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To cite this article: R. H. Sillitoe (1997) Characteristics and controls of the largest porphyry coppergold and
epithermal gold deposits in the circumPacific region, Australian Journal of Earth Sciences: An International
Geoscience Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 44:3, 373-388, DOI: 10.1080/08120099708728318
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Australian Journal of Earth Sciences (1997) 44, 373-388
Eleven gold-rich porphyry copper and 14 epithermal gold deposits around the Pacific rim contain > 200 t
(-7 million oz) of gold. These large porphyry-type deposits conform to a single overall model, whereas the large
epithermal gold deposits are varied in both genetic type and mineralisation style. Most regional and local
characteristics of the largest porphyry and epithermal deposits fail to explain convincingly their extremely high
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gold contents. Nevertheless, a number of hypothetical processes operative alone, or in combination, in the mantle,
in upper crustal magma chambers and at the sites of gold accumulation are believed to maximise the likelihood of
exceptional gold concentrations. Partial melting of the upper parts of stalled lithospheric slabs in the mantle,
immediately following collision or arc migration, promotes oxidation of mantle sulfides and the release of gold.
These tectonic scenarios may also result in rapid cooling and uplift-induced depressurisation of upper crustal
magma chambers, thereby accelerating the release of gold-bearing magmatic fluids. Upper crustal magma mixing
and passive degassing of the resultant SO2 are also considered to favour gold availability. Rheological and
permeability contrasts at sites of gold deposition are important controls on the size and tenor of gold deposits. The
summation of these mechanisms tends to result in short-lived, areally restricted gold-forming events, commonly as
an end-stage of arc development. These hypothetical processes translate into several practical criteria of potential
use to explorationists. Both large gold-rich porphyry and epithermal deposits seem to be more common in atypical
arc settings and in association with unusual, especially highly potassic, igneous rocks. During the search for gold-
rich porphyry deposits, high hydrothermal magnetite contents, very young arcs in the tropical environment and
impermeable host rocks, especially limestones, deserve emphasis. In contrast, large epithermal gold deposits are
commonly controlled by marked lithologic differences and associated with flow-dome and/or maar-diatreme
systems.
Key words: circum-Pacific region, epithermal deposits, exploration, giant deposits, gold, magmatic arcs,
porphyry copper deposits.
Fish Lake
McDonald
,x Bingham ff
Comstock Lode O o O Cripple Creek
lound
fountain
Spreading ridge
, Subduction zone
Gold-rich porphyry
deposit
Figure 1 Location of the largest o Epithermal gold
gold-rich porphyry and epithermal deposit
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Deposit Au Tectonic Regional Porphyry Age Coeval Ore- Abundant Quartz Litho- Associated Recent
content setting structural stock (Ma)* volcan- related magnetite stock- cap mineral- reference
control ics alteration work isation
*Age data supplemented by: Arribas et al. 1995; McDowell et al. 1996; Perkins et al. 1995; Sillitoe et al. 1991; E. H. McKee
and R. H. Sillitoe unpubl. data; S. J. Turner pers. comtn. 1996.
f
Mineable reserve; geological reserve is -25001 Au
Tectonic setting: BA, back-arc; Cont, continental margin; IA, island arc. Regional structural control: Lin, lineament. Porphyry stock:
Dae, dacite; Di, diorite; Mdi, monzodiorite; Mon, monzonite; Qdi, quartz diorite; Qmon, quartz monzonite; CA, calc-alkaline; KCA,
high-K calc-alkaline. Ore-related alteration: IA, intermediate argillic; K, K-silicate; P, propylitic. Associated mineralisation: CR,
carbonate replacement; HS, high-sulfidation epithermal; LS, low-sulfidation epithermal; SH, sediment-hosted gold; Sk, skarn.
deposits are also included (Figure 2). Refugio is con- Grasberg, Bingham and Panguna, all containing > 7001
sidered as a porphyry gold deposit (Vila & Sillitoe 1991). of gold (Figure 3). However, Grasberg and Far Southeast
The pre-eminent gold-rich porphyry deposits are clearly possess the highest gold grades, with both containing
LARGEST CIRCUM-PACIFIC GOLD DEPOSITS 375
Deposit Au content Tectonic Related Age Volcanic Form of At Local Ore- Abun- Palaeo- Asso- Recent
(t) setting volcanic (Ma)* setting orebody litho- fault related dant surface ciated reference
rocks logic control alteration base- evidence mineral
contact metals -isation
McDonald 251 Cont Felsic ig 39-37 Caldera? Disseminated Yes Normal LS No Yes No Bartlett
USA CA + stockwork Qu + Ad etal. 1995
Comstock -260 Cont And 13.7 Flow dome Vein No Normal LS Yes No No Vikre 1989
Lode USA CA (45) Qu
Cripple -755 Cont Phon-Trach 32-31 Diatreme Vein + Yes Normal + LS No No No Thompson
Creek USA (BA) A disseminated ring fault Ad 1992
Round 413 Cont Rhyodac ig 26 Caldera Disseminated Yes Normal LS No Yes No Tingley &
Mountain USA CA + vein Ad Berger 1985
Pachuca-Real 235 Cont And-rhy 21-20 Uncertain Vein No Normal LS Yes No No Geyne
del Monte, CA Qu + Ad etal. 1963
Mexico
Pueblo Viejo -700 IA Ker-Spil -130 Diatreme Stockwork Yes Ring fault HS Yes No No Russell &
Dominican IAT Qu Kesler 1991
Republic
Yanacocha 292f Cont And 10.9 Flow dome? Disseminated No Not known HS No Yes(?) No Harris
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*Age data supplemented by: Aoki et al. 1993; Henry et al. 1995; Izawa et al. 1993a; McKee et al. 1992; R. Jannas pers. comm. 1995;
D. E. Noble pers. comm. 1995.
f
173 t Au production + reserves (July 1996).
Tectonic setting: BA, back-arc; Cont, continental margin; IA, island arc. Related volcanic rocks: And, andesite; Bas, basalt; Dae, dacite;
Ig, ignimbrite; Int, intrusions; Ker, keratophyre; Phon, phonolite; Rhy, rhyolite; Rhyodac, rhyodacite; Spil, spilite; Trach, trachyte;
Trachyb, trachybasalt; A, alkaline; CA, calc-alkaline; KCA, high-K calc-alkaline; IAT, island-arc tholeiite. Ore-related alteration: Ad,
adularia; HS, high sulfidation; LS, low sulfidation; Qu, quartz. Associated mineralisation: LS, low-sulfidation epithermal; Ppy Cu,
porphyry copper.
role as ore localisers appears to be minimal at Pueblo Viejo deposits, the epithermal gold deposits along the western
and Ladolam. Major fault zones controlled vein emplace- side of the Pacific Ocean are, on average, notably younger
ment at Comstock Lode and El Indio, whereas more local than those on the eastern side.
faults localised the gold ore in the other deposits. Most of A spectrum of volcanic settings hosts the large gold-
the faults that controlled the large gold-bearing vein rich epithermal deposits (Table 2). At least three, possibly
systems and acted as feeders for the bulk-tonnage gold four, deposits occur either in or around diatremes; three,
mineralisation are reported to have undergone normal possibly four, of the deposits are associated with flow-
displacements (Table 2), in some cases with a component dome complexes; one, possibly two, are parts of ash-flow
of oblique slip being recognised. Fault jogs within strike- calderas; and Ladolam is present in a small stratovolcano
slip fault zones have been proposed for Waihi (Sibson that underwent sector collapse during the mineralisation
1987) and Baguio (Ringenbach 1992). Diatreme-bounding event (Sillitoe 1994). The remainder of the deposits
ring faults imposed additional structural controls on some occupy uncertain volcanic settings, which at Porgera is
of the gold mineralisation at Cripple Creek (Thompson due to a complete absence of volcanic rocks.
1992), Pueblo Viejo (Russell & Kesler 1991) and Baguio Eight of the large epithermal gold deposits are judged, on
(Damasco & de Guzman 1977). the basis of available data, to be related genetically to calc-
The large epithermal gold deposits show a spread in alkaline volcanic rocks ranging in composition from
ages, from Early Cretaceous (Pueblo Viejo) to Pleistocene, rhyolite to andesite (Table 2). Two deposits may be related
although 13 of the deposits are younger than 40 Ma to high-K calc-alkaline volcanics (Table 2) and one, Pueblo
(Table 2). As in the case of the gold-rich porphyry Viejo, to the island-arc (low-K) tholeiite series (Lebron &
378 R. H. SILLITOE
Perfit 1993). The volcanic rocks are bimodal at Pueblo Lacustrine Remnant Minor quartz-
sediment
Viejo and Hishikari, thereby suggesting extensional set- sinter adularia veins + Au
tings. Felsic ignimbrites are spatially and temporally related
Welded Smectite-chlorite
to the McDonald and Round Mountain deposits, whereas ignimbrite alteration
the host ignimbrite at El Indio is unrelated temporally to the
Non-welded I
gold mineralisation. Three deposits are associated with ignimbrite
alkaline magmatism, which is basic and sodic at Porgera Welded-*- A
(Richards 1990), but potassic and, in part, more felsic at ignimbrite A A
Cripple Creek and Ladolam (Table 2). I-type, magnetite- Illite-adularia
series volcanic rocks appear to be ubiquitous. alteration + Au
In contrast to the large gold-rich porphyry deposits, the Quartz-adularia veins + Au
large epithermal gold deposits are extremely varied in
form and mineralisation style. They may be subdivided
broadly into vein systems and large dispersed deposits of
either predominantly disseminated, stockwork or breccia- Acid-leached rock formed
hosted mineralisation (Figure 5). The vein systems con- in steam-heated zone
(b)
stitute both bonanza deposits (Comstock Lode, Cripple Quartz-carbonate veins + Au
Creek, El Indio, Zone VII at Porgera, Hishikari) as well (minor illite/sericite-adularia
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selvages)
as more extensive, but lower grade deposits (Pachuca-
Real del Monte, Waihi, Baguio). Average gold grades Tuff sequence
were as low as 2.4 g/t at Pachuca-Real del Monte. Veins
are also present in several of the other deposits (Table 2),
either subsidiary to disseminated ore (Round Mountain),
dominant over disseminated ore (Cripple Creek) or Bonanza Au
of approximately equal importance to stockwork ore 0.5 beneath
unconformity
(Porgera). The stockwork ore at Porgera is intrusion-
related and formed relatively deeply, but is juxtaposed
with the epithermal gold veins and breccias of Zone VII Basement
km rocks
(Richards & Kerrich 1993). _0.5
In common with epithermal deposits in most parts of
Figure 5 Selected end-member models for large epithermal gold
the circum-Pacific region, large low-sulfidation deposits deposits in the circum-Pacific region, (a) Large-tonnage, low-
are more abundant than those of high-sulfidation type. grade deposit hosted by an aquifer below an aquitard. (b) Major
Table 2 demonstrates that the large low-sulfidation deposits vein system containing bonanza shoots immediately beneath an
are nearly five times as abundant. The various styles of unconformity separating tight basement rocks from an overlying
mineralisation include examples of both epithermal types. porous sequence. Both models are for low-sulfidation deposits
Half of the low-sulfidation deposits contain appreciable poor in base metals and sulfides.
amounts of base metals, mainly zinc and lead, whereas
the other half are poor in sulfides (Sillitoe 1993c). The
sulfide-poor low-sulfidation vein deposits, with the excep- at McDonald (Bartlett et al. 1995); acid-leached rock
tion of Baguio, tend to possess greater concentrations of generated in the steam-heated environment above the
adularia as a vein and alteration component, although palaeo-water table at or near El Indio (Sillitoe 1991), Waihi
adularia is also abundant in several of the bulk-tonnage (Brathwaite & Blattner 1995), Ladolam (Moyle et al.
deposits (McDonald, Round Mountain, Ladolam). Two of 1990), Hishikari (Izawa et al. 1990) and, possibly,
the large low-sulfidation deposits (Round Mountain, Yanacocha; a hydrothermal eruption crater filled with
Kelian) contain relatively minor quantities of quartz. lacustrine mudstone and interbedded chert at Hishikari
Kelian and the intrusion-related stockwork gold ore at (Izawa et al. 1993b); and remnants of lacustrine sedi-
Porgera are rich in a variety of carbonate minerals, and are mentary rocks at El Indio (Sillitoe 1991) and Round
classified as carbonate-base-metal deposits by Leach and Mountain (Tingley & Berger 1985; Henry et al. 1995). The
Corbett (1994). remaining deposits were formed at substantially deeper
Two of the three large high-sulfidation deposits do not levels, as deep as 900 m at Kelian (Van Leeuwen et al.
adhere to the typical model for this type of epithermal 1990) and even -2 km at Porgera (Richards & Kerrich
gold deposit (Hedenquist et al. 1994) because residual 1993). Moreover, the vertical extents of at least seven of the
vuggy quartz does not host the gold. Ore is associated deposits exceed 600 m, and attain at least 1 km at
with quartz-alunite and quartz-pyrophyllite alteration at Comstock Lode and Cripple Creek.
Pueblo Viejo (Muntean et al. 1990), whereas at El Indio Most of the large epithermal gold deposits lack asso-
it is present in massive enargite-pyrite and bonanza-grade ciated mineralisation types (Table 2) although, as noted
quartz veins (Jannas et al. 1990). above, Porgera is a combination of intrusion-related and
Six, probably seven, of the large epithermal gold deposits epithermal mineralisation. The exceptions are the low-
were formed at shallow depths because features denoting sulfidation gold deposits at Ladolam and Baguio, which
the interval between the palaeo-surface and palaeo-water are related to low-grade porphyry copper-gold minerali-
table (Figure 5; Sillitoe 1993c) are partly preserved. sation, and El Indio, which is near a low-sulfidation
Features include hot-spring sinter of palaeo-surface origin epithermal gold deposit.
LARGEST CIRCUM-PACIFIC GOLD DEPOSITS 379
FACTORS NOT RELATED DIRECTLY TO approximately 20%, of the large gold deposits accom-
LARGE GOLD CONTENTS pany shoshonitic or alkaline suites (Mutschler et al. 1991;
Miiller & Groves 1993). Shoshonites are estimated to
Perusal of these brief overviews of the characteristics of constitute only about 2.5% by volume of igneous rocks in
large gold-rich porphyry and epitherraal gold deposits in circum-Pacific arc terranes (Baker 1982). Alkaline rocks
the circum-Pacific region and reference to Tables 1 and 2 are even less abundant in circum-Pacific arcs so, in total,
reveal a series of factors that, either singly or in com- these suites probably do not exceed 3% by volume of
bination, appear unable to explain the exceptional gold circum-Pacific igneous rocks.
contents of the 25 deposits under consideration. These
factors are explained further in this section.
Structural setting
Geotectonic setting The structural controls noted in Tables 1 and 2 and the
comments above suggest that no specific structural
Neither the large gold-rich porphyry deposits nor the setting is responsible for the formation of very large gold
large epithermal gold deposits seem to be influenced deposits in arc terranes. Major faults and lineaments
unduly by the nature of the underlying crust. Both appear to be associated with some, but not all, of the
deposit types were generated in the shallow parts of porphyry deposits and, therefore, cannot be considered
either cratonic or island-arc crust (Figure 1). The crustal as a prerequisite for the formation of large gold con-
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extremes are represented by Bingham and Cripple Creek centrations. Similarly, the district-scale structures that
atop thick crust and Pueblo Viejo and Ladolam underlain localised the large epithermal gold deposits, although
by essentially nothing but oceanic lithosphere. Nor does dominated by normal faults, do not seem to differ
the distance of the large deposits from the trenches or substantially from the profusion of other faults in arc
underlying subduction zones active during or just before terranes. Provision of dilatant sites for the passage of
their emplacement seem to have been influential. magma and fluids is the only basic requirement and this
No unique stress regime in the upper crust at the time may be accomplished in a variety of structural settings
of mineralisation appears to account for the localisation which may or may not involve regional faults or
of unusually large gold deposits. Cripple Creek and lineaments. For example, in the context of the regional
Hishikari were probably formed during incipient rifting, compressive setting for the Grasberg porphyry copper-
whereas other deposits, especially most of those of gold deposit, dilatancy for stock emplacement and metal
epithermal type in the Great Basin of the western USA introduction was facilitated by a restricted pull-apart
(Seedorff 1991), were emplaced under mildly extensional connecting district-scale strike-slip faults (Sapiie & Cloos
conditions. In contrast, regional compression charac- 1994).
terised the upper crust during emplacement of the
Grasberg and Ok Tedi porphyry copper-gold and Porgera
gold deposits in New Guinea. Age of deposits
The composition and redox state of the concealed arc
crust and subjacent mantle in the vicinities of these large The range of deposit ages clearly precludes formation of
gold deposits are unknown except at Ladolam, where a the large gold deposits at one or more specific times
study of xenoliths from nearby young volcanic rocks during the Phanerozoic. Nevertheless, all but three of the
reveals a highly oxidised mantle assemblage (B. I. A. 25 deposits were generated after 40 Ma (Figure 6) because
Mclnnes, R. A. Binns, P. M. Herzig & M. D. Hannington average depths of erosion are shallower and hence the
unpubl. data). Such oxidised mantle is believed to be the preservation potential for epithermal and subvolcanic
source of the I-type igneous rocks related genetically to deposits is greater.
these large gold deposits (e.g. Richards 1990). Even Surprising, however, are the extremely young ages
where shallow crustal rocks comprise organic carbon- (^5 Ma: Table 1; Figure 6) for the five large porphyry
bearing sedimentary sequences, as at Porgera and copper-gold deposits in the western Pacific island arcs.
Hishikari, the igneous rocks did not undergo appreciable In fact, only three of the region's seven large epi-
reduction. thermal gold deposits, two of which (Ladolam and
Baguio) are associated with porphyry copper-gold for-
mation, are as young (Table 2). This observation
Igneous rocks confirms that erosion and exhumation rates were excep-
tionally rapid in the vicinities of these large gold-rich
A broad spectrum of intrusive and/or volcanic rocks is porphyry systems.
observed to be related genetically to the large gold
deposits reviewed here. Island-arc tholeiite, calc-alkaline,
high-K calc-alkaline (including shoshonitic) and alkaline Volcanic setting
magma suites were all capable of generating large gold
concentrations. Moreover, the degree of fractionation and Most volcanic settings, including stratovolcanoes, ash-
composition of the associated igneous rocks span a broad flow calderas, flow-dome complexes and maar-diatreme
range, from hawaiite and mugearite (at Porgera: Richards systems, are represented by the 25 gold deposits under
1990) to rhyolite. consideration. In contrast to the epithermal gold deposits,
Notwithstanding the varied petrochemistry of the asso- the gold-rich porphyry deposits are generally eroded too
ciated igneous rocks, a surprisingly large percentage, deeply to ascertain the nature of volcanic landforms that
380 R. H. SILLITOE
PACIFIC six of the deposits and give rise to annular or bell-shaped
West East geometries.
o-i
In contrast, the large epithermal gold deposits are
8 9 extremely varied in form, like epithermal deposits in
10- o general, with vein systems and grossly equidimensional
o to tabular bodies of disseminated, stockwork and/or
breccia-hosted mineralisation representing the two geo-
o
metrical extremes.
o Clearly, the particular style or form of a deposit does
o not seem to influence directly its gold content.
40-
Alteration-mineralisation type
50-
The gold-rich porphyry deposits all comply with a single
alteration-mineralisation model, in which centrally located
columns of K-silicate alteration containing quartz-veinlet
O) 60- stockworks host the bulk of the gold and copper (Figure 4).
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<
All but two of the large deposits, in common with many
smaller gold-rich porphyry deposits (Sillitoe 1979), contain
abundant hydrothermal magnetite. The presence or absence
of overprinted sericitic or intermediate argillic alteration
does not seem to exert any control on gold contents. The
existence of advanced argillic lithocap remnants at the
130| shallowest preserved levels near three of the deposits
implies that the upper parts of K-silicate alteration zones
are capable of hosting major gold concentrations. However,
the fact that the lithocaps have been eroded from the other
eight deposits may be taken to suggest that the deeper
levels of K-silicate zones are more favourable than their
shallower parts for gold concentration (also see above).
Figure 6 Plot of ages of large gold-rich porphyry and epithermal
gold deposits along the western and eastern sides of the Pacific Large epithermal gold deposits span the full spectrum
Ocean. Note the appreciably younger ages of deposits in the of types currently recognised (White & Hedenquist 1990;
western Pacific island arcs as a result of more rapid erosion rates. Sillitoe 1993c). They include high-sulfidation deposits,
Data for 24 radiometrically dated deposits taken from Tables 1 albeit commonly of somewhat unusual styles, as well as a
and 2. , gold-rich porphyry deposit; O, epithermal gold deposit. variety of low-sulfidation types. These include deposits
that are either rich or poor in base metals and sulfides, in
originally overlay them; indeed, three of the porphyry adularia and in quartz. Representatives of both deposits
deposits, as well as one of the epithermal deposits, lack affiliated with alkaline rocks and hence rich in tellurides,
contemporaneous volcanic products, which has led roscoelite (vanadian mica) and/or fluorite (Bonham 1986;
locally to the suggestion that magmatism failed to attain Richards 1995; e.g. Cripple Creek) and base-metal-rich
the palaeo-surface (e.g. Porgera: Richards & Kerrich deposits dominated by carbonate gangue (Leach &
1993). At Bajo de La Alumbrera and Batu Hijau, Corbett 1994; e.g. Kelian) are included.
however, the porphyry deposits are clearly hosted by Major gold concentrations may be present in the
degraded stratovolcanoes, a landform that is also prob- shallow (so-called hot spring) parts of epithermal
ably implied by the andesitic volcanic rocks in the systems, but may also occur at depths of up to 1.5-2 km
vicinities of Refugio and Panguna. (e.g. Kelian, Porgera), which must be near the base of the
As many as seven of the deposits display an association epithermal environment. The gold occupies vertical
with diatremes and associated plugs and domes. The intervals of 600 to 1000 m in several deposits, thereby
diatremes immediately post-dated emplacement of the denying any restriction of gold ore to narrow vertical
porphyry deposits, but helped to localise the epithermal ranges.
deposits. Moreover, diatreme emplacement at Far South-
east appears to have intervened between formation of the
porphyry copper-gold and Lepanto high-sulfidation
copper-gold deposits. MECHANISMS CONDUCIVE TO PRODUCTION
AND ACCUMULATION OF GOLD
appears to have localised much of the gold ore at the Marble near Impermeable
large Pueblo Viejo deposit (Muntean et al. 1990). stock contact y*\ limestone wallrocks
V v
These two stratigraphic situations, impermeable unit
V v V
either above or below permeable unit, also seem to have
exerted a major influence on development of bonanza ore
shoots in two of the large epithermal vein gold deposits
(Figure 5b). At Hishikari, an unconformity between
permeable tuffs and volcaniclastics and subjacent flysch
basement localised the highest grade ore, probably as a \ ^ High-grade gold-rich
porphyry deposit
result of abrupt changes in physico-chemical conditions
as the mineralising fluids entered the permeable unit
(Ishihara et al. 1986). The ascending fluids would have Large epithermal Aquitard Large epithermal
gold deposit i Aquifer gold deposit
undergone essentially simultaneous depressurisation (vig-
orous boiling), dilution, oxidation and cooling, all pro-
pitious for gold precipitation from bisulfide complexes
(Seward 1991). In contrast, the localisation of bonanza
gold ore in welded ignimbrite beneath andesitic flows at Tight
El Indio is attributed to the rheological difference basement
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between the two rock types, the latter being less brittle
and therefore acting as a partial seal above the ore-
bearing dilatant faults below. Large epithermal gold deposit
Some of the bonanza gold shoots at Cripple Creek in diatreme ring fault and
in diatreme fill
were also localised in part by lithologic contacts.
Bonanza shoots follow the ring fault of the nested
Cresson diatreme, which juxtaposes basalt-rich breccia (c)
against earlier, probably better-lithified diatreme breccias
(Thompson 1992; Figure 9c). Gold-bearing breccia pipes
in the Acupan sector at Baguio are also controlled by a
diatreme contact, where it is intersected by vein-hosting 1 km
faults (Damasco & de Guzman 1977).
The dynamic environment of gold deposition,
especially to form epithermal deposits, may also be
Large telescoped
isolated as a crucial factor in the development of some epithermal gold deposit Sector collapse amphitheatre
very large deposits. At Ladolam, sector collapse trans-
formed a porphyry copper-gold system into a low- Debris avalanche
sulfidation epithermal gold system and resulted in tele-
scoping of the two (Sillitoe 1994; Figure 9d). The
subhorizontal zone of gold-bearing phreatic breccias that
constitutes the Ladolam deposit was generated as a result Porphyry-type
of depressurisation caused by the sector collapse, with mineralization in stock
1km
the gold being precipitated by the consequent fluid
boiling and mixing (Moyle et al. 1990; Carman 1995).
The bonanza epithermal stage in Zone VII at the Porgera
gold deposit was probably a result of violent phase Figure 9 Selected processes favouring formation of large gold
separation (Richards & Kerrich 1993) during the syn- deposits in the shallow hydrothermal environment, (a) Formation
mineral initiation of the ore-controlling Roamane fault of high-grade, gold-rich porphyry deposit resulting from fluid
(Munroe 1995). Porgera was generated during an interval ponding in stock caused by relatively impermeable host rocks
of rapid uplift and erosion (Crowhurst et al. 1996) that (e.g. Grasberg). (b) Formation of large epithermal gold deposits
resulted in Zone VII being telescoped over the early- beneath an aquitard (e.g. Round Mountain; cf. Figure 5a) and in
stage intrusion-related gold mineralisation. Telescoping an aquifer above a tight rock sequence (e.g. Pueblo Viejo).
was a requirement for Porgera to attain its large size. (c) Formation of large epithermal gold deposit on the contact of
and within a maar-diatreme system (e.g. Baguio). (d) Gravita-
tional sector collapse of a volcanic edifice to generate a large
epithermal gold deposit telescoped over porphyry copper-gold
CRITERIA FOR LARGE CIRCUM-PACIFIC mineralisation, the formation of which was terminated by the
collapse (e.g. Ladolam). See text for further details.
GOLD DEPOSITS
Unusual arc settings, especially following collision and in back-arcs following slab steepening
Unusual magma chemistry, especially shoshonitic, alkaline and bimodal suites
End stage of arc construction
Gravitational sector collapse of volcanic edifices, as shown by collapse amphitheatres and debris avalanche deposits
Highly oxidised systems, shown by abundant hydrothermal magnetite Marked permeability or rheological contrasts within host lithologies
Extremely young (= 5 Ma) magmatism (in the tropics) Flow-dome complexes and/or maar-diatreme systems
Steep incised terrain (in the tropics)
Impermeable host rocks, especially massive limestones
Applicable to porphyry and epithermal deposits that a porphyry system is gold-rich. Furthermore, the
magnetite contents are sufficient for detection using
Five of the 11 large gold-rich porphyry deposits and aeromagnetic surveying (Sillitoe 1979). Indeed, Bajo de
seven of the 14 large epithermal gold deposits occupy La Alumbrera, Grasberg and Batu Hijau were all shown
unusual arc settings and/or are parts of igneous suites recently to correspond to prominent 'bull's eye' magnetic
characterised by unusual chemistry. The unusual arc highs (e.g. Potter 1996).
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settings include back-arcs, post-subduction arcs, rifted If rapid rates of magma chamber cooling, uplift and
arcs and arc junctions. The unusual magma chemistry is consequent denudation are accepted as favourable for the
reflected by alkaline, shoshonitic and bimodal suites. formation of large gold-rich porphyry and related epi-
Geotectonic settings favouring mantle processes capable thermal gold deposits, as proposed above, then arc ter-
of generating highly oxidised magmas and occurrence of ranes showing physiographic evidence for rapid erosion
higher chlorine and sulfur contents in alkali-rich magmas, and characterised by young porphyry stocks should be
as described above, may help to explain some of these assigned priority. Rapid uplift and erosion under tropical
relationships. However, irrespective of the precise controls, conditions will give rise to steep incised terrain and, in
the fact that about half the large gold deposits are located in island arcs, relict late Cenozoic shallow-marine sequen-
tectonic and magmatic settings that make up < 5% of the ces up to 1 km or more above sea-level. Table 1 suggests
Pacific rim, rather than in 'normal' subduction-related that arcs = 5 Ma are the most prospective given that all
andesitic-dacitic arcs, is important for exploration planning. the large gold-rich porphyry deposits in western Pacific
Available geological information for much of the arcs are of this age. In arid and semi-arid terrains of the
circum-Pacific region is adequate to be able to isolate western Americas, however, high uplift rates are not
unusual tectonic settings and magmatic provinces, matched by such rapid erosion, and hence prospective
especially for Cenozoic terranes. This must be considered stocks will not be so young (Table 1).
as a useful endeavour for anyone embarking on or Porphyry stocks emplaced into tight wallrocks are
engaged in gold exploration of the circum-Pacific region. hypothesised to result in higher grade gold-rich porphyry
deposits because of the reduced dissipation of magmatic
fluids. Relatively impermeable but potentially receptive
Applicable to porphyry deposits limestone wallrocks are believed to be particularly
effective for the localisation of large and possibly high-
Gold-rich porphyry deposits, including the large ones, are grade deposits. Indeed, based on Table 1 and the discus-
distinguished from other porphyry deposits by an abun- sion above, a case could be made for devoting entire
dance of hydrothermal magnetite in zones of gold- and porphyry gold copper exploration budgets to arcs
copper-bearing K-silicate alteration (Sillitoe 1979). Only constructed over shelf-carbonate terranes.
two of the 11 large gold-rich porphyry deposits (Bingham,
Ok Tedi) lack appreciable hydrothermal magnetite.
The elevated magnetite contents of gold-rich porphyry Applicable to epithermal deposits
deposits reflect the highly oxidised state of the magmas
from which the gold-transporting fluids were derived. Half of the large epithermal gold deposits are controlled,
The two large deposits lacking hydrothermal magnetite at least partly, by contacts between lithologies that are
are associated with the most felsic host stocks (Table 1), very different in intrinsic permeability or rheology. Such
which may imply that total iron contents were simply too contacts, including unconformities, may have acted to
low for magnetite to form as a major hydrothermal focus or pond hydrothermal fluids or to modify
mineral. As described above, mechanisms operating dramatically their physico-chemical constitution.
during magma generation in the mantle wedge and again Alternatively, such contacts may influence profoundly the
during magma mixing in subvolcanic magma chambers details of fault propagation and dilatancy at the time of
may account for highly oxidised magmas that promote gold mineralisation.
gold incompatibility and its efficient partition into a Given that many epithermal districts lack marked
magmatic fluid phase. lithologic contacts, those that do should be given par-
Although high hydrothermal magnetite contents cannot ticular emphasis during exploration programmes. Imagi-
be used to distinguish between large and small gold-rich nation and geological extrapolation will be required in
porphyry deposits, their existence does at least suggest many instances because the potentially favourable
LARGEST CIRCUM-PACIFIC GOLD DEPOSITS 385
contacts will be largely or entirely subsurface features at considered as favourable indicators for large gold
the sites of observed mineralisation. Indeed, the contacts accumulations may be identified. Unusual arc setting and
instrumental in ore localisation at Round Mountain, chemistry are proposed as favourable criteria for both
Pueblo Viejo, El Indio, Porgera and Hishikari were not porphyry and epithermal deposits. Abundance of hydro-
appreciated properly until after gold ore was discovered. thermal magnetite, high uplift rates reflected by very
Sector collapse of volcanic edifices above gold-gener- young host stocks, and impermeable or limestone
ating intrusions may be instrumental in the formation of wallrocks are applicable to porphyry deposits, whereas
large epithermal gold deposits as well as causing telescop- permeability and rheology contrasts across lithologic
ing of different styles of gold mineralisation (Sillitoe 1994). contacts and an association with maar-diatreme systems
However, volcanological evidence for sector collapse is and flow-dome complexes are applicable to epithermal
preserved as a collapse amphitheatre (Moyle et al. 1990) deposits. However, none of these criteria is applicable
and submarine debris flow derived from it (Herzig & exclusively to large gold deposits.
Hannington 1995) only at Ladolam.
An exceptional number, at least seven and possibly
eight, of the large epithermal gold deposits are associated
with maar-diatreme systems and/or flow-dome complexes ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(Table 2). These volcanic landforms may be preferred
sites for large epithermal gold deposits because they are Plutonic Resources Ltd and the organising committee are
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connected directly to subjacent magma chambers by thanked for the invitation and support to present this
through-going permeable zones. The permeability in paper at the World-Class Ore Deposits Symposium held
maar-diatreme systems is provided by ring faults, at the 13th Australian Geological Convention (Canberra,
intersections of ring and district faults and the poorly 22 February 1996). Donald Singer kindly let me have his
lithified diatreme breccias themselves, whereas in flow- grade-tonnage data for large gold deposits, and Paul
dome complexes it is provided by feeder dykes, com- Heithersay, Brent Mclnnes and Jeremy Richards provided
monly fault-controlled. useful reviews of the manuscript.
It is not easy at the exploration stage to employ maar-
diatreme systems as guides to large gold deposits because
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