Gardner (2009) as cited by Mukoroli (2011) Effective Vocabulary Teaching Strategies for the

English for Academic Purposes ESL Classroom, Retrieved on December 17, 2016, Retrieved
from http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1503&context=ipp_collection

Nation (2001), cited by Alfaki (2015), Vocabulary Input in English Language Teaching:
Assessing the Vocabulary Load ing Spine Five http://www.eajournals.org/wp-
content/uploads/Vocabulary-Input-in-English-Language-Teaching-Assessing-the-Vocabulary-
Load-in-Spine-Five.pdf

Scott (2000) as cited by Boras, J. (2003) Spelling Development: A Comparative Study of Adult
Learners and Grade Seven Children, Retrieved on December 17, 2016, Retrieved from
https://www.uleth.ca/dspace/bitstream/handle/10133/940/Boras_Julie.pdf?sequence=1

Graves (2000) as cited by Mukoroli (2011) defined vocabulary as the entire stock of

words belonging to a branch of knowledge or known by an individual. He also states that the

lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, which includes words and expressions.

Albesher (2012) discussed studies (Gabriele, 2007; Schmitz & Winskel, 2008) studied the

effectiveness of using more advanced peers to improve less advanced students, this strategy was

more beneficial than having students collaborate with each other.

Graham & Perin (2007) cited by Raoofi et. al (2017), writing is considered as an

important ability for production and dissemination of knowledge within any disciplinary

discourse. You can assess the students academic achievements on their abilities to convey their

knowledge and ideas. It helps students their assignments, enhance their critical thinking

capabilities and develop their cognitive performances.

Further, Schwar (2014) took the point of Alhabbash (2012), saying that grammar is

central in teaching and learning process. It is also one of the most difficult aspects of language to

teach well. English teachers and learners are often frustrated by the disconnection between

knowing the rules of grammar and being able to apply those rules automatically in writing. This

disconnect reflects a separation between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.

Declarative knowledge is knowledge about something. Declarative knowledge enables a student

to describe a rule of grammar and apply it in pattern practice drills. Procedural knowledge is

knowledge of how to do something. Procedural knowledge enables a student to apply a rule of

grammar in communication.

Graham & Perin (2007) cited by Raoofi et. al (2017), writing is considered as an

important ability for production and dissemination of knowledge within any disciplinary

discourse. You can assess the students academic achievements on their abilities to convey their

knowledge and ideas. It helps students their assignments, enhance their critical thinking

capabilities and develop their cognitive performances.

Swan (2005) cited by Hu (2012) pointed out that most dictionaries often present the
definition of grammar as the rules for combining words into sentences. Moreover,
he argues that the statement is incomplete as it does not explicitly explain the
functions of the rules in the sentence and the reasons for people to use the rule in
the language. According to his argument, this definition will affect language
learners understanding of grammar learning process as they might not have a good
sense of what accurate grammar is. Therefore, he ascertained that grammar is
essentially a limited set of devices for expressing a few kinds of necessary meaning
that cannot be conveyed by referential vocabulary alone. Accordingly, it implies the
meaning of sentences is realized by the existing rules of grammar rather than mere
interpretations of single words in the sentences
In a study conducted by Kreiner et. al. (2002), spelling errors did have an effect on how

people perceived writers, particularly when there were many spelling errors. For example,

college students appeared to attribute spelling errors more to writing ability than they did to

general cognitive abilities such as intelligence and logical ability.

Graves (2000) as cited by Mukoroli (2011) defined vocabulary as the entire stock of

words belonging to a branch of knowledge or known by an individual. He also states that the

lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, which includes words and expressions.

Without some knowledge of vocabulary, neither language production nor language

comprehension would be possible. Thus, the growth of vocabulary knowledge is one of the
essential pre-requisites for language acquisition and this growth of vocabulary knowledge can
only be possible when teachers employ effective vocabulary teaching and learning strategies
which are the objectives of this research thesis
According to Gardener (2009) as stated by Mukoroli (2011) vocabulary is not only confined to
the meaning of words but also includes how vocabulary is used in a context: how people use and
store words and how they learn words and the relationship between words, phrases, categories of
words and phrases
Ferreira (2007) compiled the more complex definitions of vocabulary. Nation (2001)

states that vocabulary knowledge implies knowing a word in the spoken form of the word and

the spoken form can be recognized and understood in and out of context rather than guessed at..

Ferreira (2007) collected reasons on how vocabulary knowledge helps students with

language comprehension. Like McKeown (2002) argue that vocabulary knowledge is the heart of

a language comprehension and use. Still, Nation (2001) states that readers need to know at least

97% of the vocabulary in a text for an adequate understanding of it.

Further, Putri (2013) discussed Richard and Renandya (2002)s idea that vocabulary is a

component of language proficiency and provides much of the basis for how well students speak,

listen, read and write.

Storch (2005) as cited by Albesher (2012) claims that collaborative learning in the form

of collaborative writing in EFL classes might help students to act socially and cognitively, and

suggests that teachers should encourage learners to become involved in social activities that

promote interaction and the co-construction of knowledge. Graham (2005) found that

collaborative learning of writing skills helped students to find new ideas together and exposed

them to various opinions, encouraged them to discuss, debate, disagree and teach one another as

well as helping them to practice aspects of the process approach to writing such as generating

ideas.

Graham (2005) mentioned Ashman et. al (2003) mention that compared to certain

traditional approaches, such as individual and competitive learning, the collaborative learning
strategy has a beneficial effect on a large number of dependent variables: For instance,

achievement, productivity, motivation, good relationships with participants, overcoming stress

and adversity. It is found to be beneficial and useful not only in language education specifically

but also in various aspects of education in general, such as motivation and interactive activities.

As mentioned by Kim (U.d.) as cited by Hammond and Derewianka (2001), genre-based

approach placed great emphasis on the relationship between text-genres and their contexts. In

doing so, it aimed to help students become effective participants in their academic and

professional environment as well as in their broader communities.

As cited by Albesher (2012), Silva and Colleen (2004) stated that genre approach

examines various contexts and moves from writing general essays to more particular essays and

from school-sponsored writing to the real world context. While the general essays involve

writing in the classroom, in testing situations or in laboratories, the particular essays can include

many genres: for instance, nursing notes, care plans, personal or business letters, research

proposals, doctoral narratives, research article publications, textbooks and summaries.

The process approach serves today as an umbrella term for many types of writing

courses. The term captures the fact that student writers engage in their writing tasks through a

cyclical approach rather than a single-shot approach. They are not expected to produce and

submit complete and polished responses to their writing assignments without going through

stages of drafting and receiving feedback on their drafts, be it from peers and/or from the teacher,

followed by revision of their evolving texts. Hence a process approach tends to focus more on

varied classroom activities which promote the development of language use: brainstorming,

group discussion and rewriting (Hasan U.d.).

As stated by Tribble (2003) cited by Albesher (2012), process approach to writing

also places more emphasis on writing skills (planning, revising and drafting) than on
linguistic knowledge (spelling, grammar, punctuation and vocabulary) (Badger &
White, 2000). Students therefore have to be taught writing through its process and
stages such as planning, drafting, revising, editing and publishing in order to write
freely and arrive at a product of good quality (Belinda, 2006).
Asselin, M. (2001). Supporting students' spelling development. Teacher Librarian,
29(2), 1-2. Retrieved July 4, 2002, from the Professional Development Collection
database.

Apel, K. (2001, July). Theory-guided spelling assessment and intervention: A case study.
Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32(3),4. Retrieved April 16,
2003, from the Academic Search Premier database.

Scott, C. (2000). Principles and methods of spelling instruction: Applications for poor
spellers. Topics in Language Disorders, 20(3),66-82.

Kamhi, A., & Hinton, L. (2000). Explaining individual differences in spelling ability.
Topics in Language Disorders, 20(3),37-49.

Hughes, M., & Searle, D. (2000, January). Spelling and "the second 'R.'" Language
Arts, 77(3), 203-208.

Kreiner, D., Schnakenberg, S., Green, A., Costello, M., & McClin, A. (2002). Effects of
Spelling errors. Journal of General Psychology, 129(1), 1. Retrieved April 1 ,
2003, from Academic Search Premier database.

Hammond, J., and Derewianka, B. (2001). Genre. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds). The
Cambridge
Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge
University
Press.