Interpretation of Geophysical Logs

Only four types of geophysical logs are typically run on a hole. These are Natural
Gamma, Density (Gamma Gamma), SP and Resistivity. The gamma and density
logs are by far the best for identifying coal seams and other lithological units. SP and
resistivity logs may show coal seams but the results are often to erratic and variable to
be confidently used to identify coal. At best they should only be used to confirm
results from the gamma and density logs.

In order to be able to interpret the logs it is necessary to understand what is being

measured, how it is measured and what factors affect the measurements:

Natural Gamma Logs measures the natural gamma radiation coming from the
rock. Typical radioactive elements in the rocks include uranium (U), thorium (Th) and
potassium-40 (40K). In most rocks the U and Th are present in only very small traces,
parts per million. Potassium is usually present in values of at least several percent and
while 40K only makes up 0.12% of the total potassium, this usually makes it by far the
most dominant radioactive source in the rocks. The gamma detector in the probe
cannot distinguish between the gamma radiation from the different elements, it only
measures the total gamma radiation as counts/second. In general, potassium is
associated with clays so is highest in fine grained rocks like shale and claystone,
medium in siltstone, lower in coarse grained rocks like sandstone and lowest in coal.
This distribution of potassium is what makes gamma logs the most useful in showing
the variations of sedimentary rock types in a log.

It must be remembered that potassium is a very soluble and mobile element so can
move from one rock type to another during deposition and diagenesis. For example,
this can often be seen in shale bands in coal seams which show a low gamma response
because a large proportion of the potassium has been leached from the rock by the
acid conditions in the swamp at the time of deposition. Also uranium with an
oxidation state of VI is very soluble while uranium with an oxidation state of IV is
less soluble. Hence if soluble uranium VI present in oxidative waters associated with
clastic sediments comes into contact with the reducing waters associated with coal
swamps the uranium VI is reduced to less soluble uranium IV and is deposited, often
adsorbed onto clays, thus producing layers richer in uranium. These layers often
appear in logs as gamma highs in the roof, floor or within seams that can often be
used as marker horizons (Figure 3).

Gamma logs can be run through steel casing with the only effect being that the logs
are slightly suppressed. Also caving, unless it is very large, has little effect on the
gamma log (Figures 4 and 5). This allows thickness data on coal seams to be
measured in situations where caving in a seam makes the thickness unclear in the
density log. In addition gamma logs are not significantly affected when the probe
comes out of the water at the top of the hole (Figure 6).

Density (Gamma Gamma) Logs uses a gamma ray source attached to the probe,
usually at the base, to irradiate the surrounding rocks with gamma radiation. A gamma
detector higher on the probe measures the reflected gamma radiation in
counts/second. The denser the rock, the more the gamma radiation is absorbed and the
less that is returned to the detector. Hence a low density coal seam (1.30 1.35d) will
result in high counts/second at the detector while high density sediments (2.4 2.7d)
will give low counts/second. The resulting log reflects the density variations of the
strata in the hole. Gamma ray sources are typically radioactive isotopes such as
cobalt-60 (60Co) or caesium-137 (137Cs).

Since the density variation in coal is directly related to the coals mineral matter (ash)
content, then the density profile of the seam is essentially also an ash profile. These
profiles are very useful for correlation and in coal quality analysis. When interpreting
density logs as ash profiles, it must be remembered that the log response is not linear,
ie. if the highest counts/second represents an ash of 2% (coal) and the lowest
counts/second represents an ash of 82% (shale), then half way between does not
represent 42% ash. It probably represents somewhere around 10 - 15% ash. This is
why density logs do not show a significant difference between shale (2.5d) and basalt
(2.9d). Consequently density logs do not show basalt as being significantly different
from shale. For the type of logs we run it is not possible to estimate the actual ash
content of a coal ply from the log, only the relative differences eg. high and low ash.
Estimation of the ash requires calibrated density logging tools.
Density logs are affected considerably by caving in the bore (Figure 5). Holes in the
side of the bore that result from caving during drilling are usually filled with water
(density = 1) or air (density = 0) if located above the water table. Even a small cave of
a few centimetres deep will have a significant effect on the appearance of the log,
producing a large increase in the counts/second, because of the lower apparent
density, with the height of the peak being related more to the depth of the hole than
the density of the adjacent sediments. Occasionally caving in holes can get filled with
mud (eg. when pulling rods) and in these cases the density response may give the
appearance of high ash coal or a band in the seam which really does not exist. Since
calliper logs are not run, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between caving and
coal using density logs alone; however, gamma logs can assist in sorting out what is
coal from what is a cave. In situations where there is caving in a seam, it is often
better to use the gamma log to determine the location of the roof and floor of the
seam.

Most drillers will case the top of the hole, usually about 3 6m, to prevent soil and
weathered rock from falling into the hole. Washouts often form in area around the
base of this casing where water coming out of the casing into the uncased hole swirl
around and wash material away. This should be kept in mind when interpreting the
density log (Figure 7) and it is important that the length of the cased section is known
so this effect can be accounted for.

Density logs can be run through casing, but the type of casing will can affect the log
response (Figure 4). Plastic casing has little effect because its density is low but steel
casing has a large effect. Because steel has a density of about 7.85 g/cm3 and the
gamma radiation has to pass through it twice, once on the way out and once on the
way back, the resulting logs show significantly suppressed counts/second. However,
since the steel is an even thickness, it does not affect the shape of the log which still
reflects the density difference in the rocks, it just suppresses the response (ie. flattens
the peaks). Casing that covers part of a seam is a problem because it suppresses the
density over the cased section but not over the uncased section making the log
difficult to interpret (Figure 4).
Density logs can continue to be run once the probe comes out of the water in the hole.
When the probe comes out of the water there is usually a sudden, large increase in the
counts/second because the density of the surrounding medium has changed (water to
air) and the log becomes noisier because water is no longer there to adsorb stray
gamma radiation (Figure 6).

In most bores both gamma and density logs clearly show the coal seams, so the
question is which one should be used to define the roof and floor of the seam or locate
plies and bands in the seam. The answer is both since each type of logs have
advantages and disadvantages:

Gamma Logs

Advantages Not affected significantly by caving, not affected significantly by

casing.
Disadvantages Potassium may become mobile during deposition and diagenesis
thus loosing, moving or smearing out the detail.

Density Logs

Advantages Usually shows more internal detail of the seam related to ash
distribution (Figure 8).
Disadvantages Significantly affected by caving, affected by casing.

Generally it is better to use the density log as the primary log to interpret the roof and
floor of the seam or locate plies and bands because it usually shows more detail of the
seams internal structure (Figure 8). In this case the gamma log should be used to
confirm the density interpretation where possible. The geophysical interpretation must
also be integrated with the geological log and the quality data.

In cases where the density log is not clear due to caving or other factors then the
gamma log should be used to interpret the roof and floor of the seam or locate plies
and bands with the density used to confirm the interpretation where possible.
If neither log is clear or they show conflicting profiles then it will be necessary make
a best guess profile using all the logs including SP and Resistivity as well as the
geological log and the quality data and logs from surrounding bores. If this occurs in a
critical area then it may be necessary to drill another hole.

Interpretation of Logs

Figure 9 shows the interpretation of a typical log. The steps in the interpretation of
this log were:

1. In this case the density log was used as the primary log and this was supported
by the gamma log.

2. Always interpret the position of the roof and floor of the seam first and
interpret the internal lithologies second.

3. When interpreting the roof and floor, the position of the roof is places at about
two thirds of the distance between the lowest and highest counts per second ie.
two thirds of the way from the lowest count/sec towards the highest count/sec,
Figure 9 (in the case of density and reverse in the case of gamma). Similarly
the floor is interpreted the same way. The gradual slope of the log at the roof
and floor is related to the way the measurements are made and the position of
the source and detector on the probe. This section should not be interpreted as
shaly coal or coaly shale. There is a sharp contact between shale and coal.

4. The shaly coal ply in the middle of the seam is interpreted in a slightly
different way. When comparing the density and gamma logs for this section it
can be seen that the density peak is relatively broad while the gamma peak is
sharper (Figure 9). The density peak represents an area of higher ash coal
while the gamma represents a potassium rich horizon, perhaps a very thin band
of shale or coaly shale (< 5cm). In this case the boundary between the units
 has been interpreted as being about half way between highest and lowest
counts per second (Figure 9).

Figures 10 and 11 show examples of the interpretation of several different logs.

In some cases where coal plies or bands are relative thin (< 30cm), because of the
measurement spacing, the detector sensitivity and the logging speed, the peaks can be
suppressed ie. not as high as they should be for coal and not as low as they should be
for coaly shale, shale, etc (Figures 10 & 11). In these cases it is difficult to determine
if a thin ply is for example coal or shaly coal. If it is available, coal quality data may
be useful in determining the correct description.

In some logs there is a discrepancy between the peaks on the density log and the
gamma log (Figure 12). The reason is usually that the logger has not correctly
adjusted the readings to account for the fact that the detectors for the gamma and
density readings are located at different positions on the probe. For example in Figure
12 it can be seen that by raising the density log by ~0.3m causes the peaks to line up.
If this happens then the log should be taken back to the logger so he can determine
which log is showing the correct depth. If this cannot be established then the log
which is closest to the depth in the geological log should be used.

Since the probes measurement spacing over most seams is between 5 10 cm then all
depths should be quoted to no more than 5cm accuracy. If the seam is logged at 1cm
then depths to 1cm accuracy can be quoted.
 Figure 3
in a coal seam
a high gamma
marker band
Gamma Log
Density Log

Example of
marker band
High gamma

120 30
110
25
100
90
20
80
Gamma
Density

70 15
60
10
50
40
5
30
20 0
111 111.2 111.4 111.6 111.8 112 112.2 112.4 112.6 112.8 113 113.2 113.4 113.6 113.8 114 114.2 114.4 114.6
40
Coal

Coal
Coal

1400
35
1200
30
1000
25
Density

Gamma
800
20
600
15
400
10
200 5
0 0
94 94.2 94.4 94.6 94.8 95 95.2 95.4 95.6 95.8 96 96.2 96.4 96.6 96.8 97 97.2 97.4 97.6 97.8 98
 Figure 4
covering a seam

Density is suppressed
Examples of the
effect of casing
when partially

Gamma is largely
Note that while
Gamma Log
Density Log

unaffected
Casing

1000 25
900
800 20
700
600 15
Gamma
Density

500
400 10
300
200 5
100
0 0
5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.8 10 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11
Casing

350 17
15
300
13
250
11

Gamma
200
Density

9
7
150
5
100
3
50
1
0 -1
9.5 9.7 9.9 10.1 10.3 10.5 10.7 10.9 11.1 11.3 11.5 11.7 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.5 12.7 12.9 13.1 13.3 13.5 13.7 13.9 14.1 14.3 14.5 14.7 14.9 15.1 15.3 15.5 15.7 15.9 16.1 16.3 16.5 16.7 16.9
 Figure 5
on the Density log
Examples of the
effect of caving

largely unaffected
Gamma Log
Density Log

Note that the

Gamma log is

20
Caving

1400
18
16
1200
14
1000

Density
12
Gamma

10
800
8
6 600
4
400
2
0 200
9 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.8 10 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13 13.2 13.4 13.6 13.8 14 14.2 14.4 14.6 14.8 15 15.2 15.4 15.6 15.8 16 16.2 16.4 16.6 16.8 17 17.2 17.4 17.6 17.8 18
350 20

Caving
18
300
16
250 14

Gamma
12
200
Density

10
150
8
100 6
4
50
2
0 0
22 22.2 22.4 22.6 22.8 23 23.2 23.4 23.6 23.8 24 24.2 24.4 24.6 24.8 25
 10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000
2000

4000

6000

8000

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000
500
0

0
0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

Density Log
9 9 Gamma Log

10 10

11 11

12 12
Shift in the Density
profile scale as the
13 13

Density Probe moves

14 14
from water to air
15 15

16 16

17 17

Expanded Density Scale

18 18

19 19
Air

20
Water 20

21 21

22 22

23 23

24 24

25 25

26 26

27 27

28 28
Figure 6
0

10

15

20

25

30
0

10

15

20

25

30
 100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500
50
0
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8

Casing
3
3.2

Washout
3.4
3.6
3.8

Density Log
4

Gamma Log
4.2
4.4
4.6

Effect of a washout
4.8

at the base of casing

5
0

10

12

on the Density profile

Figure 7
 Density Density

100

200

300

400

500

600

140

190

240

290
0

40

90
31
45
31.2
45.2
31.4
45.4
31.6

31.8 45.6

32 45.8

32.2 46

32.4
46.2
32.6
46.4
32.8
46.6
33
46.8
33.2

33.4
47

33.6 47.2

33.8 47.4

34 47.6
34.2
47.8
34.4
48
34.6
48.2
34.8
48.4
35
48.6
35.2

35.4 48.8

35.6 49
Density Log
35.8 49.2
36
Gamma Log
49.4
36.2
49.6
36.4
49.8
36.6

36.8
50

50.2
Examples of
37

37.2 50.4 the Density log

37.4 50.6

37.6 50.8 showing significantly

more internal detail
37.8
51
38
51.2
38.2

38.4
51.4 than the Gamma log
51.6
38.6
51.8
38.8

39 52
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5
0

10

Gamma Gamma
Figure 8
 Density Log
d
Gamma Log

~2/3d ~1/3d
10.15m
3.50m
Coal

13.65m
0.55m
Shaly
Coal

14.20m
0.85m
Coal

Do not interpret this

section of the log as
15.05m shaly coal or coaly
shale this is incorrect

Interpretation
of a
Geophysical
Log
Gamma
Figure 9
 15.40m
0.65m
Coal

16.05m
Shale
Coaly

0.70m

16.75m
Shaly
0.35m
Coal 17.10m
0.65m
Shale
Coaly

16.75m
4.75m
Shale

This thin unit appears to

be shaly coal but the
peak may be suppressed
so could also be coal.
21.50m (See Text)
Coal 0.30m 21.80m
0.55m
Shale
Coaly

22.35m
0.80m
Shaly
Coal

23.15m

Density Log
1.25m
Coal

Gamma Log

24.40m
Example of the
Shale
Coaly

0.75m

25.15m
Interpretation
of a
0.80m
Coal

Geophysical
25.95m
Log

Figure 10
 Gamma
Density

This thin unit appears to

75.70m be shaly coal but the
Shaly 0.35m 10.05m
peak may be suppressed
Coal 76.05m so could also be coal.
Coal 0.35m
0.55m
Shale
Coaly

10.40m (See Text)

76.60m

1.25m
Shale
0.90m
Coal

Because of caving in the

seam the Gamma log
77.50m 11.65m has been used to
0.50m
Shale Coal Shale
Coaly

determine the depths

78.00m
0.40m
Caving
78.40m
0.70m
Coaly

The Density log suggests

3.80m
79.10m that the plies are coal

Coal
Shaly 0.35m
Coal 79.45m
but the Gamma log
indicates they are shaly.
Since no analysis is
1.10m
Shale

available they are logged

conservatively as shaly coal.
80.55m
Shaly 0.40m
Coal 80.95m Density Log
15.45m

0.55m
Shale
Coaly Gamma Log
16.00m
1.70m
Shale

Example of the
1.30m
Coal

Interpretation
82.65m
Shaly 0.30m
Coal 82.95m
17.30m of a
Geophysical
Log
Gamma Density
Figure 11
 Density Log
Density Log repositioned
Gamma Log

Example of logs
that have not been
correctly positioned
The yellow Density trace
shows that the logs
do line up if the
Density log is moved
up by 0.30m

Figure 12