
gressively during rapid cooling (Hemley and Hunt 1992;
Giggenbach 1997), thereby giving rise, as at Potos , to
the upward change from quartz-dickite to vuggy quartz,
the latter a product of extreme base leaching at pH
values of <2 (Storegen 1987). Relatively minor
amounts of pyrophyllite are conned to the deepest
parts of the Bolivian lithocaps (Fig. 3ac), in common
with lithocaps in general (Sillitoe 1995), because its
formation is favoured by higher temperatures (>300 C)
than those stabilizing alunite (Giggenbach 1997). The
abundance of APS minerals instead of alunite in the
Cerro Rico lithocap may be ascribed to high phosphate
activities resulting from apatite dissolution by the acidic
uid (Storegen and Alpers 1987) in view of the fact that
all apatite in the porphyry was destroyed during ad-
vanced argillic alteration (Steele 1996). Moreover, the
porphyries associated with Bolivian tin-silver deposits
are commonly enriched in phosphorous (Ludington
et al. 1992).
During formation of most zones of advanced argillic
alteration, which are associated genetically with oxi-
dized, magnetite-series igneous rocks, SO2 and, in par-
ticular, HCl are considered to be the principal volatile
species responsible for generating acidity (Giggenbach
1997). The SO2 disproportionated to sulphuric acid and
H2S on cooling, whereas HCl (and HF) condensed di-
rectly. In systems associated with reduced, ilmenite-se-
ries magmas, however, the sulphur in the hot magmatic
uid is expected to occur predominantly as H2S rather
than SO2 (Burnham and Ohmoto 1980). Takagi and

Tsukimura (1997) calculated that reduced magmas
contain <20% of the SO2 present in oxidized magmas.
Therefore, bearing in mind that H2S cannot be trans-
formed to sulphate in the absence of atmospheric oxy-
gen, i.e., below the vadose zone, the aqueous sulphate
activity of the lithocap environment in Bolivian tin-silver
systems should be substantially lower than that in the
upper parts of oxidized porphyry copper systems.
Notwithstanding this argument, the amount of sul-
phate generated was still adequate to precipitate
abundant alunite at Pulacayo, and in the lithocaps at
Tollojchi (R.H. Sillitoe unpublished report 1991) and
Cosuno (Dill et al. 1997; Fig. 1), as well as the APS
minerals at Potos . This conclusion assumes that: (1)
additional sulphate was not provided by drainback of
uid from the overlying steam-heated environment
above the palaeo-water table (acid-leached zone; Fig. 4),
where boiled-o H2S encounters atmospheric oxygen in
the vadose zone and undergoes ecient oxidation to
produce sulphuric acid (e.g. Giggenbach 1997); (2) H2S
was not oxidized to SO2 as a result of buering by ox-
idized rocks in the upper crust, an unlikely possibility
given the predominantly carbonaceous nature of the
Early Palaeozoic succession; and (3) supplementary SO2
was not derived from deep-seated mac magma with a
higher oxidation state, for which support may exist at
Tasna (J.F.H. Thompson and J.R. Lang unpublished
543
Fig. 4 Schematic cross-sectional model of volcanic dome-hosted tin-
silver systems in Bolivia to show relations of advanced argillic
lithocaps to deeper alteration and mineralization features. The
interpreted positions of Potos , Pulacayo and Tasna in the model
are shown
data) and elsewhere in the Bolivian tin-silver belt
(Dietrich et al. 1997; Redwood and Rice, 1997).
In many high-sulphidation deposits, late-stage sul-
phides and associated precious metals tend to be con-
centrated in vuggy quartz, probably because of its
hydrothermally enhanced permeability (e.g. Hedenquist
et al. 1994). In contrast, zones of quartz-alunite altera-
tion are typically tighter and essentially barren. This
same relationship is evident in the Bolivian lithocaps,
where the huge volume of vuggy quartz at Potos hosted
the world's largest silver resource, whereas the quartz-
alunite zones at Pulacayo and elsewhere (Fig. 1) are
poorly mineralized, at least in their preserved basal
parts.
The predominance of silver, tin and antimony, with
virtually no or only localized gold, in lithocaps in the
Bolivian tin-silver belt contrasts markedly with the gold-
copper-arsenic association typical of most porphyry
copper lithocaps (Sillitoe, 1995). The copper and arsenic
are characteristically present as enargite, which is absent
from the Bolivian lithocaps described here, although
544
present in disseminated form in the Tollojchi lithocap
(Fig. 1). The general absence of enargite and its anti-
mony analogue, famatinite, as well as members of the
tennantite-tetrahedrite series may be attributed to low
copper activities in the uid responsible. These obser-
vations suggest that the silver-tin-antimony versus gold-
copper-arsenic signature ultimately may reect the metal
contents of the magmatic uids derived from reduced as
opposed to oxidized magmas, in a manner comparable
to that proposed by Ishihara (1981) for tin versus copper
systems in general.
Discussion
The Bolivian tin-silver systems, like porphyry copper
systems worldwide, span the mesothermal to epithermal
environments (Fig. 4). The polymetallic massive sul-
phide veins and associated mineralization styles, con-
taining tin, tungsten, bismuth and base metals in
association with quartz-tourmaline and sericitic altera-
tion, lack the textural and mineralogical features used to
dene epithermal deposits and may, like porphyry cop-
per deposits, be assigned to a somewhat deeper, meso-
thermal environment in the broad sense of Lindgren
(1933). Certainly, the early alteration and massive sul-
phide vein formation commenced at temperatures of
550450 C (Kelly and Turneaure 1970; Grant et al.
1980; Thompson et al. 1996 and unpublished data). In
contrast, the lithocaps described herein, and the associ-
ated high-level chalcedony-barite veins at Potos and
Pulacayo, are considered to possess features typical of
the high-sulphidation epithermal setting. This proximity
of relatively late, shallow, low-temperature and rela-
tively early, deeper, higher-temperature mineralization
resulted in the use of Buddington's (1935) term ``xeno-
thermal'' to describe deposits in the Bolivian tin-silver
belt (Turneaure 1960).
The bulk-tonnage silver deposit at Potos is therefore
assignable to the high-sulphidation epithermal category
(see Sillitoe 1993). Although the sulphide assemblages in
the partly mesothermal massive sulphide veins beneath
the lithocap at Potos (and elsewhere in the tin-silver
belt) possess a low sulphidation state, in the sense of
Meyer and Hemley (1967), the overlying vuggy quartz
zone at Potos cannot be considered as the upper part of
a low-sulphidation (adularia-sericite) epithermal system,
as proposed recently by Cunningham et al. (1996). In
summary, therefore, the abrupt upward increase of
sulphidation state from mesothermal massive sulphide
veins to overlying epithermal lithocaps in Bolivian tin-
silver systems is directly comparable to that observed on
passing from porphyry copper deposits to their overly-
ing lithocaps (Sillitoe 1995; Fig. 5).
Conclusions for exploration
Advanced argillic lithocaps, representing the shallow
epithermal parts of tin-silver systems, in the southern
part of the Bolivian tin belt and, potentially, elsewhere
are prospective for high-grade vein or low-grade bulk-
tonnage silver mineralization. As in lithocap environ-
ments elsewhere, vuggy residual quartz, widespread at
Potos , is the most favourable alteration type for bulk-
tonnage mineralization. The mineralized portions of
lithocaps may be concealed beneath relatively barren
material, as at Tollojchi (G.B. Steele unpublished data),
Fig. 5a, b Schematic comparison between epithermal/mesothermal
and high-/low-sulphidation environments as applied to a porphyry
copper, and b Bolivian tin-silver systems. Note the contrast in metal
suites throughout the two systems

and hence dicult to predict at surface. Gold may be
concentrated in structurally controlled root zones of
lithocaps, as at Tasna. For the metallogenic reason
proposed, this is not expected to be a widespread phe-
nomenon, although the dome-hosted Kori Kollo gold
deposit is a signicant exception (Columba and Cun-
ningham 1993). Irrespective of whether or not Bolivian
lithocaps are well mineralized with silvergold, they
have the potential to conceal high-grade tin, base-metal
and/or silver veins like those that crop out widely in
more deeply eroded districts in the Bolivian tin-sliver
belt. In this regard, most of the Potos veins (Fig. 3a)
and the major Tajo vein at Pulacayo (Fig. 3b) did not
attain the present surface. Such concealed veins provide
exploration targets for high-grade (>5%) tin deposits,
which could be economically attractive even with cur-
rent relatively low tin prices.
Acknowledgements Data contributed by GBS are taken from a
PhD study completed recently at the University of Aberdeen,
Scotland, with funding for the research provided generously by the
British government through a NERC (CASE) award. EMICRUZ
Ltda. (a joint-venture between Rio Tinto plc and COMSUR S.A.)
is thanked for providing GBS with eld support. JFHT and JRL
acknowledge the nancial and logistical support provided by Co-
rriente Resources Inc. and the contributions of K. Shannon,
R. Lau, C. Potherin and L. Aguirre. Reviews of the manuscript by
Nigel Grant and Je Hedenquist are acknowledged with thanks.
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