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ABSTRACT
This teacher's guide is designed to provide science teachers
with the necessary guidance and suggestions for teaching nuclear chemistry.
In this book, the fundamental concepts of nuclear science and the
applications of nuclear energy are discussed. The material in this book can
be integrated with the other modules in a sequence that helps students see
that chemistry is a unified science. Contents include: (1) "Basic Properties
of Matter";' (2) "The Makeup of Our Solar System"; (3) "Nucleosynthesis and
Stellar Evolution"; (4) "Radioactive Decay"; (5) "The Search for New
Elements"; (6) "Uses of Radiation"; and (7) "Nuclear Power". (KHR)
A
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IAC PROJECT TEAM
Directors of IAC:
Marjorie Gardner, 1971-73, 1976-79
Henry Heikkinen, 1973-76, 1979-
PUPILS to whom this textbook is issued must not write on any page or mark any part of it in any way, Revision Coordinator:
consumable textbooks excepted.
I Teachers should see that the papit's name is clearly written in ink in the spaces above in every basal: :slued.
Alan DeGennaro
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Kic
TEACHER'S GUIDE
Vic Viola
Robert Hear le
1817
'411111111
4
AUTHORS
TEACHER'S GUIDE
THE HEART OF MATTER:
A NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY MODULE
VIC VIOLA
ROBERT HEARLE
012345MU0987654321
5
Contents
INTRODUCING THE HEART OF MATTER 1
RADIOACTIVE DECAY 40
N-24 From Stable to Radioactive 40
N-25 Rate of Decay: The Way It Goes 40
iii
N-26 Gamma Decay 41
N-27 Beta Decay 41
N-28 The Half-life of VBa/Experiment 42
N-29 Alpha Decay 43
N-30 Spontaneous Fission 44
N-31 The Dating Game 45
N-32 Radioactive Decay in Our Environment/Experiment 46
USES OF RADIATION 50
N-35 Radiation in Our Environment 50
N-36 Gamma-Ray Penetration/Experiment 51
N-37 Radioactive Tracers in Chemistry 55
N-38 Tracers/Miniexperiment 55
N-39 Effects of Radiation Doses 56
N-40 Nuclear Techniques in Medicine 56
N-41 Nuclear Techniques in Agriculture 56
N-42 Plant Absorption of Phosphorus/Experiment 57
N-43 Radiation and Consumer Products 57
N-44 Activation Analysis 58
NUCLEAR POWER 59
N-45 Nuclear Reactor Operation 59
N-46 Nuclear Power and the Environment 59
N-47 Miniature Power Sources 63
N-48 Nuclear Fusion: Reach for the Sun 63
SUMMARY 64
APPENDIX
Safety 65
Metric Units 66
Module Tests 67
Knowledge-Centered Module Test 68
Skill-Centered Module Test 71
Materials List 73
Acknowledgments 74
Index 75
Table of International Relative Atomic Masses 76
Periodic Table of the Elements
iv
Introducing The Heart of Matter
In developing this nuclear module, we have tried You will note that radioactive decay is dis-
to fulfill two basic objectives. The first is to cussed rather late in the module. Because of the
present the fundamental concepts of nuclear sci- need to deal with this subject in earlier sections,
encenomenclature, radioactive decay, nuclear preliminary discussions are given in sections
reactionsand the applications of nuclear en- N-3 Fundamental Particles: Building Blocks, N-4
ergy. The second objective is to familiarize stu- Heads/Tails and Half-life, and N-12 Transmutation of
dents with current theories of stellar evolution Elements. To provide students with an adequate
and nucleosynthesis. By fulfilling these two background for the intervening discussions, you
objectives we are able to treat nucleosynthesis as should emphasize the subject of half-lives in
a story line for the presentation of nuclear phe- these sections.
nomena. This approach lends greater continuity Because stellar nucleosynthesis serves as the
to the teaching of nuclear science and does not basic story line, you need not feel handicapped if
significantly increase the complexity of the quan- your high-school laboratory lacks the equipment
titative material introduced to the student. For required for a nuclear chemistry program. The
the many high-school students who do not have Heart of Miner: A Nuclear Chemistry Module out-
access to the apparatus required for a nuclear lines a basic program in nuclear chemistry that
chemistry program, this approach provides a can be taught independently of laboratory work,
coherent program that can be implemented with- although the laboratory program increases the
out any laboratory work. effectiveness of the module. All that is needed to
Our experience with teaching the subject carry out many of the experiments is a MINIGEN-
matter has demonstrated that the average high- ERATORTM* and a detector (see Teaching The Heart
school student can successfully master the mate- of Matter). The basic laboratory sequence outlined
rial at the level presented here. It is expected that in the student module can be replaced or supple-
The Heart of Matter will be taught toward the end mented by other activities if the basic MINIGENER-
of the IAC year and program, perhaps being uti- ATOR package is not available to you. Supplemen-
lized in advanced high-school courses. With tary student readings, films, and class tours of
advanced students it may be necessary to provide nuclear-particle accelerators or nuclear power
a more quantitative base: for example, complete reactors are among the options you may wish to
presentation of the laws of radioactive decay. include in your classroom program.
Although it is possible to direct interested stu-
dents toward theory-oriented material, the pref- The term MINIGENERATOR is a registered trademark of Redco Science
erence is to direct them toward general topics. Inc.
Special Features in the Student points of the metric system as presented in Reac-
tions and Reason: An Introductory Chemistry Module
Module (see section A-8 and Appendix II). There is a
Metric System Le Systeme International (SI) is metric-units chart in the appendix of The Heart of
used throughout the IAC program. As you work Matter student module that students can easily
with this module, you may wish to review some refer to.
a
Time Machine A feature we call the Time module as well as in the teacher's guide. Encour-
Machine appears in the IAC modules in order to age your students to use this section. In addition,
show chemistry in a broader context. For some students should be made aware of the importance
students this may provide a handle on particular of keeping up-to-date with current literature in
aspects of chemistry by establishing the social- the ever-changing field of nuclear chemistry. You
cultural-political framework in which significant may wish to suggest other material that you have
progress has been made in chemistry. Students found interesting and enjoyable.
may enjoy suggesting other events in chemistry
around which to create Time Machines of their Illustrations and Photographs The module is
own. extensively illustrated to provide relevant and
stimulating visual material to enable students to
Cartoons A popular feature of the IAC program relate chemistry to everyday life, as well as to pro-
is the use of chemistry cartoons. These cartoons vide material for provocative discussion. In using
give students a chance to remember specific some of these illustrations, it is not the intention
points of chemistry in another important way of IAC to endorse any particular product or
through humor. Suggest that your students cre- brand, but only to relate chemistry to life outside
ate other chemistry cartoons for their classmates the classroom. As you proceed through each sec-
to enjoy. tion, encourage students to collect, display, and
discuss photos and illustrations that provoke fur-
Safety Laboratory safety is a special concern in ther discussion.
any chemistry course. In addition to including
safety discussions and guidelines in the appendix Problems A number of problems have been
of each student module and teacher's guide, interspersed throughout the student module, in
experiments have been developed in a way addition to the questions that are naturally built
designed to eliminate potentially dangerous into the narratives and the laboratory experi-
chemicals and procedures. Moreover, each exper- ments. You will find some of these problems in
iment that might present a hazardsuch as specifically marked sections in the student mod-
fumes, corrosive chemicals, or the use of a ule. These problems can be used in a variety of
flamehas been marked with a safety symbol to ways as you see fit. They are not planned as tests;
alert students and teachers to use added, reason- remember, the IAC program is designed so that
able caution. Caution statements, in bold type, mastery of the content and skills can be achieved
also appear in experiments to specifically instruct through the repeated reinforcement of ideas and
the student on the care required. procedures encountered by students as they
progress through the various modules. (Also see
Selected Readings Articles and books that tie Evaluating Student Performance for additional infor-
in with the topics discussed in the IAC program mation on evaluation and evaluation items for
have been listed in the appendix of the student this module.)
2
Preparations and Supplies Student aides can results consistent with the particular experimen-
be helpful in preparing solutions, labeling and tal conditions (either correct or incorrect) they
filling bottles, cleaning glassware, and testing have established. Because careful work will yield
experiments. Each experiment has been class- more precise results, encourage each student to
room tested, but you should try each experiment take personal pride in experimental work. If stu-
to determine any revisions necessary to meet the dents disagree on a result, discuss the factors that
needs of your situation or that of your students. might account for the difference. A student who
provides a thoughtful analysis of why a particular
result turned out to be "different" (incomplete
Cleaning Up Involve your students in putting drying, a portion of the sample was spilled, etc.)
away equipment, washing glassware, and storing deserves credit for such interpretation.
material for the next time it is to be used. Taking
care of equipment is part of the responsibilities Laboratory Safety The IAC program intro-
we seek to foster. duces many new laboratory procedures and activ-
ities to students. Tocuse the IAC program safely
Laboratory Reports and Data Processing Re- you should become thoroughly familiar with all
cording data and preparing reports on laboratory student activities in the laboratory. Do all the
experimentation are important skills in all science experiments and carry out all the demonstrations
courses and, of course, are part of the IAC pro- yourself before presenting them to your class. We
gram. Although you may have your own meth- have tested each experiment and have suggested
ods of student reporting, some of the suggestions the use of chemicals that provide the least chance
that IAC teachers have found successful have of causing a safety problem in the laboratory. The
been included for your consideration. teacher's guide has many suggestions to help you
It is helpful for students to keep a laboratory provide your students with safe laboratory expe-
notebook. A quadrille-ruled laboratory notebook riences. Have the students read Appendix I: Safety.
with a sheet of carbon paper allows a student to Then conduct a brief orientation to laboratory
produce two data sheets and copies of the report safety before the students encounter their first
summary. Each page can be permanently laboratory experience in each module. Review,
retained in the notebook, and the duplicate copy when necessary, and discuss precautions and
can be submitted for evaluation or tabulation. safety each time a symbol appears in the student
You will find it helpful if data summaries, text. In addition, the Suggested Readings in the
including all written observations, are submitted teacher's guide of Reactions and Reason lists safety
at the end of the laboratory period, even though manuals that give detailed instructions on the
the calculations and/or questions are not due until handling of hazardous chemicals, disposal of
a later date. chemicals, and general laboratory safety.
You will then be able to assemble a summary of
all student results for a particular investigation on Materials for IAC In light of increasing costs for
the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency. equipment and supplies, as well as decreasing
Such data permit useful discussion on determin- school budgets, we have tried to produce a
ing a "best" value through a median or mean materials list that reflects only the quantities
value, a histogram, or through some other visual needed to do the experiments with minimal sur-
report of overall student results. plus. Thus, the laboratory preparation sections
A realistic view of laboratory work suggests contain instructions for only a 10 to 20 percent
that in the most fundamental sense there are no surplus of reagents. Add enough materials for
wrong laboratory results. All students obtain student repeats and preparation errors.
10
Evaluating Student Performance own means of student evaluation. The module
tests are at the end of the teacher's guide.
In addition to the problems and questions
incorporated in the student module text and illus-
There are many ways of evaluating your stu- tration captions, there are suggested evaluation
dents' performances. One of the most important items at the end of each module section in the
forms of evaluation is observing your students as teacher's guide. Answers to all of the evaluation
they proceed through the IAC program. IAC has items are included to help you in your classroom
developed skill tests and knowledge tests for use discussion and evaluation.
with this module. These test items have been sug- For information on evaluating students' atti-
gested and tested by IAC classroom chemistry tudes while using this module, see Reactions and
teachers. You are encouraged to add these to your Reason: An Introductory Chemistry Module.
4
11
RADIOACTIVE DECAY the nature of chemical bonds, and the diagnosis
of illnesses.
Half-life is the time required for one-half of the
Radiation can be used to split molecules, thus
particles in a radioactive sample to decay. forming free radicals for use in genetic and agri-
Four processes of radioactive decay are cultural research and in the treatment of diseases
gamma decay, beta decay, alpha decay, and such as cancer.
spontaneous fission.
The rate of radioactive decay of naturally NUCLEAR POWER
occurring nuclides provides a means by which
the age of the Earth and archaeological samples Energy is produced in nuclear reactors by
can be approximated. means of fission reactions.
Radiation is emitted in all directions and its The generation of nuclear power has an effect
intensity varies with distance, according to the on the environment.
inverse square law. Nuclear-fusion reactors are being developed
based on fusion reactions that occur in the Sun.
The components of a nuclear reactor include
THE SEARCH FOR NEW ELEMENTS the fuel rods, control rods, moderator, heat
exchanger, shielding, and containment shield.
The production of synthetic elements relies 235U is the most common fuel used for nuclear
heavily on the use of nuclear reactors. reactors, which derive their energy from nuclear-
The production of superheavy elements relies fission reactions.
on the use of heavy-ion accelerators. Nuclear power provides a means of making
our country independent in terms of its energy
needs. However, as with the burning of coal, oil,
USES OF RADIATION and gas, there are also tradeoffs for our environ-
Background radiation exists because of the ment. Among these are the exposure of indi-
decay of naturally occurring radioactive sub- viduals to radiation, the contamination of the
stances and the presence of cosmic rays. environment with radioactivity in the event of an
Applications of radioactive tracers include the accident, the reprocessing of nuclear fuel, and the
study of the mechanisms of chemical reactions, storage of radioactive wastes.
12
Module Objectives room teachers who have helped in this difficult
task.
We have attempted to group module objectives in The objectives identified here should provide
three broad categories: concept-centered, atti- you with a useful starting point in clarifying your
tude-centered, and skill-centered. The categories own goals in teaching this module. We encourage
are not mutually exclusive; there is considerable you to identify alternate objectives, using this list
overlap. The conditions for accomplishing each as a point of departure. Assessment items can be
objective are not given, since they can easily be found throughout the text and at the end of major
found in the respective section in the module. sections in the student module in the form of
Note also that concept and skill objectives are Problems. Other Evaluation Items are included after
more specific than those in the affective domain. each major section in this guide and in the form of
It is very difficult to classify objectives in this way, module tests for knowledge and skill objectives,
but we have been encouraged to do so by class- located in the appendix.
N-1 N-4
Identify the atomic nucleus as Inquire about the possible Solve problems that involve the
the factor that determines whether origins of elements in the Universe. half-lives of radionuclides.
or not an element can exist in Recognize the importance of Determine the probability of the
nature and what its chemical controlling variables in an occurrence of simple events.
characteristics will be. experiment.
N-6
N-2 Perform calculations based on
Define the term stellar the law of conservation of mass-
nucleosynthesis. energy.
N-3 N-9
Characterize the fundamental Measure amounts of radiation
particles of the atom, including their using a radiation detector.
mass, electric charge, and half-life. Determine the relationship
between the activity of a
N-5
radioactive source and the distance
Name the three basic binding
of that source from a detector.
forces in the Universe. Compare
the relative strengths of these
forces. Describe how these forces
affect particles in the atom.
N-6
Write the mathematical
expression for the law of
conservation of mass-energy and
state the implications of the law.
Explain the meaning of the
conservation of electric charge in a
reaction.
State the law of conservation of
nucleon number.
6 13
Concept-Centered Objectives Attitude-Centered Objectives Skill-Centered Objectives
N-7
Describe the effects that the
basic forces have on interactions
between the fundamental particles.
Explain the operation of a
radiation detector.
N-8
Explain how nuclear particles
are accelerated.
N-9
State the relationship between
the activity of a radioactive source
and the distance of that source
from a detector.
N-10 N-10
Define and differentiate Become aware of how small Write nuclear representations
between nuclide, nucleon, isotope, the Earth is in relation to the Sun, for nuclides.
isotone, and isobar. the solar system, and the Universe.
N-13
N-11 Determine the amount of eluant
Describe factors that influence needed to separate a radioactive
the stability of a nucleus. reactant-product isotope pair.
N-12
Explain the meaning of the
term transmutation.
N-14
Compare the abundances of
elements in the solar system.
N-15 N-15
Discuss the big bang theory of Recognize that a theory may Complete nuclear equations for
element synthesis. be useful in explaining facts but reactions related to the big bang
must be rejected or modified when theory.
N-16
facts are presented that cannot be
Discuss how stars and galaxies
explained by the theory.
were formed from big bang dust.
14
Concept-Centered Objectives Attitude-Centered Objectives Skill-Centered Objectives
N-17 N-17
Identify the source of energy in Write equations for the
a main sequence star. hydrogen-burning process.
Balance nuclear reaction
N-18
equations using both the longhand
Explain how helium burning
and the shorthand methods.
follows hydrogen burning in a star's
Perform calculations showing
evolution.
the conversion of matter into
N-19 energy in nuclear reactions.
Explain how carbon and silicon
N-18
burning follow helium burning in a
Write equations that illustrate
star's evolution.
helium burning.
N-20
N-19
Explain the production of heavy
Write equations that illustrate
elements through the r-process.
carbon and silicon burning.
N-21
N-20
Describe how radioactivity was
Write equations that illustrate
first discovered.
the r-process.
N-23
N-22
Discuss the production of
Illustrate the effect of radiation
heavy elements through the
on photographic film.
s-process.
Compare the ability of the r-
process and that of the s-process
to synthesize heavy elements.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
N-24 N-25
Explain why the terms stable Discuss the effects of Perform calculations based on
and radioactive are relative terms. radioactive decay particles on our the rate of radioactive decay.
environment.
N-25 N-26, 27, 29
Define and give an equation for Write equations that illustrate
both radioactivity and half-life. the four basic modes of radioactive
decay.
N-26, 27, 29, 30
State the four modes of N-28
radioactive decay. List the particles Determine experimentally the
given off in each form of half-life of a radioactive isotope.
radioactive decay.
8
is
Concept-Centered Objectives Attitude-Centered Objectives Skill-Centered Objectives
N-33, 34 N-33, 34
Compare the number of Discuss the importance of Write equations that illustrate
elements known before 1940 to the synthesizing new elements. the synthesis of transuranium
number presently known. elements.
Discuss applications of
synthetic elements in daily life.
USES OF RADIATION
N-35 N-36
List and discuss the sources of Discuss the future influence of Graph activity vs. shielding
our daily exposure to radiation. nuclear chemistry with respect to thickness data.
our society. Determine half-thickness of a
N-37, 40, 41
shielding material.
Give examples of the use of Discuss the beneficial uses and
radioactive tracers in chemistry, the detrimental effects of radiation. N-38
medicine, and agriculture. Locate radioisotopes using a
radiation detector.
N-39
Discuss the effects of nuclear N-42
radiation on people and materials. Demonstrate the uptake of
radioactive phosphorus by a plant.
N-43
Describe the operation of an
ionization smoke detector.
N-44
Provide examples of how
neutron activation analysis is used
in different scientific disciplines.
9-
16
Concept-Centered Objectives Attitude-Centered Objectives Skill-Centered Objectives
NUCLEAR POWER
N-45
List the basic components of a Discuss the advantages and
nuclear reactor. disadvantages of using nuclear
Discuss the operation of a energy as a power source.
nuclear reactor.
N-46
Discuss the effects of a nuclear
power station on the environment.
N-47
Discuss the application of
nuclear power to miniature power
sources.
N-48
Describe the efforts being
made to control nuclear fusion
reactions for the production of
electric power.
10
17
Teaching The Heart of Matter
Nuclear chemistry as taught in high school has detection, the penetrating power of radiation,
definite meanings for most of us: the three simple ion-exchange elution, half-life measurement, and
types of radioactive decay, the balancing of nucle- tracer applications. Depending on the interest
ar equations, a study of nuclear reactors, and the level of your class, you can carry out a more
applications of radioactivitysuch as tracers, extensive program with activities suggested in
dating, and radiation therapy. the MINIGENERATOR program. Three options for
In The Heart of Matter: A Nuclear Chemistry Mod- conducting the laboratory program follow.
ule, we have developed a new and highly success-
Option I: MINIGENERATOR Program The MINI -
ful approach to the teaching of nuclear chemistry.
GENERATOR Nucleonics Kit contains the complete
Although we discuss conventional topics, the
equipment necessary for an extensive nuclear lab-
major portion of the module is devoted to nontra-
oratory program. Its components, which serve up
ditional topics, including stellar synthesis of the
elements. We have also restructured the ap- to five students per laboratory, include a radia-
tion detector, two MINIGENERATORS, the required
proaches to the activities so that concepts such as
half-life and half-thickness will acquire definite laboratory supplies (solutions, containers, etc.),
meanings for the students after they have and a manual, MINIGENERATOR Experiments in
Nucleonics * *. There are no problems in using the
explored them experimentally.
An excellent laboratory program is available in
kits in successive laboratories. Because of the
the form of the package MINIGENERATOR Nucleon- expense involved, kits can be shared by several
ics Kit and MINIGENERATOR Nuclear Laboratory for schools. For the school that makes use of the kit,
Chemistry and Physics*. Many of the activities in we have suggested additional experiments at
this module have been structured around the appropriate places in this teacher's guide.
MINIGENERATOR program because of its adaptabil- Option II: MINIGENERATORS A less expensive
ity to many different situations. The kit provides a way of operating the laboratory program involves
safe, well-planned, and instructive program. purchasing only the MINIGENERATORS and gather-
The heart of the MINIGENERATOR program is the ing the remaining materials from local sources.
MINIGENERATOR also see Journal of Chemical Edu- Surplus radiation detectors, for example, can be
cation 46(1969): 287], which consists of a long- acquired from your local Civil Defense Authority,
lived source of radioactivity that is tightly bound as regulations require that these battery-operated
on an ion-exchange resin in a self-contained unit. devices be replaced every three years. These
The radioactive decay of the atomic nuclei detectors are usually in good working condition.
absorbed on the column produces a new element Ideally, it would be desirable to have two differ-
that is also radioactive but that has a much shorter ent MINIGENERATORS per group of five students:
half-life. The MINIGENERATOR can be used as a one 137Cs source, for which the product half-life is
constant source of radiation, or the products of 2.6 minutes, and one 113Sn source, for which the
decay can be eluted from the resin and used to product half-life is 100 minutes. If you can pur-
perform other measurements. Because the radio- chase only one kind of source, the 137Cs is prob-
active products decay to stable isotopes, there is ably more valuable for the experiments suggested
no danger of radioactive contamination in these here. The remaining equipment, such as solu-
experiments. tions and containers, can easily be prepared or
In the module we suggest a series of experi- else obtained as common laboratory stock.
ments that illustrate the principles of nuclear
"'Henry H. Kramer and Wayne J. Gemmill, eds., MINIGENERATOR
Experiments in Nucleonics (New York: Union Carbide Corporation,
'Available from Redco Science Inc., Danbury, CT 06810 and from 1968). Available from Redco Science Inc., Danbury, CT 06810 and from
other distributors. other distributors.
11
18
Option III: Demonstration For the even more groups provide the demonstrations for the
restricted budget, the purchase of a single MINI- remainder of the students in the class.
GENERATOR and the acquisition of a surplus detec- To allow for individual preferences, we are
tor will make it possible for you to demonstrate leaving the teaching schedule and time plan up to
the experiments. Instructors who are electroni- the individual teacher. We would like to advise
cally inclined can add a simple circuit to provide you, however, that a brisk pace is preferable.
an audio output to the detector, which will result Because of the modular structure of the IAC cur-
in a more impressive demonstration. Students riculum, many concepts are treated several times
can record the data as an experiment is done. from different points of view, and an intensive
Student groups can also work with the MINI- treatment every time is not necessary. Most
GENERATOR to repeat the experiments that are teachers allow about six weeks of teaching for The
demonstrated, or you may wish to have student Heart of Matter.
12
19
Particle Symbol Mass (1.0 Charge Spin Half-life
Leptons
1
(1) muon 0.10 -1
2
1
(2) electron e-, 13 0.000 5486 -1 stable
2
1
(3) neutrino 0 0 stable
2
Mesons
(1) pion n 0.15 1, 0 0 10-8 s or less
(2) kon K 0.50 0, 1 0
Baryons
(1) nucleon
1 12.8 min; stable
(a) neutron n 1.008 6654 0
2 inside nuclei
1
(b) proton p, H 1.007 8252 +1 stable
2
1
(2) hyperons A, 1, >m, 1,0 less than 10-9 s
2
3
2
composed of simpler particles called quarks, encounter a normal galaxy, in which case the two
which have been hypothesized to have a one- would destroy each other instantaneously with
third integral electric charge. Various combina- one magnificent "zap." This has been observed to
tions of quarks with a total charge of +1 make up happen in the laboratory when particles and anti-
the proton, and combinations of quarks with a net particles collide. They annihilate one another and
neutral charge make up the neutron. Scientists at give off more energy than any other known pro-
many high-energy nuclear laboratories are pres- cessthat is, an energy equal to the total mass of
ently searching to confirm the existence of the the particles.
quark. For further discussion of fundamental par- The atomic mass unit has been arbitrarily
ticles, see the article by D. B. Cline, A. K. Mann, defined in such a way that the atom 12C has a
and C. Rubbia, "The Search for New Families of mass of 12.000 000 . . . u. This definition has been
Elementary Particles," Scientific American (January made because of the ease of using carbon as a
1976), page 44. standard in mass spectrometry measurements.
It should also be mentioned that for each of the An actual mass measurement of 12C in grams
particles there exists an antiparticle with proper- defines the value of the atomic mass unit.
ties exactly the opposite of those listed in the
1 u = 1.660 x 10-24 g or 931.48 MeV/c2
table. For example, the antielectron, or positron,
has a charge of +1, instead of -1. Antiparticles of This value also serves to define the mole.
all the particles listed, except for the theoretical
graviton, have been observed in the laboratory. 1 mole = atoms contained in one gram-atomic mass
Although our galaxy is made up of particles, it is
conceivable that an antiparticle galaxy exists / 12.000 -u/atom)/(1.660
a x 10-24 g/u)
somewhere in space. If you were to live there, 12.000
everything would seem very much the same as it
does on Earthunless the antigalaxy were to = 6.023 x 1023 atoms
t. 13
20
The other way of expressing mass, 931.48 MeV/c2, Objective After completing this miniexperiment, a
is an example of the application of Einstein's student should be able to*:
equation: Determine the half-life of a substance from a knowl-
edge of the number of particles that have decayed or
E energy in MeV remained after an integral number of half-lives.
m= mass
c2 velocity of light squared
Estimated Time One-half period
Note also that the difference between the mass of
6 protons and 6 neutrons (12.098 944 u) and the Student Grouping Students should work individ-
mass of the 12C atom (12.000 000 u) is the mass ually.
that is converted into the binding energy neces-
sary to hold the 12C nucleus together. This
amounts to 92.16 MeV, or an average of 7.68 MeV Materials** You will need the following materials for a
for each particle in the nucleus. (Average binding class of thirty students.
energy is discussed in section N-II.) a coin provided by each member of the class
Spin is a fundamental property which we have linear graph paper
not discussed in the text. It is a quantum-
mechanical property that is classically related to Advance Preparation None
rotation about an axis (as in a spinning top or
Earth's daily cycle) and revolution in an orbit (a
ball on a string or Earth's yearly cycle around the Pre lab Discussion None
Sun). Since the qualitative discussions in this text
do not depend on spin, this property is best omit- Laboratory Tips Appoint a starter to oversee the
ted from discussions at the high-school level. flips of the coin.
This statement appears only with this first miniexperiment, but it applies **The Materials list for each experiment or miniexperiment in this module
each time this section appears in an experiment or a miniexperiment, is planned for each group of two to five students, unless otherwise
unless otherwise noted. noted.
14
21
(which has a small magnetic field but no charge)
ANSWER TO PROBLEM changes its orbit in an atom or nucleusa photon
is produced or absorbed. Although these subjects
(Student module page 6) are fascinating, they are not essential to our dis-
A total of 256 neutrons will remain after 25.6 minutes, cussion and, therefore, are left to more advanced
1 1 courses.
and 768 protons will form [N = y 1024 = 256]. All forces are thought to exert themselves on
particles by means of the transfer of a fundamen-
tal particle. The graviton is believed to be the fun-
damental particle of gravity, the photon is the fun-
N-5 THE BASIC FORCES: NATURE'S GLUE damental particle of electromagnetism, and the
pion is the fundamental particle of the nuclear
The formulas for the three basic forces given in force.
the text are not intended for quantitative use but
rather as a guide to the understanding of the qual-
itative behavior of the forces. It should be noted
also that the formula for the electromagnetic Miniactivity The objective of this activity is to have
interaction applies to electriecharges at restthat the students demonstrate their qualitative understanding
is, the electrostatic force. At this level there is no of the basic forces. Assuming that pairs of the particles
need for introducing any mathematical formulas listed in Table 3 (student module page 7) are the same
for magnetic interactions of charged particles. distance apart, students are to arrange them in order
The on-off nature of the nuclear force is much from the strongest to the weakest attraction. For exam-
more difficult to put into visual form. Despite fifty ple, the gravitational force depends on mass. Conse-
years of intensive study, nuclear scientists are still quently, it affects only neutrons, protons, and electrons.
unable to write an exact mathematical expression The neutron, which is the heaviest of the elementary par-
for the nuclear force. Although more sophisti- ticles listed, is most strongly attracted by another neutron
cated approximations to the nuclear force are cur- because of the gravitational force. Two electrons exhibit
rently used, the formula we give herethe on-off the weakest gravitational attraction. The nuclear force
forceis sufficiently close to the best current turns out to be independent of whether the interaction
equations, and we use it because of its mathemat- involves neutrons or protons. However, students should
ical simplicity. A pool table with a single ball is not be penalized if they recognize that the total proton-
probably as good a classical analog as can be proton interaction may be weaker because of electro-
found. That is, you can think of the pool table as static repulsion. When both forces are taken into
being composed of a nucleon (the ball), six cen- account, the proton-proton force is actually a little
ters of the nuclear force (the pockets), and space weaker.
(the table). As long as the ball is bouncing around Present the following problem to your students.
from cushion to cushion, it is unaffected by the
existence of the pockets. Of course, this wouldn't By considering all possible pairs of particles (except pho-
be true for the gravitational and electromagnetic tons) in Table 2 (namely, n-n, n-p, p-p, n-e, p-e, and e-e)
forces because they exert themselves over long to be separated by the same distance r, complete the
distances. However, once the ball is on the edge following table for each type of force. As a guide, part of
of a pocket, it drops in and is bound to the pocket, the following table has already been completed. For
no longer able to roam freely in space. example, the nuclear force involves only neutrons and
A fourth force, the weak nuclear force that protons and is the same for all possible combinations of
accounts for interactions involving leptons, has n and p. No nuclear attraction occur for nucleons and
been omitted from these discussions. Another electrons. In the case of the electromagnetic force,
omission from this section is a review of how pho- charge determines the strength of the attraction.
tons (which have no mass, charge, or nucleon Remember that electric charges can (a) attract one
number) are involved in the forces. Whenever another (opposite charges), (b) have no effect (at least
changes in electric or magnetic fields occursuch one charge neutral), or (c) repel one another (like
as when an electron, a proton, or a neutron charges). The gravitational force depends on mass for its
15
22
strength. Consult Table 2 in the student module for the mass number on the left-hand side of the equa-
masses of the particles. Note that the n-n pair has the tion be equal to that on the right-hand side. The
strongest attraction; this is because the neutron is the same is true for the conservation of charge. Thus,
heaviest particle. the justification for the balancing of equations is
TYPE OF FORCE not that mass must be conserved but rather that
nucleons must be conserved. For example, in bal-
Nuclear ancing the chemical equation
Particles n-n p-p n-e e-e
Strength (1) (1) 21 (2)
2 H202 2 H2O + 02
Electromagnetic
we are, in effect, saying that there are 36 protons
Particles n-n n-p n-e (4 from H and 32 from 0) and 32 neutrons (all
Strength (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) from 0) before the reaction and that after the
reaction there are still 36 protons and 32 neutrons.
Gravity
Particles n-n
They are simply rearranged by the altering of
Strength (1) (6)
chemical bonds.
The law of conservation of mass and energy
Note: In this table, a strength of 1 is greater than a strength of 2, implies that in all reactions that occur spontane-
2 is greater than 3, and so on.
ouslychemical or nuclearthere is a change of
mass and energy. In nuclear reactions the mass
Answers:
change as well as the energy change can be mea-
Nuclear sured directly because the mass change is so
Particles n-n n-p p-p n-e p-e e-e large. However, in chemical reactions, only the
Strength (1) (1) (1) (2) (2) (2)
energy change can be directly measured; the
Comment: The nuclear force involves only nucle- mass change is too small to be measured with cur-
ons; therefore, the force is the same
for n-n, n-p, and p-p interactions, and
rent experimental techniques. Nonetheless, it still
zero nuclear force exists for n-e, p-e,
occurs. Thus, it is incorrect to state that mass
and e-e interactions. alone is conserved in chemical reactions. Such a
Electromagnetic
statement would mean that E = mc2 is not valid;
Particles p-e n-n n-p n-e e-e p-p but this relationship has proved so accurate in
Strength (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) nuclear measurements that there is no basis for
Comment: The electromagnetic force involves challenging it on the chemical scale of energies.
electric charge; therefore, the p-e The quantity c2, the velocity of light squared,
force is attractive, no net force exists can be expressed in many different units. The
for n-n, n-p, or n-e, and the force is common units for c are cm/s:
repulsive for e-e and p-p.
Gravity
c = 2.99 x 1010 cm/s
Particles n-n n-p p:p n-e p-e e-e However, if one is interested in converting mass
Strength (1) (2) (3) iq (5) (6)
into energy and vice versa in nuclear reactions, it
Comment: The gravitational force involves mass; is desirable to express c2 in more useful units.
therefore, the order is in terms of the Thus,
product masses. (See Table 2 in the
student module.) 2
C2 cm2 (mass)cm2 energy
= 931.48 MeV/u
(mass)s2 mass
16
23
Remember, this is the energy of a single atom, not average energy of the nitrogen and oxygen mole-
a mole of atoms. Thus, if a chemical reaction lib- cules that are flying around. As a consequence of
erates 10 kcal per mole, this energy corresponds the high temperatures inside stars, particles have
to 10 kcal/6 x 1023, or about 5 x 10-7 MeV. enough energy to initiate nuclear reactions.
Electromagnetism provides many examples of
interactions. In preparation for the discussion of a
ANSWER TO PROBLEM cyclotron, you might find it worthwhile to dem-
onstrate a simple electromagnet. The principles
(Student module page 8) behind them both are the same, but the effects are
Mass values from section N-3 the opposite. In the electromagnet, electric
charges follow a circular path and produce a mag-
m(I)c2 + E(I) = m(II)c2 + E(II) netic field. In the cyclotron a magnetic field
E(II) = [m(I) m(11)1c2 + E(I) induces electric charges to move in a circular
E(I) = 0 as stated
path.
E(II) = [236.100 g 235,903 g]c2 + 0
The nuclear force can be demonstrated with an
E(II) = (0.197 g) (931.5 MeV/u) overhead projector in the following way. Obtain a
(0.197 g) (12.000 u) small cup (2-3 cm high and 2-3 cm in diameter)
E(II) = (931.5 MeV/u)
(1.9925 x 10-23 g) and place it in the center of a 22-cm x 28-cm trans-
= 1.11 x 1026 MeV parent sheet (about 0.01 cm thick). Then stretch
plastic wrap over the cup, cut a hole in the wrap
over the cup, and tape the wrap to the edges of a
N-7 INTERACTIONS: GETTING IT frame and the cup.
TOGETHER The apparatus on the right is used to demon-
This section can be taught in a variety of ways, strate the competition between the nuclear force
depending on the facilities available and the inter- and the electromagnetic force in proton-nucleus
ests of the instructor. For example, a discussion of interactions. The apparatus on the left is used
the concept of temperature could come into play to demonstrate neutron-nucleus interactions,
here. It is worth remembering that temperature is where only the nuclear force is important. When
a measure of the average kinetic energy of the the apparatus is placed on an overhead projector,
particles in a system. Thus, the temperature of marbles rolled across the surface of the plastic
the room you are in right now is a measure of the wrap can simulate nuclear reactions.
cup plastic
marble
frame
- --
17
24
The proton interaction shows that if the marble VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR
approaches the cup with sufficient velocity and
the proper trajectory, it will be absorbed and will
disappear. If the trajectory is not correct or the
velocity is too slow, the marble will curve around
the cone created by the apparatus and will miss
the cup, much like the effect caused by the Cou-
lomb force in normal low-energy nuclear colli-
sions (such as the Rutherford scattering experi-
ment). If the marble is moving too fast, it will
jump over the cup and appear to pass through the
nucleus. This demonstrates the transparency of Virmetal sphere
insulated
nuclear matter that is observed in high-energy cylinder
reactions. The neutronnucleus apparatus shows
similar results, except that the particle follows a
straight path if its trajectory does not intersect the
nucleus, illustrating the absence in neutron reac- moving belt
tions of effects caused by the electromagnetic
force.
18
25
radiation detectors and serves to alert the student to the Suggest safety precautions that might be useful in
inadvisability of altering the detector-source distance handling radioactive materials.
while doing such experiments. The direct measurements
are intended to illustrate the inverse square lawthat is, Estimated Time One period
the fact that the counting rate of any radioactive source
decreases as the square of the distance R from the Student Grouping Students should work in teams
source. Mathematically, this can be written as of two, if possible, or in larger groups, depending on the
availability of materials.
activity oc
R2
Materials
19
26
the counting rate decreases to levels near background, 2. A wide range of experiments that have been tested
the data will deviate more from the expected curve. for high-school use are described in the following
paperbacks.
Range of Results Have students put collected data a. Grafton D. Chase, Stephen Rituper, Jr., and
on the chalkboard. Use the average of the data for draw- John W. Sulcoski. Experiments in Nuclear Sci-
ing conclusions. ence. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Com-
pany, 1971.
Post lab Discussion This experiment illustrates the b. Sr. M. Hermias, and Sr. M. Joecile. Radioactiv-
concept of a field of radiation surrounding any source ity: Fundamentals and Experiments. New York:
of radioactivity. The gamma rays emitted from the Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963.
113Sn/113mIn MINIGENERATOR effectively demonstrate this
principle.
20
27
7. Given the reaction 12B + nlHe + , the
EVALUATION ITEMS missing product is
The following are additional evaluation items that you A. ,9tBe. B. B 3Li. C. 2Be. D. ;He.
may wish to use with your students at various times dur- 8. If a radioactive sample has an activity of 400 cpm at
ing the preceding unit. The correct answer to each ques- a distance of 2 cm from a Geiger counter, what will
tion is indicated by shading.
be its activity at a distance of 4 cm?
1. Of the three basic forcesgravitational, electro- A. 100 cpm C. 50 cpm
magnetic, and nuclearwhich two are able to B. 200 cpm D. 400 cpm
attract a proton and a neutron to one another?
9. Assume that the oxygen atom consists of eight
nuclear, gravitational
hydrogen atoms and eight neutrons. Calculate the
2. Of the three basic forcesgravitational, electro- binding energy of oxygen per nucleon, given the
magnetic, and nuclearwhich two are able to following masses.
attract a proton and an electron to one another? mass I go = 15 99491 u
gravitational, electromagnetic mass 1H = 1.007825 u
mass on = 1.008665 u
3. Of. the three basic forcesgravitational, electro-
magnetic, and nuclearwhich two are able to 7.976 MeV/nucleon
attract two neutrons to one another? 10. One of our greatest hopes for long-range power
gravitational, nuclear production is the controlled, nuclear- fusion reac-
tion. If SLi and IH are used as reactants in such a
4. A nucleus is composed of device, the reaction that takes place is gLi +
A. electrons and protons. 2 t He. (Remember that E = mc2, where
B. neutrons and protons. c2 = 931 MeV/u. Use the following atomic masses:
C. electrons, protons, and neutrons. gLi = 6.0161 u; IH = 2.0141 u; t He = 4.0026 u.)
D. electrons and neutrons. The number of MeV produced in the reaction is
21
SUGGESTED READINGS Dr. Ernest Lawrence's work on the invention and develop-
ment of the cyclotron is covered.
Throughout this teacher's guide we have referred to more Building an Atomic Accelerator. Color, 20 minutes. U.S.
detailed writings on specific module topics. Whenever possible, Department of Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge,
we have referred to articles in Scientific American and other TN 37830.
journals that provide expanded accounts of present knowl- Explains the reasons for building an accelerator and
edge. describes the basic parts in order to show how the machine
works.
Asimov, Isaac. Inside the Atom. New York: Abe lard-Schuman,
1966.
Exploring the Atomic Nucleus. Color, 131/2 minutes. U.S.
Department of Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge,
Cline, D. B.; Mann, A. K.; and Rubbia, C. "The Search for New
TN 37830.
Families of Elementary Particles." Scientific American, Janu-
ary 1976, p. 44. A discussion of the use of particle accelerators to explore the
Crichton, Michael. The Andromeda Strain. New York: Knopf, atomic nucleus and of processes such as bombardment,
1969. particle-interaction detection, and analysis by means of
Trower, W. Peter. "Matter and Anti-Matter." Chemistry, October bubble-chamber photographs.
1969, pp. 8-13. The Heart of the Matter. Color, 16 minutes. U.S. Department of
Wilson, R. R. "The Batavia Accelerator." Scientific American, Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
February 1974, p. 72. Scientists at the ERDA Fermi National Accelerator Labora-
tory use atomic particles and the most powerful microscope
ever designed to help them search for and analyze some of
SUGGESTED FILMS the ultimate particles of matter.
Powers of Ten. Color, 9 minutes. Pyramid Films, Santa Monica,
An Added Sense: The Detection of Nuclear Radiation. Color, CA 90406.
24 minutes. U.S. Department of Energy, Film Library, P.O. Universe. Color, 28 minutes. National Aeronautics and Space
Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
Administration. (Please order this film from the NASA Film
A presentation of concepts significant to detector technology, Library serving the state in which you live.)
such as the design of gas-ionization chambers, forms of
Explores almost inconceivable extremes of size (from galax-
nuclear radiation, and the use of proportional and scintillation
ies to subatomic particles) and time (from cosmic events that
counters and of thermoluminescence.
occurred billions of years in the past to microcosmic events in
A Beginning Without End. Color, 30 minutes. U.S. Department
the present that endure for only a billionth of a second).
of Energy, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
The Makeup of Our Solar the upper right is reserved for the chemical ion
System state. For example, the complete description of
the sodium ion is
As an introduction to this unit, you might review
iiNJa-412
briefly with your students their understanding of
the solar system. Then refer to the photograph of Point out that the prefix iso means "same"; thus,
the planets that is shown on page 16 of the stu- the term isoelectronic, as used in inorganic chemis-
dent module and ask: How do the planets differ try, means "having the same number of elec-
from one another? What are the special features trons."
of Mars and Venus? Of Jupiter? Conclude your
introductory comments with a reference to the
key questions in the student module: What ele-
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
ments exist in our solar system? How much of
each element is present in nature? (Student module page 18)
3m,,
N-10 IDENTIFYING THE NUCLIDES 11.'1.12
31c
16.-115
This section provides the basic definitions and 180
8 10
nomenclature required to discuss atomic nuclei.
One additional point is worth noting. In the 2. iNg and ISMg are isotopes
Ne and ;;Na are isobars
nuclear representation
Ii Na and I3Mg are isotones
Z"N
22
29
N-11 NUCLEAR STABILITY run along the uppermost ridge in the sea of sta-
The "sea of nuclear instability" (Figure 4, student bility, or the continental divide, so to speak. Zero
module page 18) is an extremely valuable anal- binding energy corresponds to the bottom of the
ogy, if properly utilized. Because it summarizes ocean, and sea level is about 5-6 MeV/nucleon in
most of the features of nuclear structure needed most cases. Mathematically, the average binding
for an understanding of the remainder of the energy, B.E., for any nucleus is computed as
module, we urge you to place special emphasis
on Figure 4 in your preparation of this section. [Z mH + N mn m(A,Z)Jc2
B.E.
The key is that the higher the elevation, the more A
likely it is that a given number of neutrons and
protons will stick together to form a stable nu- Here, Z is the number of protons, mH is the mass
cleus. For the nuclear species below sea level, the of the hydrogen atom (which simultaneously
nuclear force is such that radioactive transforma- accounts for the mass of the atomic electrons), N is the
tions occur faster than we can observe them. The number of neutrons, mn is the mass of the neu-
"island of stability" beyond the "peninsula" is tron, m(A,Z) is the mass of a nuclide having A
purely theoretical at this time. It may turn out to nucleons and Z protons, and A is the number of
be below sea level; only future experiments will nucleons. A large value of B.E. corresponds to a
tell. system that is tightly bound together and, there-
A large number of experiments designed to fore, very stable. Consequently, it rises high out
detect the existence of superheavy elements in of the sea of instability. Low values, by contrast,
nature, or to produce them in the laboratory, are submerged below sea level. As a sample com-
have been carried out, but none have been suc- putation, the average binding energy of is cal-
cessful as of this writing. The greatest hope for culated here.
our observation of these elements probably lies in
specially designed superheavy-ion accelerators B.E. (IC) = [6mH + 6Mn) (l6C)]C2/12
recently built in the United States, France, West = [6(1.007 825) + 6(1.008 665)
Germany, and the Soviet Union. 12.000 0001u (931.48 MeV/u)/12
Heavy nuclei tend to be more stable when they B.E. = 7.68 MeV for IC
have an excess of neutrons over protons, since
this eases the competition between the nuclear In relation to the criteria for nuclear stability, it
and electromagnetic forces. As more and more may also be worth mentioning to your students
protons are added to a nucleus, the electrostatic that stable nuclei prefer, even numbers of neu-
repulsion between identical charges acts in oppo- trons and protons as compared to odd numbers.
sition to the nuclear attraction. The presence of This is shown in the following table.
additional neutrons serves as insulation for the
protons against their charge repulsion. This also Nuclear Type Number of Stable Nuclei
accounts for the fact that the "peninsula of stabil- Z-even, N-even 171
Z-even, N-odd 55
ity" eventually drops off into the sea; that is, for Z-odd, N-even 50
very heavy nuclei the charge becomes so great Z-odd, N-odd 4
that the nuclear force is no longer strong enough
to hold the nucleus together. The "island of sta- The closed-shell configurations (or magic num-
bility" can exist only because of the special stabil- bers) for nucleons are derived in the same way as
ity afforded by closed nuclear shells that are pre- are those for electrons in atoms. That is, a
dicted to exist at Z = 114 and N = 184. quantum-mechanical problem describing the
The elevation of the peninsula in the sea of forces that act on the particles in the system is
instability is measured in an absolute sense by the solved by using the Schrodinger equation. For
average binding energy of a nucleus. This is the atoms, the particles consist of electrons and a
average amount of mass that is converted into nucleus; the forces are the electromagnetic attrac-
energy to bind nucleons together in a nucleus. tion between oppositely charged particles and the
Figure 6 (student module page 20) is a plot of the repulsion between electrons. For nuclei, the par-
average binding energy for those nuclides that ticles are neutrons and protons; the forces are the
23
30
nuclear force of attraction and the electromag- Radioactive Decay, a qualitative idea of the actual
netic repulsion between protons. Because the processes that occur in radioactive decay will help
forces and particles are different in the two cases, students understand both nuclear stability and
it is not surprising that the magic numbers are nucleosynthesis of the elements.
different. The predictions of closed shells at Z =
114 and N = 184 are the results of a large number N-12 TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS
of modern calculations. One final word: The next
proton shell beyond 82 is predicted to occur at This section emphasizes the very important con-
Z = 114 instead of at 126 (as observed for neu- cept that an element can be spontaneously trans-
trons) because of the influence of the electromag-
formed (transmuted) into a new element by
netic force on protons, a force that doesn't exist radioactive decay. This concept, of course, is not
true for chemical reactions in which the identity
for neutrons.
Enlarged versions of the illustrations that of the elements always remains unchanged. In
addition, section N-12 serves as an introduction
appear on pages 18, 19, and 20 of the student to experiment N-13, in which transmutation is
module have been included on the following illustrated by means of a chemical separation
pages. You may reproduce these pages in class-
room quantities or make overhead projectuals for
technique. A similar demonstration can be
performed with 137Cs/137mBa MINIGENERATORS.
use in your classroom discussion.
Because of the short half-life of 137mBa, it is neces-
The effect of isotopes on elemental atomic
masses can be demonstrated here. Although we sary to correct the results caused by the radioac-
tive decay of that nuclide. However, if one works
have defined the atomic mass of 12C as 12.000 000
quickly (within 5 minutes), a qualitatively correct
u, the student may note that the tabulated atomic
mass for carbon shown on many charts is 12.01u.
result can be obtained, even with the uncorrected
This is because carbon in nature consists pri- data.
marily of two isotopes, 12C and 13C. Their relative
abundances are 98.892 percent for 12C and 1.108 EXPERIMENT
percent for 13C. Therefore, the element carbon N-13 THE CHEMISTRY OF RADIOACTIVE
has the following average atomic mass. NUCLIDES
The actual placement of this experiment* is somewhat
(12C ) up to your discretion. Logically, it should precede the
2c x = (12.000 000 u) (0.988 92)
m(12C) measurement of a half-life for nuclear decay in order to
= 11.867 u give the student experience with the techniques of elut-
ing the MINIGENERATOR. The purpose of the experiment is
13C)
%(100
m(13C) x = (13.003 355 u) (0.011 08) to introduce the student to the process of eluting the MIN -
IGENERATOR and handling an eluted isotope in liquid
= 0.1441 u form.
(11.867 + 0.1441)u = 12.011 u
Concepts
This is also a useful exercise in significant figures; Radioactive decay transmutes one element into
as you will note, the multiplication products are another.
determined by the significant digits in the per- The concentration of a liquid radioactive source is the
centages of carbon, and the addition sum is lim- ratio of its activity to the volume of solution in which it
ited by the mass times percentage product for is found.
12C. Many exercises such as these can be readily Substances can be separated by differences in their
generated. chemical attraction to ion-exchange resins.
At this point in the student module, the three 'Experiment from MINIGENERATOR Experiments in Nucleonics (New
basic types of radioactive decay are introduced. York: Union Carbide Corp., 1968). Available from Redco Science Inc.,
Although these will be discussed in detail in Danbury, CT 06810 and from other distributors.
24
31
THE SEA OF NUCLEAR INSTABILITY
1 AVAIIIIIVAlle,
stable
unstable _rapv-a-zreArror,~zoi-
Aproppirmi
1 Adiragioamill
III
_:......-Ammul
2 8 20 28 50 82 126 184
1111111
N -1111.-
OVERHEAD VIEW OF THE SEA OF INSTABILITY
150
possible island of
superheavy nuclides
Z = 114
100 I
50 peninsula of
known nuclides
3
r;
1 1 1 1 I I 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 I I 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1
0
50 100 150 200 250
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
A
26
33
Objectives Laboratory Tips You may wish to instruct your stu-
Separate two radioactive nuclides by elution from an dents in the use of semilog graph paper. Remind them
ion-exchange resin. that it is not necessary to take the logarithm of the num-
Determine the volume of eluant needed to separate ber on the ordinate scalethe graph paper does that.
13"71n from 13Sn. Simply plot one number against the other, taking care to
Measure and record radioactivity in counts per read the scales properly.
minute.
Range of Results
Graph data and interpret the graph.
SAMPLE DATA
Estimated Time One period Background = 190 cpm
cpm Corrected
Student Grouping Group size (two to five students) Drop Number cpm for Background
will depend on the equipment available.
1 1764 1574
2 1060 870
Materials 3 732 542
4 628 438
2 cm3 eluant solution of HCI and NaCI
5 560 370
counter
13Sn/13"'In source
25 planchets
plastic squeeze bottle 25 208 18
graph paper
pair of rubber gloves
27
34
activity, and that the MINIGENERATOR still gives evidence N-14 THE ELEMENTS IN OUR SOLAR
of its original activity. SYSTEM
The concentration of a radioactive source is the ratio of
its activity to the volume of solution in which it is con- A feeling for the relative distribution of the ele-
tained. The concentration is often expressed in microcu- ments in our solar system should result from a
ries per cubic centimeter. When eluting the MINIGENERA-
study of this section. The data listed in Table 4
TOR, students will find that the greatest amount of activity
(student module page 26) constitute a fundamen-
occurs in the first few drops eluted. As more eluant is tal piece of information that theories of nucleo-
used, the sample is diluted and the concentration synthesis must reproduce. Note that Li, Be, and B
decreases, although the absolute activity continues to are only briefly mentioned and have very low
increase slowly. You might point out to the students that abundances. The mechanisms that generated
the concept of concentration is important in administer- these elements are still the subject of debate, but
ing radioactive tracers to patients, where the dosage is it seems highly improbable that they were formed
often defined in volume units rather than in specific activ-
in the same way that most of the other elements
ity (the ratio of activity of a radioisotope to the weight of
were. They probably originated in cosmic-ray-
all the isotopes, both stable and radioactive, of that ele-
induced nuclear reactions between protons and
ment in the sample).
C, N, and 0. The absence of stable nuclides with
A = 5 and A = 8 accounts for the zero percentage
Answers to Questions of these mass numbers in the solar system. The
1. The first drop yields the greatest activity. nuclides 5Li and 5He live only 10' seconds, at
2. It is suggested that the students figure out for them- most. All nuclides with mass A = 8 decay to 'Be,
selves a method to determine how many drops will which has a half-life of only 10-16 seconds.
be needed to elute at least 75 percent of the poten- The abundance of information given in this sec-
tial total activity. The students should be asked to tion of the student module has been obtained
explain their reasoning. The number of drops from various sources. Particularly important are
required will be between five and ten. The purpose the data from analyses of meteorites and from the
of this question is to have each student carefully radiation spectrum of the Sun. Meteorites are
think through the elution process rather than just thought to be "primordial" material of the solar
arrive at a "right" answer. system; they condensed into solid bodies soon
3. After one day all the 113mln will have decayed to after their formation and have experienced little
stable 113In. The resultant solution will no longer be chemical change since then. However, this is not
radioactive, and the total number of indium atoms true of the Earth, which has a molten core and an
(-107) will be so small that they will not constitute active atmosphere. Therefore, the chemical anal-
any potential chemical pollution source. ysis of meteorites is a very important source of
information about the solar system. The light
Additional Activity If students wish more experi- emitted by excited atoms on the surface of the
ence with the type of activity that experiment N-13 Sun and other stars is also of great importance in
presents, refer them to Experiment 6 in Experiments in deducing relative chemical abundances. Because
Nucleonics (Danbury, Conn.: Redco Science Inc., the Sun is the most massive object in the solar
1968). This experiment adds the complication that the system, the distribution of elements in the Sun is
barium product has a short (2.6 minutes) half-life, so that an important factor in the overall picture of the
decay during the experiment must be taken into account. solar system. From a knowledge of the spectra of
This is not necessary in the Sn/In experiment because elements on the Earth, we can identify the ele-
little decay occurs during the long (100 minutes) half-life ments in stars by comparing stellar spectra with
of indium. known values.
35
28
A. 90 protons and 147 neutrons
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS F_131
90 protons and 144 neutrons
C. 91 protons and 145 neutrons
(Student module page 28) D. 90 protons and 144 neutrons
1. a. potassium 3. Given the atom
b. 19
31c
C. 40 16%,15
3.
C.
a.
17C120
130; N z A. 25
12
,r
x 4-12,,
r f3 y
I
36 29
Nucleosynthesis and Stellar mass can reduce the effects of electromagnetic repul-
sion. The same situation is found in stars, although, of
Evolution course, on a much larger scale. The necessary appara-
tus consists of the following items.
The rationale for beginning this discussion with a set (4-6) of annular magnets (similar to those used
elementary particles and building up to more in many kitchen gadgets for attaching hooks to metal
complex nuclei is that such a process does not surfaces)
have to be very efficient but can still produce the a smooth, nonmagnetic rod mounted vertically (The
observed elemental abundances. (See Table 4 in magnets will be slipped over the rod. Friction losses
the student module.) That is, the solar system has should be made as small as possible by applying
lots of hydrogen and helium but very little of the light oil or glycerine to the rod.)
elements beyond iron. If complex nuclei were the
starting material for element synthesis, the nu-
clear processes necessary to produce the ob- annular magnet
served abundances would have had to be very
efficient. nonmagnetic rod
30
3'7
The balancing of nuclear reactions is simpler represents the initial stages of star formation and
than the balancing of chemical reactions. Simply develops the conditions that eventually lead to
stated, the sum of the A superscripts must be the element synthesis.
same on both the right- and left-hand sides of an It should be noted that at temperatures above
equation. The same must be true of the Z sub- about 10 000 K the atoms that constitute the big
scripts. In principle, any nucleus can be formed in bang dust are completely ionized into nuclei and
a nuclear reaction if enough energy is available. electrons. The electrons are present in the core of
The neutrons that remained at the end of the a star (preserving overall electrical neutrality), but
big bang explosion were unstable and underwent they probably exist in the form of an electron gas
decay to protons. rather than being confined to discrete atomic
1H +
orbitals. Because of the complicated nature of this
on
electron gas, it is not discussed in this module.
It would be more precise to write the neutron- Once the stellar material cools below about 10 000
decay equation as K, the electrons that are present attach them-
-(1)n-1H + +
selves to the nuclei and thus form neutral
atoms.
An antineutrino is formed in this reaction. Neu-
trinos commonly accompany the formation of N-17 H-BURNING: MAIN SEQUENCE STARS
electrons and are associated with the weak nu- In addition to describing the principles by which
clear force. We have omitted discussion of neutri-
the Sun generates energy, this section stresses
nos in the student module in order to simplify the the concept of massenergy conversion. The cal-
presentation. culation of energy changes in nuclear reactions is
In writing the nuclear equation for the neutron introduced in the student module. The nomencla-
decay, one would also be more accurate to write ture defines the energy change AE in such a way
that the hydrogen ion (or bare proton) is formed that 0E is positive when energy is released and
and not the hydrogen atom. However, in balanc- negative when it is absorbed. The calculation for
ing nuclear equations, one usually does not write the amount of energy released in equation (3) of
ionic states. By always using the mass of a neutral section N-17 follows.
atom (which has its exact complement of elec-
trons), one always obtains the correct answer in
nuclear calculations.
ANSWER TO PROBLEM
(Student module page 35)
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS Equation (3) in N-17 is
(Student module page 31) 3He + + 2 1H + 12.9 MeV
-1. 2H + ;!:,n iH To prove that the energy released is 12.9 MeV, we can
2. "He + 2He 'Be use the formula E = mc2.
3. + iH 3Li
AE = [2 m(3He) m(tHe) m(1H)1c2
4. 11-le + iH
DE = [2(3.016 030) u (4.002 603 u)
5. 3He + Li
2(1.007 825) u]c2
AE = (0.013 807 u) (931.5 MeV/u)
N-16 STARS FROM BIG BANG DUST AE = 12.90 MeV
31
38
the following set of reactions, known as the Some success has been achieved with the con-
Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle, can occur. trolled-fusion process containing 2H, which is
Igo + 11H_ 1.3Ni; + 7
magnetically confined at very high densities in
(1) the form of a plasma. As discussed in section
16c + ;H ';N (2) N-48, however, much work remains to be done
14m 1F+_,110; +
7,4 + (3) before this process will ever provide usable
1H-4'igc + (4) energy.
Net: 4 1H*Ie + 2 C;(3+ 26.7 MeV (5)
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Note that the net reaction, equation (5), is the
same as that given in equation (4) in the student (Student module page 37)
module. 1. 7H
This reaction was originally proposed by Hans 2. 1He
Bethe, one of the pioneers in the field of applying 3. 2 on
nuclear ,reactions to stellar processes. It differs
from the hydrogen-burning process given in the Shorthand notation for the equations is as follows.
student module only in that IC nuclei serve as a 1. gLi iH) tHe
catalyst for the reaction. The CNO cycle does 2. IH tHe
occur to a small extent in the Sun. However, the 3. IH aH, 2 t He
cycle requires a higher temperature than that
which we believe exists in the center of the Sun.
Thermonuclear fusion reactions (as in the
hydrogen bomb) operate on the same principle. A N-18 HELIUM BURNING: RED GIANTS
solid such as 61_12H or 6Li3H (which are composed
of the less common isotopes of lithium and hy- The reactions we might expect to occur in a star
drogen) is used as the energy source. By achiev- that has burned much of its hydrogen into helium
ing sufficiently high temperatures, the following are
self-sustaining set of reactions can occur. A
neutron source is needed to trigger the reaction.
4 1_4,
2' 1 11LA
' A5 not stable
+ 2He A 8
S Li + + 3H + 4.8 MeV
iH + + on + 17.6 MeV
3H + H 1
4u +-r okA
+ 1.3 MeV `He + 91-1-6'3Li
collisions disintegrate
products rapidly at 108K
+ 3He-74Be
The energy released is generated very rapidly
(the entire reaction is over in about 10-6 seconds)
and, consequently, is highly explosive. Although 3 2He-16c + 7.6 MeV stable
the military applications of thermonuclear explo-
sions have received great attention, underground Only the last of these reactionshelium burn-
tests have been conducted to investigate the pos- ingis thought to be successful in producing
sibility of using such blasts to produce new heavy heavier elements. Because the probability of
elements. However, practical applications of such forming a1Be nucleus and then capturing another
techniques are unlikely to occur except under 'He during the lifetime of the 8Be (10-16 seconds)
very unusual conditions. is very small, the rate of nuclear burning is quite
As can be noted through an examination of slow. This fact accounts for the long lifetimes of
these equations, thermonuclear explosions pro- red giant stars. Nonetheless, the rate of exother-
duce a large number of neutrons. This fact is mic nuclear burning is sufficient to balance gravi-
pointed out in the discussion of the r-process in tational contraction. Consequently, the red giants
section N-20. appear to be stable.
32 39
The 3 4He 12C reaction cannot occur until
a temperature of 100 000 000 K has been reached Miniactivity Have students use the shorthand nota-
because the electric charge of the He nucleus is tion to express the last two nuclear reactions dis-
twice that of the proton. A much higher temper- cussed.
ature is therefore required to make the He-He and Answer: 13C(4He, n)160
k.) 170(4He, n)20Ne
He-Be collisions sufficiently energetic to over-
come the mutual electric-charge repulsion and
permit nuclear attraction to occur. In addition, at
such temperatures nuclear reactions between 4He N-19 EXPLOSIVE NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
and any Li, Be (except 8Be), and B that might be Explosive nucleosynthesis is an incompletely
formed in these reactions disintegrate these latter understood phase of stellar evolution that is cur-
nuclei very rapidly. For this reason, the element- rently the subject of much research. Because of
synthesis chain skips over the elements Li, Be, the array of nuclei present in a star at this stage, a
and B, which accounts for their low abundance in complex series of nuclear reactions is possible.
nature. (See Table 4, student module page 26.) Two important experimental facts influence our
Besides the 3 Ifle reaction and the, 12C (4He, understanding of this process. First, reactions
.y)180 reaction, small amounts of other nuclei in such as 285i + 28Si > 56Ni are not very probable
or near the core of a red giant take part in other because of the large electrostatic charge between
types of nuclear reactions. For instance, reactions two nuclei with Z = 14. The temperature needed
such as to overcome the electric-charge repulsion be-
tween two +14 charges is so high that the-nuclei
18Ne
'SO +
lic
10 IH
'iN 6F
lc +
,180 P
would disintegrate first. Second, 4He nuclei are
probably important in this stage of a star because
nuclei with mass numbers 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48,
52, and 56 are unusually abundant in nature,
can produce isotopes of Ne, C, 0, and others. compared with nuclei with mass numbers
Another type of reaction that can occur in red between these values.
giant stars produces neutrons: Remember that in all these cycles it is because
. nuclear reactions give off energy that a star is stabi-
136C + 2He 180 + on lized against gravitational contraction. Therefore,
1780 + it is essential that at each stage of element synthe-
sis the reactions are exothermic. A star can be sta-
It is thought that these two reactions are the bilized by reactions that build up to 56Fe because
source of neutrons for the s-process (section the process represents a rise on the binding-
N-23). An important point to remember is that as energy curve (Figure 6, student module page 20).
more new elements are produced in a star, the As more stable nuclei are produced, energy is
possibilities for nuclear reactions become given off, and the gravitational force that acts to
greater. contract the star is opposed. Once 56Fe is reached
The name red giant comes from the fact that in the synthesis chain, further nuclear reactions
these stars are very large and emit light in the red with charged particles can lead only downhill on
part of the visible spectrum. The increased size the binding-energy curve. This absorbs energy
comes about because the intense heat of the stel- from the star, the gravitational force takes over,
lar core expands the envelope of hydrogen gas and the star is no longer in equilibrium.
surrounding it. Since the visible radiation from a This section of the student module can be elim-
star is emitted from its surface, a red giant has the inated if you desire to shorten the origin-of-the-
appearance of being very large. However, the elements portion of the module. It is sufficient to
actual size of its nuclear furnace is smaller than state that a complex series of reactions occurs,
that in a normal hydrogen-burning star. In about synthesizing the elements C through Fe, and that
5 billion years, the Sun is expected to reach the the process stops at iron because the reactions no
red giant stage and to envelop the Earth. longer give off energy, as described above.
40 33
N-20 HEAVY ELEMENTS: ZAP, THE nuclei with mass numbers A = 210-230 (which do
r-PROCESS exist independently in nature).
An interesting feature of the r-process is that neu-
The residues of the r-process are unusual
tron capture must occur within a time span of neutron-rich nuclei, which undergo negatron
about 10 to 1000 seconds. The closest experimen- decay after the implosion-explosion stage has
tal analog to this situation is a thermonuclear ceased to produce neutrons.
fusion explosion, or hydrogen-bomb blast. Much 238u, 23811
92L, lc 0ip
12
information about the r-process has been gained
in the study of such explosions. The extreme This series of decays occurs in steps, of course.
conditions of a short time scale and a large num- The following diagram aids understanding of the
ber of neutrons are necessary to satisfy the special step-by-step development of the r-process. This
requirements of gravitational collapse in the star, diagram illustrates the r-process path after it has
as well as to bypass the relative instability of already evolved from 32Fe to 5gPt.
alpha decay
94
\`'0.\0\\ \\
a.\
\\\ \ \ \\\ \\ \ ,\ \ \\ \ \\ \\ \\\\
0,\
\\ \\ \\\\\\
86
84 \ \\\\\\\
NN\ \ \\\ \\ \ N\ \\\\\\\\\ \\ \\\\
\\\
\ \\
82 _ r-process in
80
lighter nuclides
\\\\\\\\\\
\\ \\
approximate path of r-process in heavy element region
78 8Pt (t 10-100 sec)
78
76
140 144 148 152 156 160 164 168 172 176 178
N
Schematic diagram for average r-process path in the heavy element region. Neutron capture occurs along lower
path (heavy arrows) starting with 27288 Pt. Equilibrium concentrations of each nuclide along capture path are
reached when rate for (n,7) reaction equals rate of (7,n) reactions. Reaction path moves to higher Z when beta
decay lifetimes become comparable to time required to achieve equilibrium concentrations. At the upper mass
limits neutron-induced fission terminates capture path. Nuclides on the r-process capture path eventually decay
to the line of maximum beta stability, where alpha decay and/or spontaneous fission occur.
34
41
It is not clear at what point fission becomes
dominant in the r-process and terminates the
chain of mass-building reactions. It seems most
probable that this limit occurs in the vicinity of
mass number A = 270, in which case nearly all
possible products are known. The final excess-
neutron products would then undergo radioac-
tive beta decay to form the most stable isobar for
each mass number. These subsequently decay to
form uranium and other lighter elements. On the
other hand, mass numbers as high as A = 300 A
may possibly have been achieved, which would
permit synthesis of the "superheavy elements" as
ucts. The only conditions that must be fulfilled
well. However, even if the superheavy elements are Z = Z1 + Z2 and A = Al + A2 + neutrons.
could be formed in the r-process, it would be
essential that their half-lives for alpha decay and ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
spontaneous fission be as long as the age of the
solar system if such elements were to be found in (Student module page 43)
nature. As of yet, no clear evidence has been 1. carbon burning/explosive nucleosynthesis
found to prove the existence of such species in 2. r-process
nature. 3. hydrogen burning
One question concerning the terminal fate of a 4. silicon burning/explosive nucleosynthesis
star could be discussed. That is, what remains 5. helium burning
after the implosion-explosion stage? This ques- 6. helium burning
tion is an absorbing one. The observation of 7. hydrogen burning
unusual stellar objects called pulsars has created 8. r-process/fission
much excitement among scientists during the 9. silicon burning/explosive nucleosynthesis
past few years. These stars are thought to be giant 10. r-process
"nuclei" composed of neutrons, or neutron stars.
Their density would be that of nuclear matter
(1011 grams/cm3), and they would have a mass N-21 DETECTING THE REMNANTS
nearly that of the Sun but a diameter of only In this section you have an opportunity to discuss
about 16 kilometers. One of these objects is found one of the important accidental discoveries in sci-
in the Crab Nebula, where the existence of a super- ence. The depth of presentation will depend on
nova has been recordeda fact that gives fur- your interest and that of your students. This sec-
ther support to the hypothesis that the r-process tion introduces N-22.
is associated with supernova explosions.
No attempt has been made here to discuss the
fission process in detail. The existence of neutron MINIEXPERIMENT
emission in fission (the basis for a chain reaction) N-22 RADIOAUTOGRAPHY: CATCHING THE
is discussed in section N-23. It should be pointed RAYS
out that the nuclear products of fission reactions
This experiment duplicates Becquerel's initial discovery
are nonspecificthat is, a large variety of prod-
of the effect of nuclear radiation on photographic film.
ucts can be formed. A typical distribution of the
mass numbers of the final products in uranium
Concepts
fission is shown in the following diagram.
The diagram shows that the mass split in fis- Radioactive elements emit radiation that will expose
sion is usually asymmetric. In balancing fission photographic film.
equations, one can choose a wide variety of prod- The radioactive source can take its own picture.
35
42
Objectives sheets of film in the pack, only the top sheet will receive
significant exposure. The top sheet of film can then be
Expose film, using a radioactive source.
developed in any standard Polaroid camera case.
Relate the white and black areas on exposed film to
the location of the radioactive material. There are many versions of the Becquerel experiment in
existence. One of the more sensitive approaches is that
Estimated Time One-half period on each of two described in G. Chase et al., Experiments in Nuclear Sci-
days, with one day in between. ence (Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 1971). If
you have access to a photographic developing labora-
tory, you might wish to try this approach, which uses
Student Grouping Group size will depend on the
X-ray film and saves time.
amount of film and the number of radioactive sources
available.
Range of Results In an exposure that uses a 137Cs
MINIGENERATOR as a source, the image is approximately
Materials
circular. This demonstrates that the radiation is not uni-
Polaroid Type 57 black-and-white film (speed 3000) formly spread out across the MINIGENERATOR (and con-
radioactive sources (such as a 137Cs MINIGENERATOR) sequently, the image is not the same shape as the MIN-
Polaroid Type 545 film holder or a suitable film roller !GENERATOR). The actual location of the radiation is not
directly adjacent to the film and therefore the image is
spread out.
Advance Preparation Be sure your radiation
sources have enough activity to produce satisfactory
images.
Post lab Discussion Tracks are left in mineral rocks
by radioactive decay. These tracks can be used to deter-
mine facts about the history of the Earth. See section
Pre lab Discussion None
N-31 and J. D. Macdougall, "Fission Track Dating," Sci-
entific American (December 1976), pp. 114-122. Also
Laboratory Safety Review with your students the
discuss X-ray procedures in medicine and dentistry. The
standard laboratory safety rules they should be follow-
exposure of photographic film is still used in nuclear sci-
ing. Note Appendix I: Safety at the end of the student
ence today, although the techniques are much more
module.
sophisticated than the one we use here.
Laboratory Tips The experiment as described is
designed to make use of the MINIGENERATORS as radia-
tion sources and common Polaroid film as the detector.
Other sources of radioactivity can be used, and obvi-
N-23 HEAVY ELEMENTS VIA THE
ously it is desirable to use as many different sources as
s-PROCESS
possible. The most convenient film-exposure arrange-
ment is that described in the student modulethe Polar- The difference in time scales between the
oid Type 57 black-and-white single-sheet film used with s-process and the r-process contributes to the for-
the Polaroid Type 545 holder. The primary problem that mation of different isotopes of the elements.
may be encountered here is that the Type 57 film size is Because the r-process involves nuclei with an
"4 x 5 inches" and so cannot be developed in ordinary oversupply of neutrons, it synthesizes the heavi-
Polaroid cameras. Since the Type 545 holder is not a est isotopes of a given element. On the other
common item, it may be necessary to find a roller hand, the long time that elapses between neutron
arrangement to develop the film. An alternative to this is captures in the s-process (-5000 years) permits
to use standard Polaroid Film packs, such as Type 667 radioactive decay to occur if the nucleus formed
black-and-white film, which contains eight sheets to the is sufficiently unstable. Consequently, the
pack. Unfortunately, none of the standard-size Polaroid s-process, in which the path of nucleosynthesis
Film packs is available in single sheets. With this tends to follow the uppermost ridge along the
arrangement, eight exposures can be obtained simulta- peninsula of stability (refer to Figures 4, 5, and 6
neously; or, through the insertion of a sheet of lead in the student module), is responsible for forming
(-0.16 cm thick) between the uppermost and lower the most stable isotopes of each heavy element.
36
43
To illustrate differences between the two pro- That is, 33 As is the product of both reactions and
cesses, the following diagram indicates the two undergoes radioactive decay to stable 34Se. This
alternative paths for neutron-capture reactions process is not very probable, as is evidenced by
with 56Fe. the fact that the abundance of ;,1Se is only 0.87
percent of the selenium isotopes in nature. Simi-
larly low abundances for the lightest isotopes of
an element are generally found for all the ele-
ments beyond iron.
z6 Fe
n
For advanced students only, differences in the
s-, r-, and p-processes can be illustrated through a
g Fe
n consideration of the stable isotopes of selenium.
r-process (fast) 3E, Fe s-process (slow) In the diagram that follows, nuclides in the
n n unshaded boxes are radioactive. The isotope 74Se
p
3g Fe (45 days)
33C0 can be produced only by the p-process in the pre-
n n p viously described reactions. The p-process in-
SSFe ?Co (5.3 years)
Ni volves reactions of the type (y,n) (p/y), which
n n involve cosmic-ray reactions and are relatively
SIFe zeNi rare. The r-process is blocked because 74Ge is sta-
n n
ble and beta decay cannot occur; whereas the
ze Fe SiNi
s-process is blocked because 74Ge is stable, and
etc. etc.
therefore it must capture a neutron rather than
undergo beta decay to 73As or 74Se. The isotopes
765e, 'Se, and 78Se are produced in the s-process
by slow neutron capture. 50Se may also be pro-
duced in the s-process; this depends somewhat
upon the s-process time scale because of the long
The s-process cannot produce the superheavy half-life of 795e. 82Se cannot be produced by the ,
elements or even uranium or thorium. It must s-process because 81Se has only an 18-minute half-
stop at 2Bi. This limitation is set by the high life. The isotopes 77Se, 78Se, 50Se, and 82Se can all
instability of nuclei with mass numbers A = 210- be produced in the r-process following the beta
212, which emit He ions to form lighter nuclei decay of their lower-Z isobars (for instance, Fe or
(alpha decay) before another neutron can be cap- Ni). 76Se is not involved in the r-process because
tured. 76Ge is stable.
One additional mechanism of nucleosynthesis In this section we have included the fact that
that is not described in the student module is the neutrons are emitted in the fission process. When
p-process, which is responsible for forming the fission takes place, the two fragments usually
lightest isotopes of the heavy elements. The p have a large amount of extra -energy, some of
stands for either protons or photons. This process which is dissipated by the emission of neutrons
involves secondary nuclear reactions that occur at (usually one or two) from each fragment. These
all stages of later-generation stars. It results in neutrons are usually included in any balanced
slight alterations of the elemental abundances, as equation for a nuclear fission reaction, but for the
follows. Consider the stable nuclide 344Se (sele- beginning student this step can be omitted at the
nium), which cannot be produced in either the discretion of the teacher. The emission of neu-
s-process or the r-process. However, 353 As (arse- trons in a fission reaction is essential for the prop-
nic) can be synthesized in both processes, and agation of chain reactions in nuclear fission reac-
44Se is thought to be produced by the following tors (discussed in section N-45). Such chain
proton- and photon-induced nuclear reactions. reactions have apparently occurred in nature as
32 Ge + 1H
74 On + 733As. well. For an excellent description of the natural
reactor that was discovered in Africa, see G. A.
(18 days) 34Se + -C;13
Cowan, "A Natural Fission Reactor," Scientific
1, _,_ 74 A American (July 1976), pp. 36-47.
BAS "y r 33r1 o
37
44
Zj p-process
74 75 76 77 78
\.79 80 81 82 83
34 Se Se 4.- Se --0.- Se 01.- Se ......... Se
Se ---...- Se Se Se
\(7.58)
\
(0.87)
\\ \ . . \ .\ . \ \ \ .
120d EC 1- (9.02) 7x 104y40 (23.52)
74 75 76
\C-
.. (49.82) 18 min _713 (9.19) \-.. 23 min -90
As lb- As \ \ \\ \\ \ \\
33 As \ \
18d 713 (100) .. 26 h \ . . . \ \\ \ . \ \ .
_?g
72 73 74 \ ..
75
\ 76 . . .. N
NI 40
. \44
- . \45 \ ,46 . .. N
1 42 43 \\49 47 48
\\
s-process
\\ \\ \\ \\
\\ \\ \\ \\
S. 1
Nuclides in shaded boxes are stable; the percentage abundance of each iso-
tope of an element is given in parentheses; e g., 9.02% of all selenium is
76Se. Unshaded boxes represent radioactive nuclides. The half-life of
each is given along with the decay mode.
39
46
SUGGESTED FILMS Persimmon: A Nuclear Physics Experiment. Color, 16 minutes.
U.S. Department of Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak
The Invisible Universe. Color, 14 minutes. National Science Ridge, TN 37830.
Foundation, R. H. R. Filmedia, Inc., 1212 Avenue of the Presents and discusses experiments conducted before, dur-
Americas, New York, NY 10036. ing, and after underground detonation of a nuclear explo-
An examination of how pulsars, quasars, and objects beyond sive.
the range of optical telescopes are being explored by radio
telescope.
40
47
elements and isotopes. Scientists have managed emphasize this feature of the process being
to synthesize more than 1500 radioactive nuclides expressed. As in the case of judging stability, it
that do not exist in nature. Many of these have depends somewhat on the time scale one is con-
important applications in chemistry, physics, sidering.
medicine, and the biological sciences. We will dis- Although gamma decay usually occurs very
cuss application of radioactive nuclides in Uses of rapidly, in some nuclei it is slowed down because
Radiation. of nuclear-structure effects. The symbol m (for
metastable) is usually added after' he mass number
of these nuclei to indicate this factor. A similar
process occurs with the fluorescent decay of
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS atomic states, in which the emission of light from
atoms is delayed.
(Student module page 49)
41
48
An important example of negatron decay of two gamma rays. All the mass of the electron
occurs in the r-process. In N-20 we indicated that and the positron is converted into the energy of
the nuclide 98Hg (mercury) was probably formed the gamma rays. This conversion is
in the r-process. After the explosion this decays to
238U by a series of twelve negatron decays: E = mc2 = (2me)c2 = 2(0.000 5486 u) 931.48 MeV/u
238oLig _2133ri-ri + _0, 0 = 1.02 MeV, or 0.51 MeV per gamma ray
8111-0 238
238-ri in +
82P6-. 1 i-
23810b
With regard to the nucleus, the net results of
82,
238 lat i +
83,-, 1 Q
positron decay and of electron-capture decay are
and so on, to identical. However, the electronic configurations
of the two products are quite different. The result-
238pn 238H + ing atom of positron emission has an extra elec-
91. 92,-, 1 tron, which gives the atom a 1 charge state. The
Therefore, the maximum stability for A = 238 (or resulting atom of electron-capture decay has elec-
238U)
is reached via this process. In order to be trical neutrality, but a vacancy exists in one of its
rigorously correct in writing equations for beta innermost electron orbits. As a result, X-ray emis-
decay, we should also include the antineutrino, ri sion generally accompanies electron-capture de-
cay.
(see sections N-2 and N-15), as follows.
238pn 238 H
91 +V
EXPERIMENT
N-28 THE HALF-LIFE OF 1176mBa
Because of the difficulty in detecting neutrinos
and the fact that they are not necessary for the The purpose of this experiment* is to determine the half-
level of presentation in this module, discussion of life of the radioactive nuclide 137mBa.
these particles has been omitted here. Two
important conservation laws relating to neutrinos Concepts
have also been omitted. These are (1) the conser-
vation of leptons (electrons, muons, and neutri- The half-life of a radioactive element is the time it
nos) and (2) the conservation of spin. (See the takes for the number of atoms in a sample (or its
table in section N-3 of this guide.) The creation of activity) to be reduced by one-half.
an electron in the above example is balanced by Nuclides are classified as stable or unstable,
the simultaneous creation of an antineutrino; the depending on their half-lives.
lepton (electron) and antilepton (antineutrino)
cancel each other out to give a net of zero leptons. Objectives
This conserves leptons, since there were none to
Graph sample radioactive-decay activity against
begin with. Also, because the electron has spin
time.
1/2, conservation of spin (a vector quantity, subject
to the rules of vector addition) requires another Determine graphically the half-life of a radioactive
nuclide.
particle with spin 1/2, which is satisfied by the
antineutrino's spin 1/2.
Estimated Time One period
Positron decay involves the emission of an anti-
particle. After the positron leaves the nucleus, it
eventually loses its energy through collisions Student Grouping Group size will depend on the
equipment available.
with electrons. Finally, it forms the lightest "ele-
ment" positroniumthat is, an "atom" com-
posed of a positron and an electron. This "ele- *Experiment 8 in Experiments in Nucleonics (Union Carbide Corp.,
1968. Available from Redco Science Inc., Danbury, CT 06810.) Experi-
ment" lasts only a fraction of a second, and then ment 7 is similar to Experiment 8, but it can prove impractical because of
the pair annihilate one another with the creation the longer half-life of 113mIn.
42
49
Materials Some, however, such as 137mBa, 'exhibit delayed
gamma-ray emission and have half-lives ranging from
137CS/137mBa MINIGENERATOR seconds to months. The gamma rays emitted have ener-
plastic squeeze bottle gies measured in thousands of electron volts (keV), and
small beaker, 20 cm3 these are attributable to rearrangements of nucleons into
2 cm3 eluant solution lower energy levels. 137mBa emits a 662-keV gamma
radiation detector ray, which the students will detect.
linear graph paper
rubber gloves (required for person handling the liquid The students' data should yield a half-life of approxi-
isotope) mately 2.6 minutes. The major sources of error include
the fact that the detectors being used are simple devices;
Advance Preparation Prepare the eluant solution statistical fluctuations of the data and background cor-
(see experiment N-13 in this guide). Be sure students rections will also lend some uncertainty to the final
adjust the source-to-detector distance to achieve the result.
maximum meter reading.
1110
these species are short compared with the age of
2 1300
3 1025 835
the solar system. Therefore, these elements have
4 840 650
long since decayed to the only nuclides that are
5 645 455 both heavier than bismuth and that have long
enough half-lives to have survived until now
The data, when graphed, should yield a half-life of about (8U, 'U, 232Th), or they have decayed to the
2.6 minutes. stable isotopes of lead and bismuth.
Post lab Discussion 137mBa is a metastable isomer The short half-life of 2E0o is one reason why
of stable 137Ba. It is formed by the emission of a beta the s-process
particle from the nucleus of 137Cs. It exists in this radio-
2aPo -22SPb + ZHe (t1,2 = 138 days)
active isomeric state until the nucleus achieves a stable
ground state by emitting a gamma ray. Most metastable (neutron capture on a slow time scale) cannot pro-
isomers emit their gamma rays in a fraction of a second. ceed beyond element 83, bismuth. Every time
43
5
244Po is produced after the 209Bi (n,1,) reaction and haps even as long as the age of the solar system.
the beta decay of 210Bi, it decays back to 206Pb Scientists are currently pursuing the answer to
before another neutron can be captured. There- this problem, but no unambiguous evidence for
fore, it is not possible to build up more mass. The the existence of such elements has been found as
same limitation prevents the formation of heavy yet. The new superheavy-ion accelerators that are
elements in a nuclear reactor; the extreme insta- currently being completed at a few laboratories
bility of 24,42Po is responsible for the limitation in around the world should provide an answer to
this case (ti,2 = 10-7 seconds). this compelling question in the near future.
Note that 20Pb has both a closed proton shell
and a closed neutron shell. Consequently, this
nucleus is similar in many respects to a noble gas N-30 SPONTANEOUS FISSION
atom. On the other hand, 21zPo is just an alpha
particle beyond closed shells for both neutrons Although instability caused by alpha decay
and protons. Its unstable behavior is similar to severely limits the production of new heavy ele-
that of metallic elements: it likes to lose its last ments, it is most likely spontaneous fission that
couple of neutrons and protons. prevents any extension of the Periodic Table of the
The reason that alpha decay occurs rather than Elements. Spontaneous fission does not occur for
11.1,
2H, 3H, or 3He decay is that these reactions elements lighter than thorium (Z = 90), but its
are not energetically possible; that is, AE (section probability increases rapidly with an increase in
N-11) is negative and the occurrence of such atomic number. For example, consider the follow-
decays is prohibited by the law of conservation of ing list of spontaneous-fission half-lives.
mass-energy. Because 'He is a doubly magic 292U (1,2 = 1016 years
nucleus, energy is given off when it is formed. 250 96CM(1/2 = 104 years
Energetically, it is also possible for 12C and 160
iiSSFm. r1,2 = 2.6 hours
decay to occur. However, because of the large
charges on these nuclei, charged particles cannot
get out easily. The same electrostatic repulsion Note how the half-life decreases with increasing
barrier that hinders a charged particle's entry into Z. Only the special stability of closed nuclear
shells can alter this pattern. Therefore, even if ele-
a nucleus when it is on the outside keeps it from
getting out when it is on the inside. The net result ments around 298114 do exist, it seems highly
of all these effects is that the alpha particle is the
unlikely because of spontaneous fission that
heavier elements could exist.
only light particle that can escape from a nucleus
with any appreciable probability. Fission fragments, because of their high energy
It is the alpha-decay processalong with spon- and large mass, cause a great deal of radiation
taneous fission, which is discussed in the next damage when they pass through matter. The
sectionthat currently limits our ability to make total distance they travel through air is compara-
new elements in the laboratory. The heaviest ble to that of alpha particles. The radiation dam-
known element, element 106, is highly unstable age in crystals from fission fragments has found a
toward alpha decay. It decays rapidly to lawren- useful application in the determination of the
cium (element 103) according to the equation ages of deep-sea sediments. The ocean contains a
large amount of uranium, which undergoes spon-
taneous-fission decay in sedimentary rocks. The
263106-259104 + `He (t1/2 = 0.9 seconds) radiation damage is so great that it leaves a per-
manent record in the structure of the rock. By
Therefore, although element 106 is stable enough appropriate chemical and microscopic analysis, it
so that its momentary existence can be observed, is possible for scientists to determine the number
it is too unstable for large amounts of it to accu- of fission events that have occurred per number
mulate in nuclear-particle accelerators. of uranium atoms present in the rock. From
It is possible that the superheavy elements cor- knowledge of this quantity and the spontaneous-
responding to the island of stability may have fission half-life of uranium, it is then possible to
alpha-decay half-lives much longer than this, per- determine the age of the rock.
44 5j
tion is found to be 1/139. Assuming that both 235U
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS and 238U were produced in nearly equal amounts
during nucleosynthesis, we derive an average age
(Student module page 57) of about 6.5 billion years for the elements of the
144 ma ____01411,-, 4- solar system. We say average age here because the
1. 60"1/4.4 -gue + 2he
elements may have been formed during many
2. 12K- Nca + stages of stellar evolution. We feel certain the Sun
3. iiNa-IgNe + 91p is at least a second-generation star, and it may
well be a later-generation star. Consequently, we
4. 74Be + can speak only of an average age. Note that the
5. 241rnAm_241Am elements had to be formed before the Earth and
the planets solidified (4.5 billion years ago). Thus,
6. 100-m - 1 g,ssn + 1E0sn + 4 on our dating procedures are self-consistent.
The assumption that the radioactivity of 14C in
Miniactivity The following additional problems paral- our environment has been at a nearly constant
lel the previous problems. Have students write equations
value of about 15.0 disintegrations per minute per
for the following decay processes.
gram of carbon throughout time is not quite valid.
Studies of the age rings of redwood trees have
1. Alpha decay of %Am shown slight variations in the 14C concentration
2. Beta decay of ISAl
as a function of time. These variations may have
resulted from changes in the intensity of the
3. Positron decay of cosmic-ray flux that reached our atmosphere. An-
4. Electron-capture decay of SEFe
other more recent source of variation is the large
increase in the use of fossil fuels for energy dur-
5. Gamma decay of 117mSn ing the last 150 years, which has enriched the
6. Spontaneous fission of 282Cf, with two neutrons from
amount of 12CO2 in the atmosphere. This has
each of two fragments that have equal mass and been counterbalanced somewhat during the last
charge
twenty-five years by atmospheric testing of nu-
clear weapons, which has produced additional
14CO2.
Answers:
u
9311P + 421 le
241 A 237m
1. 95r1" '
45
52
(1/21,7 =
N(K) = 6 x 1016 1 Calibrate a detector relative to an absolute standard,
' No 12 x 1016 2 in this case a MINIGENERATOR.
Emphasize the importance of background radiation
n=1= in radioactive-decay measurements.
ti12
2. Suppose that someone reports having found an orig- Student Grouping Groups of two to five, depending
inal record of an ancient ship that shows the crew on the number of detectors available.
visited America over 2000 years ago. When the doc-
ument is subjected to 14C dating, it is found that the Materials
activity is 15.0 - 0.3 disintegrations per minute per
gram of carbon. Is the document genuine? What MINIGENERATOR
Measure the half-life of 40K that is in a sample of Laboratory Safety Review with your students the
KCI. standard laboratory safety rules they should be follow-
Show that common substances in our environment ing. Note Appendix I: Safety at the end of the student
are radioactive. module.
46
53
Range of Results These results were obtained Step 4 Counter Efficiency
through the use Of a 137Cs MINIGENERATOR and a John-
R(MINIGENERATOR)
son end-window survey meter. = 450 cpm x 100 = 4.5 x 104 cpm
Step I Background, at 10-second intervals Frot.,n K) (86 cpm) (3.3. x 104 cps)*
(4.5 x 104 cpm)
Counting Meter Counting Meter Counting Meter
Period Reading Period Reading Period Reading This step corrects for the detector efficiency (about
(in cpm) (in cpm) (in cpm) 2.3%, in this case) and gives
1 70 11 50 21 30
2 60 12 35 22 30 R' (40K) = 63 cps:
3 40 13 35 23 40
4 85 14 25 24 25 Step 5 Half-life for 40K
5 35 15 45 25 20
6 40 16 15 26 35 (0.693) (3.5 x 1018 atoms)
t1/2
7 30 17 20 27 30 (63 atoms decayed/s)
8 60 18 35 28 25
9 55 19 30 29 30 = 3.9 x 1016 s,
10 30 20 25 30 10
Average background = 37 cpm or,
3.9 x 1016 s
t1,2 (years) =
3.16 x 107 s/yr
Step 2 Number of 40K atoms
ti/2 (years) = 1.2 x 109 yr
mass of KCI = 3.96 g
(3.96 g) (6.02 x 1023 atoms/mole) This compares very well with the accurately determined
N(K)
(74.6 g/mole half-life of 1.3 x 109 years for 40K. However, expect devi-
ations up to a factor of five in your students' results,
N(K) = 3.20 x 1022 atoms
especially if any difficulties are encountered with mea-
N(40K) = N (K) x 1.1 x 10-4 surement of the MINIGENERATOR activity. Ordinarily this
will not be a problem.
= (3.20 x 1022) (1.1 x 10-4)
The factor 1.1 x 10-4 is the fraction of natural K
Postlab Discussion Compare students' results
with the accepted value (1.3 x 109 years), and discuss
atoms that are in the form of 40K.
possible errors. Discuss the significance of the back-
N(40K) = 3.5 x 1018 atoms ground radiation and the use of an absolute standard for
obtaining results. Point out the usefulness of this method
of half-life determination in contrast to directly observing
Step 3 Detection Results of ten counts with cov- half the material decay!
er removed from detector.
Counting period Meter Reading
(in cpm) ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
100
1
(Student module page 62)
2 120
3 130 1. a. N = No (VW = (4.0 x 105)(/2)1
4 110
= 2.0 x 105 atoms
5 120
170 b. 1.0 x 105 (another half-life has passed)
6
7 140 C. 8.0 x 105
8 65 d. 1B) = N(11C at 9:00) N(11C at 10:00)
9 130 = 8.0 x 105 1.0 x 105
10 140
= 7.0 x 105
R(total) = R(4K) + background = 123 cpm e. approximately 8.0 x 105
R(40K) = R(total) background
R(40K) = 123 cpm 37 cpm = 86 cpm *absolute value of 137Cs MINIGENERATOR
47
54
2. From the chemical atomic masses, 3. Write balanced equations for the following reac-
tions:
1.0 g (6.02 x 1023 atoms/mole)
=
238.0 g/mole A. the alpha decay of mu
= 2.5 x 101 atoms 292u___----.230Th tHe
B. the negatron decay of 233U
R= 291U-'2ENP + -(1) a
(0.693) (2.5 x 1021 atoms) C. the fusion of four 1H nuclei to form 4 He
(4.5 x 109 yr) (365 d/yr) (24 h/d) (60 min/h) 4 1H 41He + 2 7p
c. 52Fe-cilg+ Nivin
26
Time Corrected Activity cpm
d. 5226Fe + 'Mn
2552 KA,
9:45
10:40
3700
2500
e. 242 rnA 2zaAni
95 7, 11:00 2100
5. a. beta 11:45 1400
1:00 900
b. gamma 1:30 700
c. gamma
Using' the graph, determine the experimental half-life
for 113mln, expressed in minutes.
B.
14r
6..., --. 7114m
N + -10f.,0 , 2000
137D,
C. 5suct- 56
235ii +
137Ba +
137r,
"Y
1,
D. 921/4-' -'- 1,
0" -----' 55`,0 + 96 Epp k
' 37"" + '
1
3 0" 1500
48
55
7. Four hours after chemical separation a radioactive Renfrew, Colin. "Carbon 14 and Pre-history of Europe." Scien-
nuclide with a half-life of 8 hours has 1000 atoms left. tific American, October 1971, pp. 63-72.
Schramm, D. N. "The Age of the Elements." Scientific Ameri-
How many atoms were present at the time of sepa-
can, January 1974, pp. 69-77.
ration? 1414
8. 295'"Am_o 295Am SUGGESTED FILMS
9. 59mCo 59co + Alpha, Beta, and Gamma. Color, 44 minutes. U.S. Department
of Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN
37830.
SUGGESTED READINGS Explores the origin and nature of alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation.
Macdougall, J. D. "Fission-Track Dating." Scientific American, The Atom & Archeology. Color, 25 minutes. U.S. Department of
December 1976, pp. 114-122. Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
Peebles, P. J. E., and Wilkinson, D. T. "The Primeval Fireball." Presents archaeological uses of atomic energythe atomic
Scientific American, June 1967, p. 28. clock, the atomic fingerprint, and the atomic X ray.
The Search for New Elements decay) Ask a student to identify the inner transi-
tion elements.
Discuss the equations described in the text for
the synthesis of transuranium elements.
We recommend that you read G. Seaborg, Man- It should be noted that scientists in the Soviet
made Transuranium Elements (Englewood Cliffs, Union have reported the discovery of isotopes of
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), which is listed in the elements 104-107 and their decay by spontane-
Suggested Reading of this unit. It presents an excel- ous fission. However, the results of recent work
lent, although now somewhat dated, review and have indicated that many of these discoveries
history of those elements. may need further investigation.
49
56
A number of reports of the observations of ing the preceding unit. The correct answer to each ques-
superheavy elements have appeared in the scien- tion is indicated by shading.
tific literature and the popular press. However, as
1. Place the elements with Z = 110-126 into the peri-
of this writing, none of the observations reported
odic table. Predict their chemical properties based
have been verified. In each case an alternative
on their position in the table.
explanation has been found to discount the
reports of evidence for the existence of super- Answers determined by teacher.
heavy elements.
2. What methods are being used to try to synthesize
the superheavy elements?
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
heavy-ion reactions and the r-process
(Student module page 68)
1. Berkeley, California
2. 232Th, 235U, and 238U (also 4K, 87Rb, 50V)
3. N m;
SUGGESTED READING
(m) = (mo) (1/2)" = (0.50 g) (1/2)1'2 = 0.35 g
Seaborg, Glenn T. Man-made Transuranium Elements. Engle-
4. Tremendous speeds are required to overcome the wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Paperback.
electric-charge repulsion between the two positively
charged nuclei.
5. Electric and magnetic fields are used to accelerate SUGGESTED FILMS
the particles. These act only on charged particles;
The Alchemist's Dream. Color, 29 minutes. U.S. Department of
therefore, the atoms must be ionized. Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
Members of the Argonne Chemistry Division explain the use
of the cyclotron in the transmutation of curium to berkelium.
EVALUATION ITEMS A Journal of Plutonium. Color, 47 minutes. U.S. Department of
Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
The following are additional evaluation items that you A chronicle of the people and events involved in the discov-
may wish to use with your students at various times dur- ery, separation, and large-scale production of plutonium.
Uses of Radiation the inert gas radon, 286Rn and 282Rn. These nuclei
and their alpha-decay products occur naturally in
Suggest to your students that they refer to maga- the air as a result of the decay of 232Th and 235U in
zines and newspapers for stories about the uses the Earth's crust and in the ocean. Although these
of radiation. Give the students an opportunity to constitute minimal radiation hazards, they are
collect clippings from magazines and newspapers constant ones and must be considered whenever
and then make comparisons. Discuss and we discuss the hazards of synthetic radiation,
exchange information. You might also plan a field such as that in nuclear reactors.
trip to a hospital in your community. A technician To give some idea of the extent of radiation in
in the radiology department of your local hospital our environment, it is necessary to compare the
could be asked to give a presentation on the use amount of natural radiation to which we are
of radiation in the treatment of patients. exposed annually with the standards for the max-
imum permissible amount of radiation per year.
N-35 RADIATION IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
Radiation dosage is measured in terms of the rem,
which is a measure of the amount of biological
Among the sources of natural radioactivity that damage caused by a given source of radiation.
we are exposed to daily are radioactive atoms of The U.S. Department of Energy has established a
50 5
maximum safe dosage per year for persons whose Experiment 17 Co-precipitation of Indium Hydrox-
work involves the use of radiation. This maxi- ide
mum is 5 rems per year. It should be stressed that Experiment 19 Tracing
this limit has been established to represent an Experiment 23 Determination of the Amount of
amount of radiation that will not be harmful in Liquid in a Container
any way to the recipient. This limit is based on Experiment 25 Diffusion
studies of radiation effects on animals and of radi-
ation accidents involving people.
Natural radiation constitutes about 5 percent of ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
the established safety limit. Several variations (Student module page 70)
should be noted. People living at high altitudes
receive more radiation because fewer cosmic rays 1. Answers will vary. Sample answer (not including
are attenuated by the atmosphere there. You are work-related exposure):
better protected from radiation if you live in a log Cosmic radiation 46 mrem
cabin than in a brick house because the latter con- House construction 45 mrem
tains much more 40K. Water supplies that origi- Ground 15 mrem
nate in soils rich in potassium, uranium, and tho- Water, food, air 25 mrem
rium are responsible for much more exposure Weapons-test fallout 4 mrem
than water that is free of those elements. X-ray diagnosis 9 mrem
Synthetic sources of radiation are medical and Jet airplane travel 36 mrem
dental X rays, radioactive fallout, and industrial Television viewing 0.10 mrem
sources such as nuclear reactors. The latter two
sources together constitute less than 0.5 percent Annual radiation dose = 180 mrem
of the maximum safe limit at the present time. In 2. a. Yearly exposure = 180 mrem (from Problem 1);
the past, X rays have been our most common
source of radiation exposure. Improvements in MINIGENERATOR radiation at 60 cm
the design of X-ray devices, however, have = 10-4 mrem/h
greatly reduced their danger. But it is still worth- Therefore,
while for people to inquire about the safety of
X-ray equipment to make sure it is of modern 180 mrem
time = = 180 x 104 h = 200 yr
design. 10-4 mrem/h
A worksheet to accompany your discussion of b. Radiation from 3 hours of TV viewing per day
the text and illustration on pages 70 and 71 of the = 0.45 mrem
student module has been included on the follow-
ing page. You may reproduce this worksheet in 0.45 mrem
time = = 4.5 x 103 h = 0.5 yr
classroom quantities or make an overhead pro- 10 mrem/h
jectual for use in your classroom discussion.
Excellent source material for students that is
EXPERIMENT
related to this and the following sections can be
N-36 GAMMA-RAY PENETRATION
found in the Department of Energy's Understand-
ing the Atom series. Although the series is out of To compare the penetrating powers of various types of
print, it may still be available in your local radiation, students will find the diagram on page 55 of the
library. student module to be useful. The thickness of material
Several experiments in Experiments in Nucleonics that is required to stop equal-energy alpha, beta, and
(New York: Union Carbide Corp., 1968. Available gamma rays of a few MeV is shown here.
from Redco Science Inc., Danbury, CT 06810.) can
This experiment is intended to illustrate the high energy
be added to this section to show how radioactive
of nuclear radiation. It also aims to determine the
nuclei can be used as tracers in chemical reac-
amounts of material required to absorb nuclear radiation
tions. These include the following.
and shows the dependence of absorption on the type of
Experiment 16 Precipitation of Indium Hydroxide material.
51
58
SOURCES OF RADIATION WORKSHEET
(for Student Module, Problem 1, page 70)
X-ray diagnosis
chest X ray 9 (each)
gastrointestinal tract X ray 210 (each)
59
52
Concepts for any other people who work in an area that has radio-
active materials.
Gamma radiation has great penetrating power.
Some materials are better able to absorb radiation
Laboratory Safety Review with your students the
than others.
standard laboratory safety rules they should be follow-
The ability of a given material to absorb radiation
ing. Note Appendix I: Safety at the end of the student
depends on its thickness.
module.
The amount of material necessary to reduce the
intensity of radiation to one-half its original value is
Laboratory Tips Several count-rate readings of
called the half-thickness of the material.
each intensity should be taken and averaged to reduce
the possibility of statistical errors. This is always good
Objectives
practice if time permits. If the MINIGENERATOR is placed
, Determine experimentally the half-thicknesses of in a counting chamber below the detector, the sheets of
sheets of aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), and lead lead shielding can be cut into disks that neatly fit on the
(Pb). trays of the counting chamber. Typical lead sheets are
Graph radiation intensity versus sheet thickness and about one millimeter thick. The intensity reading will be
graphically determine half-thickness. substantially reduced by the time ten sheets have been
Compare shielding abilities of various metals and placed between the MINIGENERATOR and the detector.
explain the differences.
The graph of count rate versus thickness can be plotted
on semilogarithmic graph paper. With semilog paper a
Estimated Time One period
straight line should result, whereas with linear paper the
plot will produce a curved line. The thickness may be
Student Grouping Groups of two to five, depending
plotted in centimeters or merely in units of single sheets
on the equipment available.
of lead, as in the sample data, in which a 137Cs/137mBa
MINIGENERATOR and a scintillation detector were used.
Materials Remind your students that it is not necessary to take the
radiation detector logarithm of the number on the ordinate scale; the graph
MINIGENERATOR or other gamma-ray source paper does that. Have them simply plot one number
3 sheets of aluminum (each sheet approximately against the other, taking care in reading the scales.
3 sheets of copper 25 cm square and 0.1 cm
10 sheets of lead thick) Range of Results One experimental determination
linear graph paper of the half-thickness of lead is illustrated by the sample
ruler, centimeter data and the accompanying graph.
ring stand and ring
pair of rubber gloves
SAMPLE DATA
Background = 1230 cpm
Advance Preparation Check the background radi-
cpm Corrected
ation yourself before instructing the students to proceed Activity (cpm)
Sheets of Lead for Background
with the experiment. If the students' average readings
0 5475 4245
are questionable, you can have them take more readings
1 4940 3710
to verify their initial findings.' 2 4580 3350
3 4210 2980
Pre lab Discussion This experiment relates directly 4 3870 2640
to the student because it provides a basis for knowledge 5 3650 2420
6 3375 2145
about shielding individuals from radiation. This knowl-
7 3090 1860
edge is important for X-ray technicians and their 8 2880 1650
patients, for the nuclear power industry and its employ- 9 2690 1460
ees, for people who work on nuclear-powered ships, and 10 2480 1250
53
60
I = -2 lo e = 2.3
4000
E
1
2.3 log (10/ -2 lo) = 2.3 log 2 =
_ 3000
x1 = .693/R
CO
54
61
Answers to Questions that contains the same compound that is unla-
beled. The compound is then separated by chem-
1. The counting rate decreased from Al to Cu to Pb.
ical means. Because the radioactive molecules are
2. The counting rate decreases as the shielding thick-
chemically the same as those in the unknown
ness increases.
mixture, they will behave alike during the separa-
3. Answers here depend on the MINIGENERATOR
tion procedures. Then the total mass (or volume)
source used. For 137Cs/137"Ba, about 0.6 cm of lead
of the compound (added tracer plus unknown)
is expected; for 113Sn/113mln, approximately 0.3 cm
and its radioactive decay rate are measured. From
of lead. (Gamma-ray energies vary by source.)
the ratios of the initial masses and radioactivity to
4. Increased distance will lead to a lower result and
decreased distance to a higher result.
the final masses and radioactivity, the amount of
material present in the original unknown sample
can then be determined. The equation for this
experiment on isotope dilution is
N-37 RADIOACTIVE TRACERS IN mass of final sample
CHEMISTRY radioactivity of final sample
Other examples of radioactive tracing can also be
presented. For example, if the labeled solid mass of unknown + mass of initial tracer
Pb*(NO3)2 is mixed in water with a previously radioactivity of initial tracer
prepared precipitate of PbSO4, it is found that
after a while the PbSO4 solid will also contain
MINIEXPERIMENT
radioactive lead. This results from the exchange
N-38 TRACERS
of lead ions between the solution and the solid
and demonstrates the ionic nature of PbSO4 and In this experiment the student differentiates between
Pb(NO3)2. compounds in a group of substances to determine which
are radioactive and which are stable. A group of six to
Pb *(NO3)2(s) eight samples, each having a mass of 10-20 grams, is
Pb*2+(aq) + 2 NO3-(aq) (dissolves completely) usually adequate. Easily obtainable radioactive com-
pounds include salts of potassium, rubidium, thorium,
PbSO4(s)
and uranium. Old uranium and thorium compounds are
Pb2+(aq) + S042-(aq) (dissolves very slightly)
most desirable, and if mineral samples of pitchblende or
Pb*2+(aq) + S042-(aq)-Pb*SO4(s) other uranium or thorium ore are available, these will
work well. Other possible sources of radioactivity include
On the other hand, if labeled sulfide ions, S*2-, old radium-dial wristwatches and orange Fiesta cooking
are mixed with unlabeled sulfate ions, S042-, no ware that is more than fifteen years old. The latter two
exchange for the labeled atoms by the latter is sources are no longer on the market but can frequently
observed. This is because of the strong covalent be found in homes as keepsakes. If you have access to
bonds between the sulfur and oxygen atoms in the old Fiesta ware, handle it with care. The orange color
S042- was obtained through the use of a uranium compound,
and the item or items may be very radioactive.
2-
0 In the group of substances include a number of "blanks,"
O :S:O
such as, NaCI. Also, remember that the activity of the
O
potassium and rubidium compounds is quite low, and so
sulfide ion sulfate ion
the student must exercise some care in distinguishing
between those compounds and other nonradioactive
One important technique that has proved use- substances. Careful background measurements are
ful for the analysis of complex organic and bio- essential. In fact, there may be some difficulty in deter-
chemical compounds is isotope dilution. In this mining the radioactivity of rubidium compounds if the
method a known mass (or volume) of a labeled radiation detectors you use are not very sensitive.
compound is added to a mixture (the unknown)
55
62
N-39 EFFECTS OF RADIATION DOSES the student module for a comparison of the rela-
The effects of nuclear radiation on biological sys- tive penetrating powers of alpha, beta, and
gamma rays.
tems have been extensively studied. In particular,
the survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki A suitable detection device for the emitted radi-
nuclear explosions in World War II have been ation must be available. Modern instrumentation
carefully followed. This project continues today. includes scanning devices such as the one shown
From these and other studies we know that exces- on page 76 of the student module; these provide a
sive radiation exposure results in an increased high degree of accuracy in measuring radiation.
You might check with your local hospital to see
incidence of leukemia. For example, if a dose of
500 rems is received by a population sample in a if radioisotope imaging is performed there as a
few hours, about 50 percent of those exposed can diagnostic procedure. The field of nuclear medi-
be expected to die as a direct result of the expo- cine has grown very rapidly in the past ten years,
sure. However, this dose is 100 times the maxi- and there are now more cyclotrons in hospitals in
mum annual safety limit established for people this country than there are in nuclear research
who work with radiation. It is almost 3000 times laboratories. Tracer diagnosis has certainly be-
the annual background exposure. come one of the most effective demonstrations of
Determination of the maximum safe exposure the benefits of radioactivity. You may want to
to radiation is the subject of extensive research at arrange for a speaker to visit your class to discuss
the present time. The problem is very complex uses of tracers in medicine.
because of a lack of available data on the effects of
low-level radiation on human subjects (although N-41 NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES IN
we know what high levels do) and because of the AGRICULTURE
extreme variability in the responses of different
individuals. With regard to the latter point, the An interesting approach to the constructive use of
problem is somewhat like trying to establish a radiation has been employed in insect control.
fixed number of minutes one can be exposed to For example, the screwworm fly is an insect that
the Sun without getting a sunburn and then is common in the southern United States, where
applying that limit to the entire population. Vari- it causes considerable damage to livestock. One
ous environmental effects add to the problem. method of controlling these flies has been to
For example, the average background radiation in breed them and then to sterilize them with radia-
Colorado is more than twice that in Pennsylvania. tion when they reach the adult stage. Large num-
Yet Pennsylvania ranks about tenth nationally in bers of the sterilized flies are then released in the
cancer mortality, whereas Colorado has one of infested area and allowed to mingle with the nor-
the lowest rates, ranking forty-sixth. mal flies. The mating between sterile flies and the
normal population leads to such a high percent-
N-40 NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES IN MEDICINE age of sterile eggs that very few eggs hatch and,
as a result, the next generation of flies is effec-
The application of tracers in medicine is estab- tively eliminated. This method has proved very
lished by the following criteria. A radioactivity- successful in the control of the screwworm fly
tagged compound that is specific to a given during the past several years.
constituent of the body must be available. For In applications similar to those discussed in the
example, iodine concentrates in the thyroid student module, harmful insects can be labeled in
gland. Thus, 1311 is a good tracer for investigation order to track their life cycles and thus gain a bet-
of the thyroid. ter idea of the range of their migration and also to
The tracer nucleus should decay by beta- or learn what their natural predators are. For exam-
gamma-ray emission (or both) rather than by ple, by using radioactivity-tagged aphids, scien-
alpha decay. This facilitates detection of the radi- tists have learned that these pests are eaten by the
ation, since gamma and beta rays are not praying mantis but not by other large insects.
absorbed as readily by the human body as are Consequently, the praying mantis can serve as an
alpha particles. See the illustration on page 55 of effective, nontoxic method of aphid control.
56
63
Another area of nuclear application is in the Advance Preparation Dilute 2.5 cm3 (5 p.Ci) of 32P
study of animal nutrition. Tracers have been solution to 100 cm3. Prepare enough solution for all the
found to be valuable in determining the feed that plants. Use 100 cm3 per plant.
most economically produces the most nutritious
meat. They have also been used to test the effects Pre lab Discussion Remind the students that this
of growth-stimulating hormones and tranquiliz- experiment demonstrates a typical use of tracers in agri-
ers given to cattle. (Cattle are sometimes given culture.
tranquilizers during shipment to marketother-
wise they get nervous and lose weight.) The Laboratory Safety Review with your students the
tracer technique makes it possible to examine standard laboratory safety rules they should be follow-
meat processed from such cattle to ensure that ing. Note the safety section in Appendix I of the student
these drugs do not appear as contaminants. module.
64 57
N-44 ACTIVATION ANALYSIS 4. Which nuclide has been used as a tracer in medical
diagnosis?
You can evaluate your students' understanding
of neutron-activation analysis by asking, "How A. 80Sr D. 1311
B. 235U D.
does a criminologist use neutron activation anal- 14C
ysis to determine whether a murder suspect has 5. Which material would have the highest half-
fired a gun?" A student who understands thickness value when tested with gamma radia-
neutron-activation analysis can readily answer tion?
this question. Proceed with your lesson by calling
attention to Table 10 (student module page 84). A. paper C. copper
B. aluminum D. lead
58
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
65
0p
Nuclear Power 290u +
(23 min)
23094N p
(2.4 days)
01, 233Th
90
(22 min) Selected Readings of the student module and in the
2393
1
p,u -0(1 n3
szU (1.6 x 105 yr)
Suggested Readings in this guide.
(27 days)
59
66
Nuclear Power Reactors
60
67
Site Plant Name Utility Commercial
Operation
61
68
Site Plant Name Utility Commercial
Operation
Buchanan Indian Point Station: Unit 3 Power Authority of State of New 1976
York
Ontario R. E. Ginna Nuclear Power Plant: Rochester Gas & Electric Corp. 1979
Unit 1
Scriba Nine Mile Point Nuclear Station: Unit 1 Niagara Mohawk Power Corp. 1969
Scriba James A. Fitz Patrick Nuclear Power Power Authority of State of New 1975
Plant York
North Carolina
Southport Brunswick Steam Electric Plant: Unit 1 Carolina Power & Light Co. 1977
Southport Brunswick Steam Electric Plant: Unit 2 Carolina Power & Light Co. 1975
Ohio
Oak Harbor Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station: Toledo Edison Co.
Unit 1 & Cleveland Illuminating Co. 1977
Oregon
Prescott Trojan Nuclear Plant: Unit 1 Portland General Electric Co. 1976
Pennsylvania
Middletown Three Mile Island Nuclear Station: Metropolitan Edison Co. 1974
Unit 1
Peach Bottom Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station: Philadelphia Electric Co. 1974
Unit 2
Peach Bottom Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station: Philadelphia Electric Co. 1974
Unit 3
Shippingport Shippingport Atomic Power Station Duquesne Light Co. 1957
Shippingport Beaver Valley Power Station: Unit 1 Duquesne Light Co. & Ohio 1976
Edison Co.
South Carolina
Hartsville H. B. Robinson Plant: Unit 2 Carolina Power & Light Co. 1971
Seneca Oconee Nuclear Plant: Unit 1 Duke Power Co. 1973
Seneca Oconee Nuclear Plant: Unit 2 Duke Power Co. 1974
Seneca Oconee Nuclear Plant: Unit 3 Duke Power Co. 1974
Vermont
Vernon Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power 1972
Station Corp.
Virginia
Gravel Neck Surry Power Station: Unit 1 Virginia Electric & Power Co. 1972
Gravel Neck Surry Power Station: Unit 2 Virginia Electric & Power Co. 1973
Mineral North Anna Power Station: Unit 1 Virginia Electric & Power Co. 1978
Washington
Richland N-Reactor/VVPPSS Steam Department of Energy 1966
Wisconsin
Carlton Kewaunee Nuclear Power Plant: Wisconsin Public Service Corp. 1974
Unit 1
La Crosse Lacrosse (Genoa) Nuclear Generating Dairy land Power Cooperative 1969
Station
Two Creeks Point Beach Nuclear Plant: Unit 1 Wisconsin Michigan Power Co. 1970
Two Creeks Point Beach Nuclear Plant: Unit 2 Wisconsin Michigan Power Co. 1973
62
69
1 1
Undoubtedly the best source of information on b. roo 9.8 x 10-4
z 1024
the controversial nature of nuclear materials is the
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. This monthly peri- C. 9.5 X 10-7
odical maintains continual debates on questions
d. 1311; 160 days
of nuclear safety and represents the concerns of
90Sr; 560 years
many of the world's leading experts on the sub-
239PU; 4.9 x 105 years
ject. Refer interested students to the article by H.
Bethe, "The Necessity of Fission Power," Scien- 6. 24PU--- 292U
tific American (January 1976), pp. 21-31.
7. A good reference here is The Delicate Balance: An
Remember that scientific objectivity is the goal
Energy and the Environment Chemistry Module.
to strive for in all discussions. Frequently, argu-
ments concerning the use of nuclear materials
become based on emotional rather than scientific
grounds. There are valid arguments on both sides EVALUATION ITEMS
of the question and, in the author's opinion, any-
one who claims to have all the correct answers The following are additional evaluation items that you
should be viewed with suspicion. This does not may wish to use with your students at various times dur-
mean that taking a stand should be avoided; ing the preceding unit.
eventually decisions must be made. 1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
nuclear-power generation.
N-47 MINIATURE POWER SOURCES
2. Discuss the problem of where a nuclear power plant
The Understanding the Atom series produced by
could be built in your area, or discuss why the
the Atomic Energy Commission (now a part of present site was chosen if there already is one.
the Department of Energy) contains a useful
module on this subject entitled "Power from 3. Compare the impact of nuclear, fossil-fuel burning,
Radioisotopes." Also, see the article by H. J. and hydroelectric generation of power on the envi-
Sanders,' "Cardiac Pacemakers," Chemistry (July ronment.
1971), pp. 14-17. For more up-to-date informa- Describe the major components and the operation of
4.
tion, you can write to the Technical Information
a nuclear power plant.
Division, U.S. Department of Energy, Box 62,
Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
63
7
Seaborg, G. T., and Bloom, J. L. "Fast Breeder Reactors." Sci- concept, the research being done to meet this challenge, and
entific American, November 1970, pp. 13-21. the advantages of fusion power reactors.
York, H. F. "The Debate Over the Hydrogen Bomb." Scientific Superconducting Magnet for Fusion Research. Color, 22
American, October 1975, pp. 106-113. minutes. U.S. Department of Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box
"The Great Test-Ban Debate." Scientific American, 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
November 1972, p. 15. Describes the baseball II neutral-beam injection experiment,
the winding and installation of this magnet system, and the
initial testing of the fusion research facility.
SUGGESTED FILMS The Ultimate Energy. Color, 28 minutes. U.S. Department of
Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830.
To Imitate the Sun. Color, 33 minutes. U.S. Department of A documentary that explores basic theory and current labo-
Energy, Film Library, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37830. ratory experiments that are being performed in the investiga-
Describes the theoretical challenge of the controlled-fusion tion of controlled thermonuclear fusion.
64
71
Appendix : Safety
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
Proper conduct in a chemistry laboratory is really an extension 8. In case of a chemical splash on your skin, immediately
of safety procedures normally followed each day around your rinse the area with cold water for at least one minute.
home and in the outside world. Exercising care in a laboratory Consult your teacher for further action.
demands the same caution you apply to driving a car, riding a 9. If any liquid material splashes into your eye, wash the
motorbike or bicycle, or participating in a sport. Athletes con- eye immediately with water from an eyewash bottle or
sider safety measures a part of playing the game. For example, eyewash fountain.
football players willingly spend a great deal of time putting on
equipment such as helmets, hip pads, and shoulder pads to 10. Never look directly down into a test tubeview the con-
protect themselves from potential injury. tents of the tube from the side. (Why?)
Chemists must also be properly dressed. To protect them-
selves in the laboratory, they commonly wear a lab apron or a 11. Never smell a material by placing your nose directly at
coat and protective glasses. Throughout this course you will the mouth of the tube or flask. Instead, with your hand,
use similar items. Hopefully their use will become second "fan" some of the vapor from the container toward your
nature to you, much as it becomes second nature for a base- nose. Inhale cautiously.
ball catcher to put on a chest protector and mask before 12. Never taste any material in the laboratory.
stepping behind home plate.
As you read through a written experimental procedure, you 13. Never add water to concentrated acid solutions. The heat
will notice that specific hazards and precautions are called to generated may cause spattering. Instead, as you stir, add
your attention. Be prepared to discuss these hazards with your the acid slowly to the water or dilute solution.
teacher and with your fellow students. Always read the entire 14. Read the label on a chemical bottle at least twice before
experimental procedure thoroughly before starting any removing a sample. H202 is not the same as H2O.
laboratory work.
A list of general laboratory safety procedures follows. It is 15. Follow your teacher's instructions or laboratory proce-
not intended that you. memorize these safety procedures but dure when disposing of used chemicals.
rather that you use them regularly when performing experi-
ments. You may notice that this list is by no means complete. The following guidelines are of special concern in working
Your teacher may wish to add safety guidelines that are with radioactive materials.
relevant to your specific classroom situation. It would be
impossible to anticipate every hazardous situation that might 16. The radioactive materials that you will be working with
arise in the chemistry laboratory. However, if you are familiar in the laboratory consist of only very small quantities of
with these general laboratory safety procedures and if you radiation and do not require a special license to use.
use common sense, you will be able to handle potentially Nuclear materials are very strictly regulated by state and
hazardous situations intelligently and safely. Treat all chem- federal laws. Great care has been exercised to ensure that
icals with respect, not fear. the materials you will be handling do not constitute any
GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES danger to you. Nonetheless, you should treat all samples
you handle with the same care required for federally
1. Work in the laboratory only when the teacher is present or licensed materials. In this way, you will minimize the
when you have been given permission to do so. In case of amount of radiation you are exposed to during the
accident, notify your teacher immediately. experiment.
2. Before starting any laboratory exercise, be sure that the 17. When handling radioactive materials, always wear rub-
laboratory bench is clean. ber or plastic gloves.
3. Put on a laboratory coat or apron and protective glasses 18. Do not bring food of any kind into the laboratory when
or goggles before beginning an experiment. you are working with radioactive materials. Foodstuffs
4. Tie back loose hair to prevent the possibility of its con- can be easily contaminated during handling, which could
tacting any Bunsen burner flames. result in internal ingestion of radioactive materials.
5. Open sandals or bare feet are not permitted in the labo- 19. Be sure that no radioactive material comes in contact with
ratory. The dangers of broken glass and corrosive liquid your counter. In this way the radiation counter will not
spills are always present in a laboratory. become contaminated with radiation, which could lead to
high background readings and less accurate results.
6. Fire is a special hazard in the laboratory because many
chemicals are flammable. Learn how to use the fire 20. Never discard liquids down the drain or throw away
blanket, fire extinguisher, and shower (if your laboratory glassware into the trash receptacle. All used material
has one). should be collected in an appropriate storage vessel pro-
vided by your instructor and monitored before being
7. For minor skin burns, immediately immerse the burned discarded.
area in cold water for several minutes. Then consult your
teacher for further instructions on possible additional 21. Always check your hands with a radiation monitor before
treatment. leaving the laboratory.
/IA This symbol indicates the presence of radioactive material. It appears with
certain experiments in this module to alert you to the need for special precautions.
65
'72
Metric Units
73
66
Module Tests Answers to test questions in this section are pro-
vided. If you wish to use a standard-type answer sheet
Two module tests follow, one to test knowledge- with these tests, one is provided in the appendix of the
centered objectives and the other to test skill-centered teacher's guide for Reactions and Reason: An Introductory
objectives. If you choose to use either or both of these Chemistry Module. Duplicate enough copies for each of
module tests as they are presented here, duplicate cop- your students to use, or revise the format to fit your
ies for your students. Or, you may wish to select some own testing situation.
questions from these tests that you feel apply to your
introductory chemistry course and add questions of
your own. Either way, make sure that the test you give
reflects your emphasis on the chemistry you and your
students experienced in this introductory module. ANSWERS FOR KNOWLEDGE-CENTERED
The skill-centered test will require that you set up MODULE TEST
several laboratory stations containing materials for 1. B; 2. D; 3. C; 4. A; 5. B; 6. A; 7. B; 8. B; 9. C; 10. C;
your students to examine or work with. You may wish 11. C; 12. B; 13. D; 14. D; 15. A; 16. A; 17. C; 18. A;
to add additional test items to round out the types of 19. C; 20. C; 21. D; 22. C; 23. A; 24. B; 25. B; 26. C;
skills you and your students have worked on. 27. D; 28. D
74
67
THE HEART OF MATTER
Knowledge-Centered Module Test
1. The mass number of Al in the reaction 5. The term stellar nucleosynthesis describes the pro-
.172Mg -13AI + _ P is: cesses responsible for the
0 cm 4200 cpm
1 cm 3700 cpm 8. When a star has a core of helium and an outer
2 cm 3350 cpm envelope of hydrogen, it evolves into a
3 cm 3000 cpm main sequence star. C. supernova.
A.
4 cm 2600 cpm B. red giant. D. white dwarf.
5 cm 2400 cpm
6 cm 2100 cpm
7 cm 1900 cpm 9. Nuclear chemists agree that stars are continuously
8 cm 1600 cpm producing their own elements. If you were a nu-
clear chemist, which finding would best support the
The half-thickness of the metal is above statement?
68
75
10. An important medical use of radiation is 17. Carbon burning is represented in which of the fol-
lowing equations?
A. activation analysis.
B. nuclear power. 66 F.
A. 56Fe
26 + 10 0" 26
C. radiotherapy.
D. all of the above B. 4 1H-*e + 2 7P
C. go + gc +
11. The nuclide 281Cf has
D. 3 'He-..lgC
A. 98 nucleons. C. 154 neutrons.
B. 154 electrons. D. 252 protons.
18. The dominant reaction believed to be occurring in
12. A certain radioactive nuclide has a half-life of 100 main sequence stars is
minutes. If a sample containing 1600 atoms is
allowed to decay for 300 minutes, how many atoms A. 4 1H 2He + 2 91p + energy.
of the radioactive nuclide will remain?
B. 2 16C-.iNg + energy.
A. 100 atoms C. 400 atoms
C. 3 + energy.
B. 200 atoms D. 800 atoms
D. 2 3He--4He + 2 1H + energy.
13. An isobar of 233U is
23511
A. C. 23(7)Th.
19. In a nuclear reaction, the products are 0.02 u lighter
B. 2Pu. D. ZENp. than the reactants. Using the conversion c2 = 931
MeV/u, the amount of energy produced in this reac-
14. A proton has tion is approximately
A. no charge.
B. a 12.8-minute half-life. A. 0.02 MeV. C. 20 MeV.
the same charge as an electron. B. 1 MeV. D. 50 000 MeV.
C.
D. approximately the same mass as a neutron.
76 69
22. The big bang theory does not account for 26. Gamma decay is represented in which of the fol-
lowing equations?
A. the red shift.
2381 234Th + 41.4
B. the expanding Universe. A. 92,-. 90 , ' 2".
C. the production of elements beyond Li. 239D
B. 239 m n
63. - 64, _10 p
a
D. the production of 'He.
137mo, 13
C. IJ 561.r7o a
following equations?
A. 98cf_ igBa + 4 j,,n 27. The attractive forces holding a proton and an elec-
B. 285U - 288Th + He tron together are the
A. nuclear and electromagnetic forces.
C. 283NP- 2V4Pu -c1)0
B. gravitational and nuclear forces.
D.
14m + 4 1_1, ;H
7". 2, 1670 C. gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear
forces.
D. electromagnetic and gravitational forces.
24. Beta decay is represented in which of the following
equations?
238ii 234Th 28. In the nuclear reaction
A. 90 , 2".
B. 239m
93,,p-.28.1Pu + _? 14NI + 16o + X,
the letter X represents
C. 13756 mo
56 +y
D. 1`4N + 12`1-1e-.160 + H
A. 3He B. ?H C. IH D. 1H
C. 283NP-294Pu + -?0
77
70
THE HEART OF MATTER
Skill-Centered Module Test
1. Go to station #1 and, using the centimeter ruler 4. By using the following data, determine the distance
provided, determine the distance between the two of the detector from the source if the detector reads
lines drawn on the piece of masking tape. Record 64 cpm. The distance is
your answer at the bottom of your answer sheet
A. 6 cm. C. 10 cm.
next to #1.
B. 8 cm. D. 12 cm.
2. Which graph (below) represents the given data for
Detector Distance
the decay of a radioactive sample? Counts/min from Source
Activity (cpm) Time (h) 1024 2 cm
254 4 cm
199 0 16 16 cm
81 2
66 4 5. Go to station #5 and, using the radiation detector
53 6 provided, measure the activity of the sample taped
43 8 to the counter top. Record your answer on the bot-
35 10 tom of your answer sheet next to #5. Turn off the
21 15
radiation detector when finished.
6. If a reading were taken every 15 seconds, how
much time elapsed when the following data were
collected?
71
78
8. Using the graph below, determine the half-life of 10. Using the graph (below), determine the half-
the sample. The half-life is thickness of lead. The half-thickness is
A. 6.5 h. C. 12.0 h. A. 55 cm. C. 100 cm.
B. 5.5 h. D. 5.0 h. B. 250 cm. D. 175 cm.
100
90
104
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (h)
79
72
Materials List *Quantity is based on six teams of five students each. Adjust for other
groupings.
NONEXPENDABLE ITEMS
Item Experiment Amount
EXPENDABLE ITEMS
Item Experiment Amount
Note: Quantities required will depend on the number of See Teaching The Heart of Matter in this teacher's
MINIGENERATORS and/or detectors available to the class. guide for detailed advice concerning laboratory options.
MINIGENERATORS are manufactured by Redco Science It is assumed in listing quantities here that six MINIGER-
Inc., Danbury, CT 06810. Redco also sells a MINIGENER- ATORS and six radiation detectors are available for six
ATOR Nucleonics Kit, which contains two MINIGERATORS, teams of five students each in a class of thirty.
lead plates, copper plates, and other chemicals for fur-
ther work with radioactivity.
73
80
Acknowledgments
IAC Test Teachers
Linwood Adams, Bowie High School, Prince George's Mari lu McGoldrick, Wilde Lake High School, Howard
County, MD County, MD
Thomas Antonicci, Archbishop Curley High School, Balti- John Malek, Meade High School, Ft. Meade, MD
more, MD Robert Mier, Bowie and Eleanor Roosevelt High Schools,
Nicholas Baccala, Milford Mill High School, Baltimore Prince George's County, MD
County, MD George Milne, Oxon Hill High School, Prince George's
Rosemary Behrens, Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School, County, MD
Montgomery County, MD David Myers, Crossland High School, Prince George's
Virginia Blair, Holton-Arms School, Bethesda, MD County, MD
Ethyl duBois, Crossland and Oxon Hill High Schools, Prince George Newett, High Point High School, Prince George's
George's County, MD County, MD
Sally Buckler, High Point High School, Prince George's Daniel Noval, Patapsco High School, Baltimore County, MD
County, MD M. Gail Nussbaum, Northwestern High School, Prince
Therese Butler, Bowie High School, Prince George's George's County, MD
County, MD Elena Pisciotta, Parkdale High School, Prince George's
Kevin Castner, Bowie High School, Prince George's County, MD
County, MD Andrew Pogan, Poolesville High School, Montgomery
Robert Cooke, Kenwood High School, Baltimore County, MD County, MD
Wilmer Cooksey, Woodrow Wilson High School, Wash- Charles Raynor, Dulaney High School, Baltimore County, MD
ington, DC Rosemary Reimer Shaw, Montgomery Blair High School,
Frank Cox, Parkville High School, Baltimore County, MD Montgomery County, MD
Richard Dexter, John F. Kennedy High School, Montgomery E. G. Rohde, Academy of the Holy Names, Silver Spring, MD
County, MD Doris Sandoval, Springbrook High School, Montgomery
Elizabeth Donaldson, John F. Kennedy High School, Mont- County, MD
gomery County, MD Earl Shaw, Damascus High School, Montgomery County, MD
Clair Douthitt, Chief Sealth High School, Seattle, WA George Smeller, Robert Peary High School, Montgomery
Lawrence Ferguson, Milford Mill High School, Baltimore County, MD
County, MD Howard Smith, Parkville High School, Baltimore County, MD
Harry Gemberling, Du Val and Eleanor Roosevelt High Larry Sobotka, Parkville High School, Baltimore County, MD
Schools, Prince George's County, MD Roger Tatum,' Takoma Academy, Takoma Park, MD
Alan Goldstein, Laurel High School, Prince George's Yvette Thivierge, Fairmont Heights High School, Prince
County, MD George's County, MD
Marjorie Green, McLean High School, Fairfax County, VA Barbara Tracey, Bishop McNamara High School, Forest-
William Guthrie, Parkdale High School, Prince George's ville, MD
County, MD Ronald Trivane, Pikesville High School, Baltimore
Laura Hack, Annapolis High School, Annapolis, MD County, MD
Margaret Henderson, Fort Hunt High School, Fairfax Jeanne Vaughn, Governor Thomas Johnson High School,
County, VA Frederick County, MD
Martina Howe, Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School, Mont- Drew Wolfe, Randallstown High School, Baltimore
gomery County, MD County, MD
Glendal Jenkins, Surrattsville High School, Prince George's Pauline Wood, Springbrook High School, Montgomery
County, MD County, MD
Martin Johnson, Bowie High School, Prince George's James Woodward, Walt Whitman High School, Montgomery
County, MD County, MD
Harold Koch, Southwest High School, Minneapolis, MN Clement Zidick, Dimond and Wasilla High Schools, Anchor-
Jane Koran, Arundel High School, Anne Arundel County, MD age, AK
Marilyn Lucas, Euclid High School, Euclid, OH
David McElroy, Albert Einstein High School, Montgomery
County, MD
74
Index
82
3EST COPY AVAILABLE 75
Table of International Relative Atomic Masses*
Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass
'Based on International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) values (1975).
"Numbers in parentheses give the mass numbers of the most stable isotopes.
76 83
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS 1.008
H
Hydrogen
1
VIIIA
4.00
He
Helium
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 2
6.94 9.01 200.6 -atomic mass 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
Li Be B C N 0 F Ne
Lithium Mercury--- name Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Beryllium
3 4 80 5 6 7 8 9 10
- atomic number
27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
23.0 24.3
Na Mg Al Si CI Ar
Sodium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Magnesium IIB
11 12 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB 13 14 15 16 17 18
40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
39.1
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Potassium Calcium Manganese
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 (97) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Rubidium Strontium Molybd'm
38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
37
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
Cs Ba La* Hf Ta Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Cesium Tungsten
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
Praseody'm Neodymium Promethium Samarium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
232.0 231.0 238.0 237.0 (242) (243) (245) (245) (251) (254) (254) (256) (254) (257)
** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es FM Md No Lr
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendel'm Nobelium Lawrencium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96
' 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
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