BONE

- Hardest tissues in the body.

- Volume of ground substance very small.
- About two-thirds of the matrix of bone - mixture of primarily
calcium phosphate or calcium hydroxyapatite with lesser amounts
of calcium carbonate.
- The remaining dominated by collagen fibers.
- Calcium salts are hard but rather brittle.
- Collagen fibers are stronger but relatively flexible.
- In bone, the minerals are organized around the collagen fibers. The
result is a strong, rather flexible combination that is very resistant
to compression, twisting and stretching.
- Lacunae (in the matrix) = osteocytes, or bone cells.
- The lacunae are normally organized around blood vessels that
branch through the bony matrix.
- Osteocytes communicate with the blood vessels and with one
another by means of slender tentacle-like cytoplasmic extensions.
- These extensions run through long and minute canal = canaliculi;
for the exchange of materials between blood vessels and
osteocytes.
- Bone surfaces are enclosed by a periosteum
- fibrous outer layer
- cellular inner layer
- The periosteum assists in the attachment of a bone to surrounding
tissues and to connected tendons and ligaments.
- The cellular layer functions in bone growth and take part in repairs
after an injury.
- 2 types of bone - compact bone and spongy bone
Bone Description Function of bone
tissue
Compact Bone specific provides
arrangements of protection
(dense bone) microscopic provides support
cylindrical helps the long
structures called bones resist the
osteons stress of weight
matrix and placed on the
osteocytes of
osteon are laid
down in
concentric rings
around a central
Haversian canal
tissue forms the
external layer of
all bones and the
bulk of the
diaphyses or
shaft of the long
bones
Spongy Bone consists of an makes up most
(cancellous bone) irregular of the bone tissue
latticework of of short, flat and
thin blades of irregularly
bone called shaped bones
trabeculae make up most of
space between the heads or
the trabeculae are epiphyses of long
filled with red bones
marrow which
produces blood
cells
COMPACT BONE
 SPONGY BONE

Fluid Connective Tissues BLOOD + LYMPH

Blood and lymph - connective tissues that contain distinctive
collections of cells in a fluid matrix.

The watery matrix - contains cells and many types of suspended proteins
that do not form insoluble fibers under normal conditions.

Type Description
Blood connective tissue because it
consists of blood cells
surrounded by a nonliving
fluid matrix called blood
plasma
most atypical connective
Red blood cell/erythrocyte
Make up for almost half the
volume of blood
Responsible for the transport
of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood.
 tissue since the fibers of blood
are soluble protein molecules White blood cells/ leukocytes
that become visible during
blood clotting
ontains blood cells and
fragments of cells,
collectively known as formed
elements
Red blood cells and white
blood cells suspended in the
watery matrix of blood, called
plasma.
Extracellular fluid includes
three major subdivisions -
plasma, interstitial fluid, and
lymph.
Arteries - vessels carry blood
away from the heart toward
capillaries, minute and thin-
walled vessels.
Veins - vessels that draw off
the capillaries and return
blood to the heart, completing
the circuit of blood.
The phagocytic microphages
such as neutrophils and
eosinophils, basophils,
lymphocytes, and
monocytes.
Important components of the
immune system, which
protects the body from
infection and disease
Platelets
Platelets contain enzymes
and special proteins.
Function in the clotting
response that closes breaks
in the endothelial lining

In tissues, water and small

solutes move out of the
capillaries into the interstitial
fluid by filtration, which
bathes the body's cells.
The major difference between
plasma and interstitial fluid is
that plasma contains large
 numbers of suspended
proteins.

Lymph Forms as interstitial fluid

enters lymphatic vessels.

Lymphatic vessels are small

vessels of the lymphatic
system that return the lymph
to the cardiovascular system.

Along the way, cells of the

immune system monitor the
composition of the lymph and
respond to signs of injury or
infection.
MUSCLE TISSUE
Specialized for contraction
Muscle cells possess organelles and properties distinct from other cells
Skeletal muscle

Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle.
They have similar contraction mechanism but differ in internal
organization.
Type of muscle tissue Descriptions

Skeletal Contractile tissue dominated by

Muscle Tissue skeletal muscle fibers
Characterized as striated, unbranched
arrangement, and voluntary muscle.
Contains very large muscle cells--up
to 0.3 meter (1 ft) or more in length;
usually called muscle fibers.
Each fiber is multinucleated -
contains many nuclei. (Several
hundred nuclei)
Skeletal muscle fibers do not usually
contract unless stimulated by nerves,
and the nervous system provides
voluntary control over their activities
- called striated voluntary muscle.
Attached to bones at either end.
By contracting, these muscles move
the joints across which they lie that
can cause movement and maintain
body posture.

Cardiac Located only in the heart.

Muscle Tissue Typical cardiac muscle cell -
cardiocyte, or cardiac myocyte
(branched), is smaller than a skeletal
muscle cell in size and striated like a
skeletal muscle.
Has one centrally placed nucleus.
Differ from skeletal muscle fibers in
size (smaller)
 Form extensive connections (occur at
specialized regions known as
intercalated discs) with one another.
Do not rely on nerve activity to start
a contraction.

Specialized cardiac muscle cells -

pacemaker cells establish a regular
rate of contraction.
Thus, the cardiac muscle is
myogenic, where it can contract
involuntarily. By contracting it
squeezes the blood out of the heart
into the blood vessels.

Smooth Muscle cell is a small, spindle-

Muscle Tissue shaped cell with tapering ends and a
single, oval nucleus.
Do not branch or have striations.
May contract by themselves -
contraction of some smooth muscle
tissue can be controlled by the
nervous system, but the contractile
activity is not under voluntary
control.
Known as nonstriated involuntary
muscle - nervous system usually
does not provide voluntary control
over smooth muscle contractions
Located in the walls of blood vessels,
around hollow organs such as the
urinary bladder and in layers around
the respiratory, circulatory, digestive,
 and reproductive tracts.

NERVOUS TISSUE

Also known as Neural tissue.

Specialized for the conduction of electrical impulses from one region of the
body to another. Brain and spinal cord - control centers of the nervous system,
98% neural tissue in the body is concentrated in brain and spinal cord
Two basic types of cells - neurons and neuroglia (several kinds of supporting
cells)
Neuroglia - different functions, such as supporting neural tissue and supplying
nutrients to neurons.
A typical neuron - large cell body with a large nucleus and a distinct nucleolus
Extending from the cell body - dendrites (branching structure) and a one axon
(tend to be very long and small - nerve fibers)
Dendrites - receive information, from other neurons,
Axons - carry that information to other cells.
PLANT TISSUES

3 MAIN TYPES GROUND; DERMAL AND VASCULAR

Meristematic tissues - composed of small immature cells that are

rapidly dividing. Initials and derivatives.

Apical meristems in root and shoots - linear growth - primary

growth.
Lateral meristems - increase in girth - secondary growth

Permanent primary tissues - derived from the meristematic tissues

(maturation).

Types Descriptions
Dermal tissue Form the protective outer covering of
plants. Epidermis - cells derived from the
 apical meristem.
Shoot has cuticle.
Root no cuticle but root hairs.

Ground tissue Cells derived from the apical meristem that

are neither vascular or surface.
o Parenchyma - occurs in roots, stems
and leaves. Thin 1 cell walls and no
2 cell walls. Large vacuole with
peripheral cytoplasm. - Alive tissue
o Collenchyma - alive cells with
elongate shape and irregularly
thickened walls in "corners." -
Support function.

o Sclerenchyma - support function.

Dead cells at maturity with secondary
cell walls almost fill the lumen -
fibers & sclerids.

o Endodermis - live cells much like

parenchyma but with Casparian strip
(waxy coating like a rubber band
around shoe box).
Vascular tissue Responsible for movement of materials in
vascular plants.

o Xylem - transports water and minerals

up the plant. Made of two cell types -
vessel elements and trachieds.
Parenchyma and Sclerenchyma fibers
too. All except parenchyma are dead
at functional maturity. Supporting as
 well.

o Phloem moves materials up and down

in plant. Sieve elements and
companion cells. Live at functional
maturity

Plant tissues can be categorized as meristematic tissues and

permanent primary tissues
2 stages (growth in plants) = production of new cells and, the
expansion of these cells via uptake of water by the vacuole.
Cell division occurs only in meristematic regions, while expansion
may occur anywhere. Thus in a single plant there are zones of
young dividing cells, maturing cells, and mature cells.

A. MERISTEMATIC TISSUES

Responsible for the division of new cells where they are zones of
actively dividing cells (mitosis)
The cells are small, thin-walled, with no central vacuole and no
specialized features.
3 meristematic regions in the plant are apical meristems, lateral
meristem, and intercalary meristem.

Types Descriptions
Apical meristem Located at the tips of roots (root apical
meristem) and shoots (shoot apical meristem)
form primary tissue
 Responsible in the elongation of the plant body,
- primary growth.
Form three primary meristems - protoderm,
ground meristem and procambium.
Protoderm forms the outer, protective coating of
the plants or dermal tissue system.
Ground meristem forms ground tissue system.
Procambium forms the vascular tissue system.

Intercalary Modified apical meristems found in different

meristem positions than either apical or lateral meristems
Example: in the stem nodes of grasses.
Occurs between mature tissues sections in the
area of the nodes or leaf attachment.
It is common in grasses where it occurs at bases
of nodes.
It helps regenerate parts that are removed by
lawnmowers or herbivores.

Lateral meristem Responsible for horizontal expansion or outward

expansion of plants - secondary growth.

Tissues derived from differentiated lateral meristem -

known as secondary tissues - make up the secondary
plant body.

Two kinds - vascular cambium and the cork

cambium.

Stems and roots may also grow in thickness or in

diameter through cell divisions in lateral, or
secondary, meristems, found just under the surface
along the length of the stem or root

Many plants lack lateral meristems (herbaceous)

Only primary growth and never produce true wood

(only produced by the vascular cambium)

Form as rings within the plant body as the stem

increases in thickness
 The vascular cambium cells divide longitudinally.

One of the new cells remains vascular cambium and the other becomes xylem. The cells can be
seen enlarging in this diagram.

Occasionally, the inner cells remain vascular cambium and the outer ones become phloem.

a. Vascular meristem or vascular cambium

In vascular cambium, the cells divide and differentiate to form the conducting tissues of the
plant, such as xylem and the phloem. The growth in diameter of tree trunks is entirely dependent
on the division of cambium cells. Vascular cambium cause internal growth in girth which
involves secondary tissues (xylem and phloem). Vascular cambium gives rise to secondary
vascular tissue and produces wood.
b. Cork cambium
In cork cambium, the cells divide to produce waterproof and protective cork tissue at the surface
of the stem and root. Cork cambium involves in external girth growth beyond the phloem area.
They form mostly the cork which consists of the bark and related tissues. The regularly arranged
walls of cork cells are impregnated with a waxy material, called suberin, that is almost
impermeable to water or gases.

Growth of the plant body involves both cell division and enlargement. Eventually cells may
undergo differentiation, i.e. they become different from each other and from the original
meristematic cells from which they originated. At maturity differentiated cells may be living or
dead.

The basic plant body tissue patterns are established by early meristematic activity. Cell division
and enlargement largely affects the plant shape.

Permanent Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells that are structurally and/or functionally distinct. Meristematic tissues
are arranged further to form three permanent tissue systems. Three tissue systems in plants are
ground tissue system, dermal tissue system and vascular tissue system.

1. Ground tissue system constitutes majority of the plant body or is composed of all the
tissues found between the dermal and vascular systems. Three types of cells that make up
ground tissue system are parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
2. Dermal tissue system is the outer layer that covers young root, stem and leaf. It consists
of epidermis, young plant parts which may later be replaced by periderm, which are
woody plant parts.

3. Vascular tissue system is complex conducting tissue system responsible for water and
nutrient transport, consisted of xylem and phloem.

Ground Tissue system

Ground meristem differentiates into 3 important tissues such as parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma

Parenchyma tissue

Parenchyma cells are the progenitor of all other cells and the most common component of
ground tissues. They perform almost all the metabolic activities of plant cells. Parenchyma tissue
composed of parenchyma cells and has relatively unspecialized cells that perform many
functions.

Smilax sp

Root cross section of parenchyma cell

Parenchyma tissues are alive at maturity. The cells of parenchyma are large with generally
spherical or slightly irregular in shape, thin primary cell wall, usually have a large central
vacuole and retain the capacity to undergo cell division. Parenchyma cells are full with plastids.
The functions of parenchyma tissue are for photosynthesis, food storage, and wound healing and
regeneration.

Colorless plastids predominate and food storage is the main function if the plastids located at the
areas not exposed to light such as in the cortex region of roots. The cells of the potato are
parenchyma cells. Where light is present, such as in the spongy or palisade layers of leaves,
chloroplasts predominate and photosynthesis is the major function.
There are several different types of parenchyma cells, categorized by function. For example,
chlorenchyma cells contain chloroplasts and are specialized for photosynthesis. Aerenchyma
cells contain large intracellular air spaces and function in gas exchange.

Collenchyma tissue

Collenchyma cells are living at maturity, like parenchyma. Collenchyma cells have thickening at
the corner of the primary cell walls. These cells are more elongate than parenchyma cells and
they are distinguished from parenchyma cells by their unevenly thickened cell walls.

They are most often found in areas that are growing rapidly and need to be strengthened. These
cells are often occurred as long strands beneath the epidermis of young stems, young roots and
leaf stalks or petioles such as in celery, or within vascular tissue of leaf veins.

The function of collenchyma tissues is to provide mechanical support for the primary plant body.
Collenchyma cells lack the hardening agent called lignin. Thus, collenchyma cells are relatively
long, with nonlignified primary walls which allows them to stretch.

Typical collenchyma cells Stem cross section (Sambucus sp.)

Sclerenchyma

Sclerenchyma cells are non-living or dead and lack protoplasts at maturity. They may be found in
all parts of both the primary and secondary plant body. These cells contain lignin. Thus, the walls
of these cells are very thick, built up in a uniform layer of lignified rigid secondary walls around
the entire margin of the cell.

Sclerenchyma cells are generally found linked with other cells types and give them mechanical
support. They provide strength and support in parts that have stopped elongating. Besides
supporting, the rigid secondary cell walls also serve as protection such as in seed coat and shell
of nuts. Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of two kinds of cells, that are strong supporting fibers
and extremely hard stone cells or sclereids, which is common in seed coats and nut shells.

a. Fibers are long slender cells which occur in strands or bundles, for example, hemp, flax
and jute. Fibers have very thin lumens or cell cavity, the space left after the protoplast
decays. Fibers provide support for the plant. Fibers are frequently associated with the
conducting tissue of roots and stems.

b. Sclereids are vary in shape, often branched, may occur singly or in groups in ground
tissues throughout the plant. They are also called "stone cells. They make up the seed coat
of seeds, shells of nuts, stones of drupes, and give the pear its gritty texture. Their
function is primarily for protection.

Typical fiber cell in l.s. Cross section of fiber cells in a young stem (Fraxinus sp.).

o
 Typical sclereid Stone cells from pear

Dermal Tissue System

Protoderm matures to form epidermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the primary plant
body. The epidermis is normally only one layer thick and is composed mostly of unspecialized
cells, either parenchyma and/or sclerenchyma. This flattened irregular single layer of cells
protects and covers the soft tissues of young plants such as the roots, shoots, leaves, floral parts,
fruits, seeds, and stems.

Some epidermal cells specialize to become guard cells and root hairs. Guard cells are sausage-
shaped cells that always in pairs on leaf surfaces. They form pores called stomata that control the
entry and exit of gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor. The majority of
epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts, except for the guard cells. Root hairs which come
out from the epidermal cells just above the root tip help increase the absorptive surface area of
the root.

Epidermal cells secrete a waxy water proofing substance known as cutin and suberin. Cutin is
produced over the leaf epidermis to form a protective covering called the cuticle which prevents
water loss. When secondary growth occurs in the plants especially in stem and root, the
epidermis is finally replaced by a special layer of cells called periderm. It is normally composed
of parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells, as well as cork and phelloderm. Periderm is also
responsible for the production of a waterproofing material called suberin.

Epidermis from an onion. Epidermis of a leaf showing guard cells

Epidermal hair from a leaf Root hairs.

Vascular Tissue System

Procambium gives rise to the following vascular tissue, which are primary xylem , primary
phloem , and vascular cambium that is important in secondary growth.

A vascular bundle from the stem of a young dicot

(Helianthus sp.)
Xylem tissue

Xylem is a complex tissue composed of several cell types that function in supporting the
physical structure of the plant and the conduction of water and dissolved minerals from the roots
to all the other parts of the plant. Xylem is composed of tracheids, xylem vessel or vessel
elements, fibers, and parenchyma. Both the tracheids and xylem vessel have lignified secondary
cell walls, and are dead at maturity.

These are thick-walled tubes that can extend vertically through several feet of xylem tissue. Their
walls are thickened with secondary deposits of cellulose and are generally further strengthened
by impregnation with lignin.

Xylem vessels

In angiosperms, most of the water travels in the xylem vessels or vessel element Xylem vessels
arise from shorter and wider individual cylindrical cells align end to end to. At maturity the end
walls of these cells dissolve away and the cytoplasmic contents die. As a result, the xylem vessel
forms hollow, continuous, conduits from root to leaf where the vessel looks like uninterrupted
pipelines.

The secondary walls of the xylem vessels are deposited in spirals and rings and are usually
perforated by pits. Some xylem vessel have openings in their end walls called a perforation plate.
They are joined end to end at their perforation plates to form a long tube or vessel. Therefore,
water flow through vessels is more efficient than water flow in tracheids.

Xylem tissue derived from the apical meristem is called primary xylem, and xylem tissue derived
from a lateral meristem or vascular cambium is called secondary xylem. The vessels carry water
and some dissolved solutes, such as inorganic ions, up the plant. Pits allow lateral movement of
water of the xylem vessel.

Typical vessel element

Tracheids

All vascular plants contain tracheids, which are long slender cells with tapered ends. The tapered
end of one cell overlaps that of the adjacent cell. Like xylem vessels, they have thick, lignified
walls, dead at maturity and no cytoplasm. Tracheids conduct water from cell-to-cell through
perforation plates in the end walls or through pits in the side walls. Pits allow water to move
laterally.

The deposition of the secondary cell walls in tracheids may cover the inside of the primary wall
except for pits where they consist of thin primary cell walls only. The earliest matured tracheids
have annular, spiral or helical, or reticulate patterns of wall thickenings. Later-maturing tracheids
have pitted walls. The secondary cell walls in tracheids develop in a region undergoing
elongation may produce a spiral or helical pattern of wall thickening. The functions of tracheids
are for conduction of water, dissolved minerals and support.

The xylem of ferns and conifers contains only tracheids.

 Longitudinal
Typical
section of a Tracheid with spiral thickening of
tracheid cell.
tracheid. the secondary cell wall.

Fiber and parenchyma cells

Fibers provide support particularly for the conducting tissue and thus for the plant. Food storage
may take place in the parenchyma cells.

Phloem tissue

Phloem is a complex living tissues composed of several cell types. It consists of sieve-tube
members, companion cells, fibers, and parenchyma. The two specialized phloem cell types are
sieve elements and companion cells. Except for fibers, the cells of phloem are alive and do not
produce lignified secondary cell walls. Phloem tissue derived from the apical meristem is called
primary phloem, and phloem tissue derived from a lateral meristem which is vascular cambium
is called secondary phloem.

Phloem functions in the transport of sugars, amino acids, and other small molecules from the leaf
to the rest of the plant. It is a bidirectional flow where the flow is down to the roots, but also up
to the apical buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds.

Sieve elements and Companion cells

There are two kinds of sieve elements, which are sieve cells and sieve tube members.

Sieve cells occur in nonflowering plants and long with tapered overlapping ends. Sieve cells
associated with albuminous cells, which help regulate the sieve cells' activities

Sieve tube members are arranged end to end to form sieve tubes. They have larger pores than
sieve cells. The pores are concentrated along contacting end walls of adjacent sieve tube
members. Sieve-tube members are living cells with typical thin walls. The end walls are
perforated and called sieve plates. As the end walls of sieve elements have pores, materials
dissolved in the cytoplasm can flow from cell to cell.

Since the rate of flow through sieve tube members is high, the cytoplasm is very simple, with no
developed organelles such as nucleus, mitochondrion, and chloroplast. This allows cytoplasmic
connections between cells that stacked vertically and joined end to end. The result is a sieve tube
that transports the products of photosynthesis from the place where they are manufactured to the
places where they are consumed or stored.

Although sieve tube members are alive at maturity, they lack nuclei. Thus, their energy and
metabolic needs are supplied by companion cells which lie adjacent to them by means of
plasmodesmata. Therefore companion cells also play a role in conduction of food. One or more
companion cells lie next to each sieve-tube members and many plasmodesmata connect the two
cell types.

Fiber and parenchyma cells

Fibers provide support particularly for the conducting tissue and thus for the plant. Food storage
may take place in the parenchyma cells.

Phloem tissue in cross-section. Typical sieve-tube member with companion cells