9

DIELECTRICS
9.1 DIELECTRICS

9.1.1 WHAT ARE DIELECTRICS?

Dielectrics are materials, which are generally non-metallic,

that have high resistivity, due to which the circulation of
current through them is very weak (forward or leakage current).

Taking advantage of this characteristic, they are used as

insulators to halt electrons, or to delimit the path they
should take.

9.1.2 DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

This is the maximum voltage gradient that a material can withstand before being
destroyed by breakdown; it is expressed in kilowatts per millimetre. Its value is
influenced by the conditions of the test. Even supposing that a field free of
distortion (and consequently perfectly uniform) is obtained, and that the
properties of the materials to be assayed are stabilized by eliminating all
impurities and moisture, there is still the
influence of the time of the test. The
breakdown mechanism in long test times
is a thermal phenomenon (heating up due
to dielectric loss and charging currents),
while in short times, these phenomena do
not play a role and we find physical
breakdowns due to the electrical forces
that are present.
In general, dielectric strength decreases
as the test time increases, in accordance
with an approximately hyperbolic law.

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9.1.3 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

This is the relation between the charge taken by a condenser with material
considered as dielectric and that which it would take if the dielectric were a
vacuum.
The phenomenon that is measured corresponds to the polarization of the unitary
particles that make up the structure of the dielectric. The greater the separation
between the elementary charges and their importance within the molecule, the
greater their influence over the electric field, and consequently, the higher the
dielectric constant will be.

The energy that is accumulated in a condenser is given by the following formula:

1 1
2
We= ----- C . U = ----- Co U 2

2 2

C
Where: = -----------
Co

C = capacity of the dielectric in question

Co = capacity with the dielectric being a vacuum
= relative dielectric constant

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DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS OF
VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

SUBSTANCES CONDITIONS OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT DIELECTRIC

AIR GAS, 0 C, 1 ATMSFERA 1,00059

WATER LQUIDO, 20 C 80

TRANSFORMER OIL LQUIDO, 20 C 2,24

QUARTZ CRISTAL, 20 C 4,27 - 4,34

POLYETHYLENE SLIDO, 20 C 2,25 - 2,3

NEOPRENE SLIDO, 20 C 4,1

PVC SLIDO, 20 C 6-8

EPR SLIDO, 20 C 3

XLPE (RETICULATED SLIDO, 20 C 2,5 - 3

POLYETHYLENE)

9.2.1 RESISTIVITY (Insulators)

When a dielectric is subjected to a continuous voltage, the flow of current through

it is established by means of the few free charges that are present.

In conductors with a large number of free charges, the phenomenon

stabilizes for resistance values (ratio between applied voltages and
circulating intensity) and there is little variation over long intervals;
the same is not true for dielectrics, in which
temperature and impurities may significantly
modify the free charges present, and consequently
the response current.

Thus, resistivity can vary greatly according to the

condition of the test, and significant variations may easily result
from small modifications in the make up of the material.
Generally, resistivity decreases as temperature and moisture (in
oils) increase.

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The resistivity measured with an alternating current is greater than
the value obtained with a direct current, since other phenomena
intervene in the transfer of charges.

9.2.2 SURFACE RESISTANCE

Very often the current can circulate on the surface of the dielectric instead of doing
so through the core. This phenomenon bears no relation with the resistance itself of
the dielectric; rather it is measured by surface resistance.

The quality of the surface and the presence of dust, moisture, etc., have a great
influence on this value. In cables, this phenomenon is of little interest, as it only has
an influence in terminals. It is fundamentally important in the design of insulators,
where surface discharges must be avoided.

9.2.3 ELECTRIC ABSORPTION

When a current is applied to a dielectric, in addition to the phenomena of

polarization, there is an absorption of electric charge which occurs during a certain
period (which may be important) and
then ceases, even if the current
persists. The dielectric will release
this charge if we cease to apply
vo l t a g e a n d s h o r t- c i rc u i t t h e
electrodes.

This phenomenon must be taken into

consideration, as it affects the
measurement of resistance, since the
presence of this current may alter
the values obtained.

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9.2.4 DIELECTRIC LOSS

When alternating voltage is applied to a dielectric, the following phenomena

will occur:

a) A current satisfying Ohm's Law will circulate. The value of this

current will depend on the resistivity of the insulation under
working conditions. Its passage will give rise to heating due to
the Joule effect.

b) There will also be a displacement current, //2 radians ahead

on the Gaussian plane with respect to the voltage applied. The
magnitude of this current will depend on the dielectric constant
of the material (which influences the capacity of the condenser
that is formed). Given that this is a displacement current, it will
not heat up the dielectric.

c) The pole pieces will vibrate with the excitation to which they
are subjected. Due to this phenomenon, the material will heat
up, and this will be reflected in the energetic process taking
place in its core. The measurement of this phenomenon cannot be distinguished
from that occurring in point a), except that the former is always present, while the
latter only occurs in the presence of alternating excitation.

LOSS ANGLES
Given that a cable is not an ideal condenser, there is an IR leakage current in the
dielectric in phase with the voltage U0

CONDUCTOR SHIELD

EQUIVALENT LAYOUT

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VECTORIAL DIAGRAM

The real current I in the dielectric forms an angle (of loss) b with the reactive
current Ic which is dephased 90 from the voltage U, corresponding to an ideal
loss-free condenser. This is expressed by:

PR
tg b =
Pc

The loss angle depends on the temperature, the material and the frequency.
Figure 1 shows the variation of tg b with the temperature for the different types of
insulation.

Insulation Conductance (leakance)

The conductance G is defined and the inverse of the loss resistance of the
insulation.

t = 2/f = angular frequency

D = relative dielectric current
Co = Capacity considering the dielectric as a vacuum
tg b = loss angle

The product D . tg b is called the loss factor.

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 Variation of D according to temperature. Variation of D according to temperature.

FIGURA 1

The dielectric losses per phase in three phase layout are given by the formula:

Uo = simple voltage, in V
C = capacity in F/Km

It can be seen that dielectric losses are proportional to the leakage, and the
square of the simple voltage. In simple low voltage cables. In low voltage cables
these losses are practically insignificant. They become more significant as the
voltage increases.

9.2.5 LOSS FACTOR

In cables the value of the tangent (tg ) is measured, in order to give a quality
factor for the insulation. This value gives
us the ratio between the resistive
current and the capacitive current; this
must be as steady and as low as possible for
the optimal operation of the cable. An
increase in the value points to the possible
d ete r i o ra t i o n of t h e d i e l e c t r i c , a s
currents that will give rise to heating
are circulating through it.

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9.2.6 CORONA EFFECT

If the electric field at a given point exceeds the disruptive voltage value for the
material present, ionization will take place, with the creation of free charges due
to the destruction of electrically balanced molecules.

It may come about that this value for the electric field only occurs at certain
points, either due to the concentration of the field owing to incorrect design, or
due to the presence of occlusions of different "epsilon" values (e.g. air
occlusions). Thus, this ionization is limited to this specific spot in the field. This
phenomenon is called the corona effect, and the limited discharge is called a
partial discharge.

There are dielectrics that demonstrate good resistance to high levels of partial
discharges, and others that degrade by decomposing in the presence of low levels
of ionization (many dry insulators are sensitive to these phenomena).

9.2.7 INSULATION RESISTANCE

The insulation resistance of cables is generally evaluated

in M per kilometre. For the same resistivity in its
dielectric, the thicker the insulation is, and the smaller
the cross-section of conductor is, the higher the insulation
resistance will be.

The insulation resistance value for cables with one single

conductor with circular section is as follows:

d2
R=0,367 ------- log ------
l d1

= resistivity M per cubic centimetre

d1 = diameter of the conductor
d2 = diameter over insulation (expressed in the same units as d1)
l= length of the cable in kilometres

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 Definition of Ki

This is the insulation resistance expressed in M of a

standard cable of 1 km in length with a diameter ratio
of 10 (d2 / d1 = 10). The Ki value is only a function of
the insulation.

Ki = 0,367. . 10-5 M1 Km

In this manner the insulation resistance of different cables can be compared by

calculating their Ki values.

R.l
Ki =
log d2
d1

the cables insulation resistance expressed in M1.

Consequently, if we know the value of Ki at 20C for the most commonly used
polymeric insulations, we can easily deduce the insulation resistance in M1 Km.
using the above formula.

Type of Insulation Value of Ki at 20C

PVC 36,7
EPR 3.670
XLPE 3.670
PE 50.000
S (Silicone) 1.500

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CAPACITANCE

The capacitance of a cable depends on the dimensions of the cable and the
relative dielectric current of the insulation.
In cables with a radial field, the capacitance is calculated by considering the cable
as a cylindrical condenser.

D = relative dielectric current

D = diameter of insulation
d = diameter of the conductor, including the semiconductor layer

VOLTAGE DROP

In electric conductors, the presence of resistance and serial reactance gives rise
to a difference between the voltages at each end of the section being considered;
this difference is called the voltage drop. The nature and intensity of the current
in the line, its length, dimensions and layout of the conductors all play roles in its
calculation.

In lines made up of insulated cables the influence of the capacity between

conductor or between themselves and earth is not taken into account for the
purposes of voltage drop (except in cases of extreme lengths), which does not
mean, however, that it is not significant from other perspectives.

Similarly the insulation conduction or leakance is disregarded. The line may be

shown by means of an equivalent circuit (Fig. 2), in which R is the resistance of
the line, X L its inductive reactance, and in which we suppose that half of the
capacity of the line is concentrated at the ends.

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 FIGURE 2

Figure 3 shows the equivalent vectorial diagram of voltages and currents.

However, given that in practice Ic1 and Ic2 are significantly lower than I1 and I2 the
simplified diagram shown in Figure 4 is used.

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4

In practice, the following formulae are used to calculate the voltage drop:

1) Three phase alternating current:

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 R = Total resistance of a conductor
r = Resistance per unit of length
XL = Total inductive reactance of a conductor
x = Reactance per unit of length
L = Length of line
P = Active power
Q = Reactive power
6U = Voltage drop between phases
bU = Percentage voltage drop between phases
U = Compound voltage

1) Single phase alternating current:

R y X = total values for both conductors in the line.

NOTE: In our catalogues and CD-ROM, voltage drops appear in V/AKm with cos
0.8 and 1 for each of the sections in mm2. The resistance R of the
conductor, in ohms/km, refers to 90C alternating current.

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