C O N TE N T S

A R E F E R E N C E G U I D E TO T H E GRA M M A R O F T H E E N G L I S H
V E R B ................................................................................................................. 7

T ense a n d a s p e c t ............................................................................................... '

The p resent, the p a s t a n d the fu tu re i n d e f i n i t e ................ 8
The p resent, the p a s t a n d the f u tu re c o n t i n u o u s .......................... 12
Phase ....................................................................................................................... 16
The p resent, the p a s t a n d the f u tu re p e r f e c t ...................... 17
The p resent, the p a s t an d the f uture perfect c o n tinuo us . . . 21
F u t u r e s u b s t i t u t e s ................................................................................................ 24
The f u t u r e in the p a s t .......................................................................................... 25
S u b s titu te s of the fu t u r e in the p a s t ...................................................... 26
The se quence of t e n s e s .......................................................................................... 27
V o i c e ............................................................................................................................. 29
The passive v o i c e .......................................................................................... 29
The c om m u nica tive function of active and pa ssive c o n s t r u c
tio ns .................................................................................................................. 32
M o o d ............................................................................................................................. 33
The su b ju n c tiv e m o o d .............................................................................. 34
M e a n s of e x p re ss in g u n r e a lity in simple s e n t e n c e s .............................. 35
M e a n s of e x p r e ss in g u n r e a l it y in complex s e n t e n c e s .............................. 37
C o m p lex se ntences with a su b o r d i n a te clause of condition . . . 37
Com plex sentences with a s u b o r d i n a te cla u se of p u rp o se . . . 39
Com plex sentences w ith a predic ative clause a n d a su b o r d i n a te
c la u se of c o m p a r i s o n .............................................................................. 41
C o m p lex sentences w ith an object c l a u s e .......................................... 42
C om plex sentences w ith appositive a n d predicative c la u s e s 44
M odal v e r b s ........................................................................................................... 44
C a n ........................................................................................................................ 45
M a y ................................................................................................................. 47
M u s t ................................................................................................................. 50
S h o u l d o u g h t ................................................................................................ 52
To h a v e ........................................................................................................... 54
To have g o t ....................................................................... 55
To b e ................................................................................................................. 55
S h a l l ................................................................................................................. 56
W i l l ....................................................................................................................... 56
N e e d ................................................................................................................. 57
D a r e ................................................................................................................. 59

5
E X E R C I S E S ........................................................................................................... 60
V e rb fo rm s in the indicative m o o d .................................................................. 60
F o rm s of the indefinite a s p e c t ................................................................. 60
Indefinite an d co n tin u o u s f o r m s ............................................................ 68
Indefinite, continu ous, perfect a n d perfect c ontinuous form s . . 77
Sequence of tenses a n d re p o rte d s p e e c h ................................................ 90
The passive v o i c e .......................................................................................... 97
Mood. P ro b le m a tic an d u n re a l a c t i o n s ............................................................ 109
R e v i s i o n ..................................................................................................................123
M o d a l v e r b s ..................................................................................................................131
R e v i s i o n ........................................................................................................... 174

KEY TO E X E R C I S E S ..........................................................................................179
 A Reference Guide to the Grammar
of the English Verb

T E N S E AND A S P E C T

1. Tense and aspect a r e g ra m m a tic a l categ ories of the

verb. Tense m a rk s tim e present, p a s t an d future. Aspect
indicates the m a n n e r in which the action of the verb is carried
out (for exam ple, w hether it is in p ro g re s s or n o t). English
verbs have two as p e c ts the indefinite (or the com m on)
a n d the continuous. The indefinite aspect h a s a sim ple or
u n m a r k e d form while the continu ous aspect h a s a special
( m a r k e d ) form : it is built up by the auxiliary verb to be
a n d the pre sen t participle ( b a s e - i n g ) . The tab le below
show s ten se a n d asp ect distinctions of the E nglish verb.

Table 1
Tense and aspect of the English verb

a sp e ct
indefinite (or c om m on) c o n tin uou s
tense

read, r e a d s re a d i n g
pre sen t am , is, are
play, plays playing

read (irregular) r e a d in g
past was, w ere
played ( r e g u l a r ) playing

shall . r e a d in g
futu re shall, will (*
play will be playing

The continuous aspe ct is used for actions which a re in

p ro g re s s at the m o m en t u n d e r consideration (present, p a s t
or futu re ) or ch a ra c te ris tic of the period being discussed. The
indefinite aspect does not em phasize the p ro g re s s o r the
d u ra tio n of the action. A verb in the indefinite aspect m ay
denote a com plete or an incomplete action, but its form does
not s ta te it.
The R u ssia n verb also h as tw o asp ects the imperfec-
tive (d e n o tin g non-com pleted actions) and the perfective
(d en o tin g co m pleted ac tio n s).
It follows from the above-given definitions th a t the E n g
lish co ntinuo us asp ect is a lw a y s rendered into R ussian as the
7
imperfective aspect; however, the E n g lish indefinite aspect in
som e cases correspon ds to the R u ssia n imperfective aspect
a n d in oth ers to the perfective aspect:
She w as p la y in g the piano a t th a t time.
.
She a lw a y s p la yed the piano well.
.
She p la yed C hopins w a ltz and everybody ap p lau d e d her.
( ) ,
.
This correlation between the a s p e c ts of the English an d
the R ussian verb is re p resen te d in the tab le below.

Table 2
Correlation between the asp ects of the English and Russian verbs

the indefinite aspect the c o n tin u o u s aspect

E nglish
(p lay ed) ( w a s playing)

the perfective aspect the imperfective aspect

Russian
( ) ( )

THE PRESENT, THE PAST A N D THE FUTUR E INDEFINITE

F orm s

2. The pre sen t indefinite is form ed with the base of the

verb for all p erson s except the third person sin g u la r which
a d d s -s to the base.
F or the p a s t indefinite r e g u la r verb s add the end in g -ed to
the b ase of the verb. The p a s t form s of i r re g u la r verb s v a r y
co nsid erably an d m ust be learn ed for each verb s e p a ra te ly
(e. g., to read read, to kn o w kn e w , to sit sat, to
w rite w ro te, etc.).
The fu tu re indefinite is form ed w ith the auxiliary verbs
s h a ll (for the first person s in g u la r and p lural) or w ill (for
the o th er p erso n s) and the b ase of the verb.
The in te rro g a tiv e is fo rm ed by placin g the auxiliary
do I does (for the p re s e n t), did (for the p ast) or s h a ll/w ill
(for the fu tu re ) before the subject a n d the base of the verb.
The n eg a tiv e is formed with the above-m entioned aux il
iaries plus the n egative particle not and the base of the verb.
 The form ation of the p resen t, the p a st and the fu tu re
indefinite is shown in the tab le below.

Table 3
Affirmative and negative forms of the indefinite (c om m on ) aspect
1 -----------------
1 full form c o n tra c te d form
the p re se n t I / W e /Y o u /T h e y
indefinite He/She a sk (do not ask) d o n t ask
a s k s (does not ask) d o e s n t a s k

the pa st I/H e /S h e/W e

asked (did not ask) d i d n t ask
indefinite You/They

I/W e shall a s k (shall not 11 ( s h a n t ask)

the f u tu re ask)
indefinite H e / S h e / Y o u / T h e y will a sk (will not '11 ( w o n t ask)
ask)

Table 4
Interrogative forms of the indefinite (com m on ) aspect

Do I/w e /y o u /th ey
the p re se n t indefinite ask?
Does h e/sh e

I/h e/sh e/w e

the p a s t indefinite Did ask?
y o u / th e y

Shall I/w e
the fu tu re indefinite ask?
Will h e /sh e/y o u /th ey

In Am E w ill is used for all persons. The use of w ill is

increasingly common in B r E as well.

3. The following ru les of pronun ciation m u s t be re

m em bered:
1. The ending -s is prono unced in the p resent as:
[s] after voiceless c o n s o n a n ts (a sk s, p a rts)]
[z] after voiced c o n s o n a n ts and vowels (s ta n d s ,
pays) ;
[iz] after sibilants, i . e . [s], [z], [ t j ] , [d3], [> []
(b o xes, raises, w a tches, crashes, g r u d g e s ).
2. The en d in g -ed in the p a s t indefinite is pronounced as:
9
 [t] after voiceless c o n s o n a n ts (a sk ed , p a r k e d )\
[d] after voiced c o n s o n a n ts an d v ow els (lo ved ,
p la y e d );
[idj after -t and -d (w a n te d , needed).

4. It is also im p o rta n t to le a rn the follow ing rules of

spelling:
The p resen t indefinite
1. Verbs end ing in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, -x, -z a n d -o add
-es for the third person s in g u la r (reaches, m a tch es, w a ltze s,
g o e s ).
2. V erbs ending in a con so n a n t letter - f c h a n g e into
i to which the en d in g -es is added for the th ird person sin
g u l a r (stu d ie s, ca rries). How ever, when is preceded by
a vowel the verb obeys the gen e ral rule (p la y s, s ta y s ).
The past indefinite
1. If a verb ends in -e only - d is added (lik e liked,
a rg u e a rg u e d ).
2. The final c o n s o n a n t letter preceded by a single vowel
letter is doubled if the verb has one syllable or if the m ain
s tre s s is on the la s t syllable (rob robbed, a d m it a d m it
ted , occur o ccu rred ).
The final -I, -m, -p a re doubled in Br E even after u n
s tresse d syllables; A m erican u s a g e prefers the single co n so
n ant:
Br E Am E
q u arrel q u a rre lle d q u a r re le d
p ro g r a m p ro g r a m m e d p ro g r a m e d
worship w orshipped w orshiped

3. Verbs en d in g in a c o n so n a n t l e t t e r + c h a n g e into
i to which -ed is ad ded (stu d ie d , cried). However, when is
preceded by a vowel it re m a in s un chang ed (p la ye d , s ta y e d ).
The auxiliary verb is n orm ally co ntracted in ora l speech
a n d inform al w ritin g a s show n in table 3.

M ean ings

5. 1. The present, the p a s t and the future indefinite are

used to express re peated , hab itu al or p e rm a n e n t actions in
the present, in the p a s t or in the future:
F ra n k visits his p a r e n ts every Sunday.
She a lw a y s w ears glasses.
Mr. F arley a lw a y s carried an um brella.
10
 M rs. Jo nes w en t to the s u p e rm a rk e t every day.
We sh a ll p la y tennis twice a week.

Verb form s of the indefinite aspect a r e often asso ciated

with the foilowing time in d icato rs th o u g h their use is not
obligatory:
the p resent indefinite: ev ery day, every w eek, in the m o rn
ing, on S u n d a y , o ften , a lw a y s, so m etim es, n ever, seld o m ,
rarely, etc.
the p a s t indefinite: ev ery day, every w eek, y e ste rd a y , the
d a y before ye ste rd a y, the other day, three d a ys ago, a y e a r
ago, la st w eek, la st S ep tem b er, etc.
the fu tu re indefinite: tom orrow , the day a fte r tom orrow ,
in three d a ys, in a m o n th , one of these da ys, so m e day, n ext
m onth, n e x t yea r, etc.

2. The p resen t indefinite can also express:

a) a d ra m a tic n a r r a tiv e (in s t a g e directions, in de
scriptions of p a st ev e n ts to m ake them m ore v iv id):
M rs. Pierce s h u ts the door. Eliza is taken u p s ta irs to the
third floor. There M rs. Pierce opens a door a n d ta kes her into
a sp a re bedroom.
H a r r y b u rsts into the room and who do you think he
sees? His own father!
b) p resen t actions w ith verbs which can n o t be used in the
present continuous (see 9):
I d o n 't u n d e rsta n d you.
Do you see th a t house a t the end of the street?

3. The p a st an d the fu tu re indefinite m ay denote:

a) single occurrences:
I m et J a m e s yesterday.
We sen t the M o rs e s a te le g ra m m e on Friday.
The s tu d e n ts w ill ta ke their English exam ination next
week.
b) actions occupying a certain period of time:
We lived in the cou n try the v/hole sum m er.
He w ill w o rk at his thesis for two years.

4. The p a s t indefinite m ay express:

a) actions following one another (in n a r r a tio n ) :

ll
 He opened the door w ith his key an d en tered the
d ark hall.
The b u tler took ou r h a ts and co a ts and we w en t up the
wide staircase.

b) incomplete actions in descriptions when the em phasis

is not on the process:
The old lady sa t silent. E v erybody w a tch ed the ex
pression of her face.
5.. The pre sen t indefinite m a y denote p la n n ed fu ture
actions:
Helen leaves to m o rro w m orn in g .
They a rrive this afternoon.

THE PRESEN T, THE PAST A N D THE FUTURE CO N TIN U O U S

F o rm s
6. The present, the p a s t a n d the future co ntinuous are
formed with the auxiliary verb to be in the respective tense
a n d the pre sen t participle of the m ain verb ( b a s e - f - i n g ) .
T able 5
Affirmative and negative forms of the continuous aspect

full form c o n tra c te d form

the p re sen t I a m (not) m (m not)
c o n tinu ous H e/She is (not) 's ( isn t)
W e /Y o u / T h e y a r e (n ot) re ( a r e n t)

the p a st I/H e /S h e w a s (not) ( w a s n t) reading.

c o n tinu ous W e /Y o u /T h e y w ere (not) ( w e r e n t)

the fu ture I/W e shall be 11 be

c o n tinuo us (shall not be) ( s h a n t be)
H e/S h e/Y cu will be 11 be
They (will not be) ( w o n t be)

In Am E w ill is used for all persons in the future

continuous. The use of w ill is increasing ly com m on in Br
E a s well.
The auxiliary verb is n o rm ally co n tracted in o ra l speech
a nd inform al w ritin g (see table 5).
12
 T able 6
Interrogative forms of the continuous aspect

Am I
the p r e se n t continuous Is h e /s h e
Are w e / y o u /t h e y
r e a d in g ?
W as I/he/she
t h e p a s t continu ous w e / y o u /t h e y
W ere

Shall I/w e
the f u tu re c ontinuous be r e a d in g ?
Will he/sh e/y o u /th ey

7. It is im p o rta n t to rem em ber the following sp elling

rules:
1. The final c o n s o n a n t letter preceded by a vowel is
doubled before -ing in one-syllable verbs and in tw o -sy llab le
verbs if the s tre s s is on the second syllable:
sit sittin g occur occu rrin g
beg b e g g in g begin b eginning
star starrin g forget fo rgettin g
run r u n n in g subm it s u b m ittin g
The final -I, -m, -p a re doubled in Br E after u n s tre s s e d
syllables; in Am E they a r e not doubled:
Br E Am E
trav e l tra v e llin g trav e lin g
p ro g r a m p r o g r a m m in g p r o g r a m in g
worship w o rsh ip p in g w orsh iping
2. The single final -e is dropped before -ing:
write w ritin g com e com ing
have h a v in g leave leaving
u t: see seeing
a g re e ag reeing

3. In one-syllable v e rb s like tie, die, lie, etc. -ie c h a n g es

into -y:
tying, dying, lying
13
 4. The final rem ain s u nch a n g ed in all cases:
play playin g
s tu d y stu d y in g
try try in g
M eanings

8. 1. The present, the p a s t and the future continuous are

used to express:
a) an action a lre a d y ta k in g place a t the m om ent of s p e a k
ing or at a definite m om ent in the p a st or in the future a n d
h a v in g some d uration (i. e. b eginning before th a t m om ent
an d c o n tin u in g after it):
Mr. B row n is h a vin g dinner.
The room w as g e ttin g d ark , a n d we switched on the
lights.
The procession w ill be p a ssin g ou r house in five m inutes.
The pre sen t continu ous is associated w ith such time
in d icato rs as now , rig h t now , for the tim e being, fo r the
p resen t, etc.:
R ight now G eorge is ta lk in g on the telephone.
A u nt A g a th a is s ta y in g w ith the Jo h n son s for the time
being.
The p a s t and the fu tu re continuous are often used with
time indicato rs d eno ting a point in time: a t 4.30 a.m ., a t five
o'clock, etc.:
We w ere w a tch in g TV a t eight o clock.
He w ill be fly in g to London a t six.
Often an other action ex pressed by a verb in the indefinite
aspect serves as a tim e ind icator or the time of the action is
clear from the context:
W hen I came, the fam ily w ere h a vin g tea.
I looked into the room. The child w as p la yin g quietly.
b) an action c h a ra c te ris tic of a limited period of time in
the present, in the p a s t o r in the future:
We are ta k in g p sychology this term .
T h a t w inter he w a s p a in tin g a p o rtra it of his wife.
It w ill be ra in in g on T uesday.
2. The present co ntin u o u s and the p a s t continuous are
also u sed to express:
14
 a) a hab itu al action which the spea k er does not a p
prove of.
S entences of this kind u su a lly contain the ad verbs a l
w a ys, c o n sta n tly , co n tin u a lly, etc.:
M rs. C h a lm e rs is a lw a y s fin d in g fa u lt with everybody
b u t herself.
H e w a s co n sta n tly m issin g the first class.
b) a p lan n ed action in the n e a r fu tu re (the pre sen t con
tin u o u s) or in the n e a r fu tu re viewed from the p a s t (the p a s t
continuous):
I a m g o in g o u t tonight.
C h a rle s w a s packing. He w a s lea vin g for P a ris th a t
evening.

3. The p a s t continuous m ay be used to em phasize the idea

of an action in p ro g re s s with such time indicators as a ll day,
the w hole even in g , a ll the su m m e r, etc.:
P a tric k w a s th in kin g of the offer all day.
W h a t w ere you doing the whole evening?
H ow ever, the p a s t indefinite is also correct in such cases:
P a tric k th o u g h t of the offer all day.
W h a t d id you do the whole evening?

9. V erbs t h a t can be used in the co ntinuous aspect

denote a n action an d a re called dynam ic (to begin, to call, to
eat, to go, to play, to rain, to rise, to speak, to stu d y , to w ork,
etc.). A m ajo rity of verbs are dynam ic.
T here a r e also a nu m b er of verbs in E nglish t h a t refer to
a s ta te a n d are not used in the contin u o u s aspect in their
u s u a l m ean in g s. These are so called stativ e verbs which can
be classified in the follow ing way:
v e rb s of senso ry perception: hear, notice, sm ell, see, etc.;
v erb s of em otion a n d wish: desire, dislike, hate, like, love,
resp ect, w a n t, w ish, etc.;
v e rb s of thinkin g: believe ( = th in k ), consider, feel
( th in k ), fo rg et, kn o w , m ean, m ind, realize, recollect,
rem em b er, su p p o se, th in k ( b elieve), u n d ersta n d , etc.;
v erb s of possessing: belong, have, p o ssess, etc.;
som e o ther verbs: appear ( = s e e m ), be, concern, consist,
d ep en d , d iffe r, m a tter, m ean, seem , etc.
V e rb s denoting the use of the senses a s delib ejate actions
a re com m o nly found in the co ntin u o u s aspect:
15
 I am lo o kin g a t th a t tree.
They w ere liste n in g to music.

W hen stativ e verb s are used in the continuous aspect

there is a ch a n g e in m ean in g:
You a re being very silly.
(A tem p o ra ry tra it of a person is show n in the sentence.)
How are you likin g the play?
(The verb like is used in the m e an in g of e n jo y .)

PHASE

10. The E n glish verb h a s a special ca te g o ry of phase

(or tim e co rrelation) which is revealed th ro u g h the oppo
sition of non-perfect a n d perfect forms.

Table 7
The c a te g o ry of p h a se of the E nglish verb

ph ase non -pe rfe c t p h a s e pe rfect p h a s e

aspect
the indefi the c o n ti n u the indefi the c ontinuo us
nite asp e ct o u s aspect nite aspect aspect
tense

am /is/are has/have h as/have been

the p re se n t write
w r i t in g w ritten w ritin g

w as/w ere ha d been w r it

the p a s t w ro te ha d w ritten
w r i t in g in g

sh a l l/ w i l l s h a l l/ w i l l s h a ll/w ill s h a l l/ w i l l have

the fu ture
w rite be w ritin g h a v e w r it been w riting
ten

As is clea r from ta b le 7, the perfect form s a re m ark e d

(have - f the p a s t p a r tic ip le ), while the non-perfect form s are
u n m ark e d .
The perfect form s denote an action prior to the pre sen t
m om ent (and re lated to it by its effects) o r to some m om ent
or ano th er action in the p a s t or in the future. The non-perfect
form s show an action as h ap p e n in g at a certain time:
16
 The no n -p erfect p hase The perfect ph a se
He g ra d u a ted from He has a lre a d y g ra d u a te d
the university in 1983. from the university.
W hen we came to live in th a t
town, he had a lre a d y g ra d u a te d
from the university.
He w ill g ra d u a te from He w ill h a ve g r a d u a te d from
the u niversity in three the university by th at time.
years.
Being forms of the indefinite aspect, the present, the p a s t
an d the futu re perfect m ay co rresp ond to the R u ssia n perfec
tive a n d imperfective aspects; however, they c o rre s p o n d
more often to the R u ssia n perfective aspect. The perfect
continuous form s c o rresp o n d only to the R ussia n im perfec
tive aspect (see table 1):
She said he h a d ta lk e d ,
with her for about h a lf a n ,
hour. ( )
I h a ve ta lk e d with him ,
three times. ( )
She said he had a lre a d y ,
left. , ( )
He ha s been ta lk in g with
her for half a n hour now. , (
)

THE PRESEN T, THE PAST AND THE FUTUR E PERFECT

F orm s

11 . The pre sen t, the p a s t and the fu tu re perfect are

formed with the aux iliary verb to have in the respective tense
a n d the p a s t participle of the main verb.
In Am E w ill is used for all persons in the fu ture perfect.
The use of w ill is in cre asin g ly common in B r E a s well.
The auxiliary verb is n o rm ally co n tra cted in o ra l speech
an d inform al w ritin g (see table 8).

M ea n in g s of the P rese n t Perfect

12. As h a s a lre a d y been stated above (see 10), the

present perfect denotes actions which took place in the p a s t
but are connected with the p re sen t by their effects. The pres-
17
 Table 8
Affirmative and negative forms of the present,
the past and the future perfect

full form c o n tra cte d form

the p r e s e n t
perfect I/W e/Y ou/T hey ha v e (not) ve (h a v e n t)
He/She ha s (not) s ( h a s n t)

the p a s t I/H e/S h e/W e ha d (not) d ( h a d n t)

perfect Y ou/T hey
come.

I/W e shall ha ve 11 have ( sh a n t

the f utu re ( shall not ha ve)
perfect have)
H e / S h e /Y o u will ha ve 11 have ( w o n t
They (will not ha ve)
ha v e)

Table 9
Interrogative forms of the present,
the past and the future perfect

Have I/w e /y o u /th ey

the p re s e n t perfect
Has h e /s h e
come?
the p a s t pe rfect Had I/h e/sh e/w e/y o u /th ey

Shall I/w e
the f u tu re perfect h a v e come?
Will h e/she/you/they

en t perfect alw a y s p re serves the idea of continuity between

the p re sen t a n d the p a s t while the p a s t tense m ak es a s h a r p
distinction between the p a s t a n d the present.
The p re se n t perfect is used in the follow ing m ean ing s:
1. The p resent p erfect expresses single or repeated a c
tions th a t o ccurred a t an unspecified time in the past. The
p re sen t perfect indicates:
a) th a t the effects of the action a re still felt in the present:
M rs. M ille rs bab y has b eg u n to w alk .
He has j u s t com e.
We h a ve seen the play.
I h a v e n 't m e t him yet.
18
 b) th a t the action m ay be rep eated in the present:
I h a ve ta lked with him today.
He has read the text only once.
The p re s e n t perfect m ay be associated with time indi
c a to rs which do not indicate an exact time, such a s a lready,
fin a lly, ju s t, la tely, a t la st, n ever, recen tly, yet, etc.
The pre sen t perfect is also asso c ia te d w ith the follow
in g time in dicators which denote a period of time including
the pre sen t moment: today, this aftern o o n , this year, this
w eek, etc.
B ecause of the idea of continuity betw een the presen t a n d
the p a s t inherent in the p re sen t perfect, it cannot be used in
descriptions of p ast eve nts or even when the time of a p a s t
action is mentioned. C om pare:
I woke up at six the next m o rn in g an d found G e org e
aw a k e too. We both tu rn e d roun d a n d tried to go to sleep
again, but we could not.
The ev e n ts described in the p a s s a g e do not have any
connection with the present.
In questions b eginning with w hen the verb m u s t be used
in the p a s t indefinite because w hen implies an exact in d i
cation of time:
W hen did you see him?
W hen did they g e t m arried ?

2. The p resent perfect is used to e xpress actions beg un in

the p a s t and continued up to the p re sen t or still co ntinuing in
the present:
We h a ve k n o w n him for five y e a rs now.
M onica h a s been here since m orning.
Philip has stu d ied S pan ish for tw o years.
They h a v e n t w ritten us since May.
The p re sen t perfect in this m e a n in g is m ain ly used w ith
stativ e verbs and v e rb s in the n eg a tiv e form.
In cases of this kind the p re sen t perfect is associated w ith
time in dicato rs deno tin g a) a period of time extending into
the present: fo r fiv e hours, for tw o w eeks now , fo r a ye a r,
etc.; b) a point in time when the action began: since la st year,
since three o clock, since M onday, etc. A point in time m ay
also be expressed by a time clau se w ith the verb in the p a s t
indefinite:
I h a v e n t seen him since he left the town ten y e a rs ago.
19
 Note th a t the adv e rb now m e a n s in such time indi
c a to rs as fo r three h o u rs n o w , fo r fiv e days now (
, ). It is incorrect to use alrea d y with these
time indicators.

M ean ings of the P a s t Perfect

13. 1. The p a s t perfect is used to express an action

which occurred or w a s com pleted before an o th e r action or
time in the past:
By six oclock we had d o n e all the work.
Joe forgot th a t the N elsons had a ske d him to dinner three
days before.
N obody an s w e re d the phone. Evidently all the clerks had
a lre a d y left.
Note th a t we can n o t use ago instead of before because
ago m ean s back from n o w (see 5).
The p a s t perfect is asso c ia te d with tim e in d icato rs the
g e n e ral m eaning of which is back from a certain point in the
p a s t , such as before, a w eek before, tw o d a ys before, the
p revio u s day, by six o'clock, b y M onday, a w eek earlier, etc.
A time clause with the conjunction by the tim e (th a t) m ay
serve a s a time indicator; the verb in the time c la u s e is used
in the p a s t indefinite:
By the time we got there the rain h a d stopped.
The p a s t perfect is not used when ev ents are presented in
th e o rd e r in which they o ccurred :
She w ent to a h a ir - d r e s s e r s and h a d her h a ir done. Now
it looked perfect.
The p a st perfect alw a ys m ean s back to a previous p a s t :
H er h air looked perfect: she had com e from a h a ir- d re s s
e r s.
2. The p a s t perfect is used to express actions beg un in the
past and continued up to or into an oth er time in the past:
It w a s th ree o clock. He had been there for th ree
h o u rs then.
Her n am e w a s M a r th a . I had kn o w n her all my life.
S ud denly he realized th a t he had not seen her since the
day of her w edd ing .
I met him in 1983. By th a t time he h a d lived in the tow n
for five years.
20
 The p a s t perfect in this m e a n in g is m ainly used with
stative v erb s an d n e g a tiv e verbs.
In cases of this kind the p a s t perfect is associated with
time in dicato rs denoting a) a period of time d u rin g which
the action continued, such as fo r th ree d a ys, for tw o ye a rs,
for an hour, etc.; b) a point in time when the action began:
since S a tu r d a y , since m o rn in g , etc. A point in time m ay also
be expressed by a tim e c lau se with the verb in the past in
definite:
Robert told me th a t he had kn o w n S u sa n since they m et in
M anchester.
Note th at the a d v e rb then in such time in dicators as fo r
three yea rs then, fo r tw o m o n th s then m eans (
, ). It is w ro n g to use a lready with these
time indicators.

M ea nin gs of the F u tu re Perfect

14. The fu tu re perfect is used to express a future action

which will be com pleted before an o th er action or a time in the
future:
P ro fe sso r Ross w ill h a ve finished the operation by three
o clock.
The birds w ill h a ve flo w n aw ay before winter.
The future perfect is asso ciated with such time indicators
as by m o rn in g , by three o clock, by w inter, b y S u n d a y , b e
fore sprin g , in tw o y e a r s tim e, by the en d of the year, etc.
A time clause m ay serve a s a time indicator; the verb in the
time clause is used in the p re sen t indefinite or in the present
perfect:
They w ill h a ve left before the mail arrives.
The s e c retary w ill h a ve typ ed all the letters by the time
Mr. D rake has had dinner.

THE P R E S E N T , THE PAST

AN D THE F U T U R E P E R F E C T C O N T I N U O U S

F orm s
15. The present, the p a s t and the fu tu re perfect contin
u o u s are form ed with the au xiliary verb to be in the non-
continuous perfect of the respective tense and the present
21
participle of the m ain verb. The perfect co ntinuo us form s a re
m ainly used with dynam ic verbs.
In Am E w ill is used for all persons. The use of w ill is
in creasin gly com m on in B r E as well.
The auxiliary verb is n o rm ally co n tra c te d in o ra l speech
an d inform al w ritin g (see table 10).

Table 10
Affirm ativ e a n d n e g ativ e foi-ms of the p re sen t,
the p a s t a n d the f u t u r e perfect c o n tin uou s

full form c o n tra c te d

fo rm
the p re sen t
perfect
I / W e /Y o u /T h e y ha v e (not) ve ( h a v e n t)
continuous
been been
H e/She has (not) s ( h a s n t)
been been
waiting.
the pa st
I/H e/S h e/W e h a d (not) d ( h a d n t)
perfect
Y ou/T hey been been
continuous

I/W e sh a ll (not) 11 ( s h a n t)
the f uture
have been have been
perfect
H e/S he/Y ou/ will (not) '11 ( w o n t)
continuous
They have been have been

Table 11
In te rr o g a tiv e form s of the p re se n t, the p a s t a n d the f u t u re perfect
c o n tinu ous

the p re sen t
H ave I/w e/y o u /th ey
perfect
H as h e /s h e
c on tinu ous
been w a iting ?

the p a st
perfect Had I/h e/sh e/w e/y o u /th ey
c o n tinuo us

the fu tu re
Shail I/w e
perfect have been w a tin g ?
Will he/she/you/they
c o n tin uou s

22
 M ea nings

16. The present, the p a s t and the fu tu re perfect con

tinuous have the following meanings:
1. The present perfect contin uou s expresses an action
beg un in the p ast an d co ntin u ed up to the present or still
co ntinu in g in the present. S im ilarly, the p a s t and the fu tu re
perfect continuous express actions b eg u n in the p a st or the
future an d continued up to an o th e r time in the p a s t or in the
fu tu re or continuing d u rin g t h a t o ther time:
We ha ve been s tu d y in g in the college for two y ea rs now.
Alice B aker h a s been liv in g in Toronto since 1979.
It has been ra in in g for an hour, b u t now the rain h a s
stopped.
It w a s five oclock. We ha d been w a itin g for D ou g las for
two ho u rs then.
H a s tin g s ha d been sta y in g at the hotel for a week when
his friend arrived.
M rs. Keith said th a t her h u s b a n d had been w o rkin g in the
g a rd e n since m orning.
By the en d of M ay we s h a ll have been s tu d y in g E ng lish
for tw o years.
How ever, the future perfect co ntinuous is h a rd ly ever
used.
The perfect continuous form s a re associated with the
sam e time in dicators as the perfect non-continuous form s
(see 12-14).
N o t e . The n e gativ e n on -c o n tin u o u s perfect form often occurs in ste a d
of the n e g ativ e co n tin u o u s perfect form:
He h a s n t w a iled for you long. (I n s t e a d of: He h a s n t been w a iting for
you l o n g . )
M a r g a r e t looked at her w a tch a n d saw t h a t she h a d n t sta y ed th ere
long. ( I n s t e a d of: ...she h a d n t been s t a y in g th ere lon g. )

2. The present and the p a s t perfect continuous exp ress

actions v/hich continued d u rin g an unspecified period in the
p a st o r respectively in the p re -p a s t (i. e. before another tim e
in the p a s t ) :
Som eone has been u sin g my typew riter and h a s torn the
ribbon.
Som eone h a d been w ritin g with m y pen. That w as w h y
there w a s no ink in it.
N o t e . Som e sta tiv e verbs t h a t a re not n o rm ally used in the c on tinu ous
aspect m a y oc cur in the p re se n t a n d the p a s t p e rfect continuous:

23
 W e h a v e been h e a rin g m uch a b o u t you.
J a c o b sa id he had been n o tic in g s t r a n g e thin gs.
It w a s c lear th at he had been m e a n in g to explain the situation.

FU TU RE SU B STITU TES

17. Verb forms e x p ressin g futurity w ere d e a lt with in

the previous sections. They a re the future indefinite ( 5)
an d continuous ( 6 ), the p re sen t indefinite ( 5) an d co ntin
uo u s ( 8 ), the future perfect ( 14) and the fu tu re perfect
continuous ( 16).
The pre sen t indefinite an d continuous a re also used in
su b o rd in ate clau se s of time a n d condition to express fu tu re
actions:
W hen he retires, he will live in the country.
If we h u r r y , w e ll catch the bus.
N o t e . The f u tu re tense is u se d when the co n ju n c tio n s if an d w hen
in trod uc e object clauses:
I w o n d e r if they w ill be c o m f o r ta b le there.
I d o n t know when he w ill com e to M a n d e rle y .

Besides, there a r e a n u m b e r of co nstruc tio ns in m o d e rn

English which serve as fu tu re su bstitutes. The m ost com m on
of them are described below.
1. To be go ing -f- infinitive. The construction expresses:
a) intention of the person denoted by the subject of the
sentence to perform the action denoted by the infinitive:
He is g o in g to repair the ta p e recorder.
b) a s s u ra n c e of the sp ea k er th a t the action denoted by the
infinitive will take place:
It is g o in g to rain.
The doctor is g o in g to operate for an o th er h alf hour.
The construction "to be g o i n g infinitive u su ally but
not n ec essarily refers to the n e a r future:
F r a n k is g o in g to ta ke his final exam inations in sprin g.
This construction is c h a rac te ristic of inform al style.
N o t e . The ve rb s to go a n d to com e do not u s u a l ly occur in this c o n
stru ctio n. I n s te a d of it the p re se n t co n tin u o u s is used:
W e a re g o in g to the t h e a t re tonig ht.

2. To be - f infinitive. In this construction to be h a s a

m od al m e a n in g ; it expresses:
24
 a) definite a rra n g e m e n t, appointm ent or obligation:
Mr. P a lm e r is to sta y with us.
I a m to see the dentist tom orrow .
b) instructions:
The light is to be p u t o ff a t 11 p. m.
You are not to lea ve the house until after d ark .
Note th at the construction is often used in n e w sp a p e r a n d
radio reports:
The president is to speak on television tonight.
The prime minister is to leave D e n m a rk tom orrow .
3. To be abo ut -f- infinitive. This construction denotes
actions which are certain to tak e place in the im m ediate
future:
The show is ab o ut to begin.
The B radley s are about to leave.

THE F U T U R E IN THE PAST

18. English h a s a past equ ivalen t of the fu tu re tense

the so-called future in the p a s t to be used when a fu tu re
action is viewed from the past.
The future in the p a s t is form ed w ith the auxiliaries
s h o u ld and w o u ld (in stead of sh a ll an d w ill) . The n eg a tiv e is
formed by p u ttin g the n eg a tiv e particle not after the a u x il
iaries:
We said we sh o u ld (o r: wed) com e in tim e for the
concert.
They asked w h a t they w o u ld (o r: th ey d) need d u rin g
the trip.
We told O scar t h a t we sh o u ld n o t (o r: sh o u ld n t) lea ve
the tow n in sum m er.
They an sw e red they w o u ld not (o r: w o u ld n t) join us.
Note th a t the fu tu re in the past is used only in s u b o rd i
nate clau ses of com plex sentences (m ainly in reported
speech).
The future in the p a s t m ay be used not only in the indefi
nite aspect (as in the ex am p les quoted above), but also in the
co ntinuous aspect:
Lewis said he w o u ld be tra v e llin g in the E a s t a t th a t time.
25
 In Am E w o u ld is used for all persons; in B r E it is also
p re ferable with the first person, s in g u la r and p lu ra l, instead
of should:
We said w e w ould be happy to see Mr. Snow.

S u b stitutes of the F u tu re in the P a s t

19. Besides the fu tu re in the p ast, other verb form s can

be used in the p a s t tense to express future actions seen from
a viewpoint in the past. The use of the p a s t co ntinuous in this
m e an in g has a lre a d y been described ( 8).
The p ast indefinite a n d the p a st continuous a re used in
su b o rd in a te c lau se s of time a n d condition to e x p ress fu tu re
actions viewed from the p a s t (m ainly in reported speech):
She said th at if she m et G eorge at the L a n g to n s she
w ou ld give him a piece of her mind.
C h arles said th a t while his m o ther w as s ta y in g with the
children he w ould go to the south of France.
The co n struction s which serve a s future su b s titu te s
( 17) are also used in the p a s t tense to denote fu tu re actions
viewed from the past. The m ost common of them are dis
cussed below.
1. To be g oing -f- infinitive. The construction has the
sam e m ean ing s as in the present. It expresses:
a) intention:
We knew he w as g o in g to repair the ta p e recorder
th a t day.
How ever, in the p a s t tense this construction often e x
pre sse s unfulfilled intention:
He w as g o in g to g ive me his telephone n u m b e r (b u t he
d id n t ) .
b) assu ra n ce:
He said it w as g o in g to rain.
2. To be + infinitive. The construction is used in the
sam e m ean in g s as in the present. It expresses:
a) definite ap pointm ent, a r ra n g e m e n t or obligation:
I w as to m eet him in the club.
The delegation w as to visit N orw ay and Sweden.
b) instructions:
26
 I w a s to be back home before eight.
H e w as to ta ke the medicine th ree tim es a day.

3. To be abou t -f- infinitive. The construction has the

s am e m e a n in g s as in the present. It denotes actions ta k in g
place in the im m ediate fu tu re viewed from the past:
H o w a rd w as about to leave w hen the telephone ra n g .
W hen Stephen cam e home, the children w ere abo u t to go
to bed.

THE S E Q U E N C E OF TENSES

20. The ru le of the sequence of tenses m ain ly applies to

re p orted speech.
S tr u c tu r a lly repo rted speech is a complex sentence with
an object clause. The verb in the principal c lau se introduces
rep orted speech an d is therefore often referred to a s an in tro
d ucto ry or re p o rtin g verb (these a re such v erb s a s to say, to
tell, to a sk , to an sw er, to exclaim , to w onder, etc.). The o b
ject c la u s e rev eals the co n ten ts of repo rted speech:
He says (that) he is Am erican.
M rs. G ra y says Phil is w a tc h in g television.
C hris asks w h at has h a p p e n e d / w h a t happ en ed.
W hen the verb in the m ain c lau se is in the p a s t tense, the
verb in the su b o rd in a te clau se m u s t be in the p a s t tense, too:

H e sa id th a t he w as Am erican.
M rs. G ra y said Phil w as w a tch in g television.
C hris a ske d w h a t h ad happened.

In the above quoted exam ples the past indefinite is used

instead of the p resen t indefinite, the p a s t continuous instead
of the p re sen t continuous and the p a s t perfect instead of the
p re sen t perfect o r the past indefinite.
T hus, verb form s in reported speech are chang ed as
follows:

D irect speech R eported speech

the p re sen t indefinite the p a s t indefinite
the pre sen t continuous the p a s t continuous
the p re se n t perfect the p a s t perfect
the p re s e n t perfect con- the p a s t perfect continuous
tinu ous
27
the p a s t indefinite
the p a s t co n tin uou s
the fu tu re indefinite
the fu ture continuous
the p a s t perfect
the p a s t perfect continuous
the fu tu re (indefinite) in the
p a st
the fu tu re co ntin uo us in the
past

The use of the past tense (non-perfect or perfect) in re

ported speech is called the sequence of tenses.
21. We can report not only other peoples speech, b u t
also their th o u g h ts and emotions. The rule of the sequence of
tenses applies to such sentences as well:
Clyde th o u g h t th a t som ethin g w a s w rong.
I ih o u g h t you w ere Am erican.
She w as a fra id she had been m isu n d ersto o d .
I w a s so rry he w o u ld n 't com e.

Som etim es the rule of the sequence of tenses is violated.

This m ay happen in the follow ing cases:
1. The p re s e n t tense m ay be used instead of the p a s t
tense:
a) when a s u b o rd in ate c lau se sta te s a gen e ral tru th :
C olu m b u s pro ved th a t the e a rth is round.
b) w hen a su b o rd in ate clau se expresses a h abitu al action
or a p e r m a n e n t condition re ferrin g to the present:

He said t h a t he alw ay s goes to bed a t ten o clock.

He a ske d me if I am fo n d of C harles.

c) when the speaker w a n ts to em p hasize th a t the state of

affairs still exists:
He sa id P ro fe ss o r is in room 104.
H ow ever, it is also correct to use the past tense in the
above cases, an d in fact it is used m uch m ore often.
2. The p a s t indefinite m ay be used instead of the p a st
perfect if the m e an in g of priority rem ains clear:
He sa id th a t he b ro u g h t the s ta tu e tte from Africa.
D id n 't W ilson tell you ab o u t how he fo u n d me?

The use of the p a st perfect in such cases is also correct

a n d it a c tu a lly prevails.
28
 VOICE

22. Voice is a g ra m m a tic a l c a te g o ry of the verb which

show s the relations betw een the subject a n d the action ex
p re sse d by the verb.
The g ra m m a tic a l ca te g o ry of voice is formed by the oppo
sition of the active voice and the passive voice. The active
voice indicates th a t the subject of the sentence is the doer (or
the ag e n t) of the action denoted by the verb in the sentence.
The passiv e voice show s t h a t the subject of the sentence is
the receiver (or the beneficiary ) of the action.
The active voice is u n m a rk e d (i. e. it h as no special fo rm )
while the passiv e voice is m ark e d : it is form ed w ith the a u x
iliary to be a n d the p a s t participle of the m ain verb.
The division of verb form s in acco rdance with voice is
clear from table 12 which contains all the finite
form s of the English verb. Note th at not all active verb form s
have co rresp o n d in g passive co unterparts.

THE P ASSIVE VOICE

23. In the passive voice the g ra m m a tic a l subject of the

sentence co rrespo nds to the object of the active construction :
The active voice The p a ssive voice
Mr. G re g g w ill m eet us At the station we sh a ll be
at the station. m et by M r. G re g g .
Helen b roke the teapot. The teapot w a s b ro ken
by Helen.

The b y-p h ra s e is often u n n e c e s s a ry (see 25) a n d th e re

fore it m ay not be p re sen t in passive sentences:
Coffee is u s u a lly se rv e d in the dining-room .
J ac k w a s n 't ex a m in ed yesterday .
N o t e . In colloquial E n g lis h the auxiliary verb to g e t is som etim es used
in stead of to be:
The ro ad g o t blocked d u r i n g the sn ow storm .
He g o t fin ed for b r e a k in g the traffic rules.

It is im p o rt a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t the b y -p hrase is not u sed in this con

struction.

24. F o rm s of ten se a n d aspect in the passive voice a r e

the sam e as in the active voice. However, not all active s e n
tences can be converted into p assive ones, b u t only those
29
 Table 12
Finite forms of the English verb

voice
phase aspect tense
active passiv e

p resent ask, a s k s am , is, a re asked

indefi
p a st asked was, were asked
nite
shall, will be
f uture shall, will a sk
non a sk e d
perfect
w as, were being
p re sen t am , is, a r e ask in g
a sk ed
c o n tin
uous
w as, were being
p a st w as, were ask in g
a ske d

shall, will be a s k
f uture
ing

have, h a s been
pre sen t have, h a s asked
a sk ed

past h a d asked ha d been asked

indefi
nite
shall, will have shall, will have
fu tu re
asked been asked
perfect
p r e se n t have been ask in g

past h a d been a sk in g
c o n tin
uous
shall, will have
fu tu re
been ask in g

c o n ta in in g an object. E ng lish h a s sev e ral passive co n

s tru ctio n s which are described below.
1. In the m ost com m only used passive con struction the
direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of
th e passive sentence. This construction is called the direct
passive:
The house w ill be p a in ted in the sum m er.
The b ridge has a lre a d y been constructed.
Note t h a t in E nglish there a re more verbs followed by
a direct object th an in R ussian. The verbs to a n sw er, to a p
proach, to fo llo w , to in flu e n ce, to join, to w atch, etc. which
take a direct object a re equivalent to R ussian verbs followed
30
by a prepositional object ( , ,
, , ,
. . ) . These R u ssian verbs ca n n o t be used in the passive as
the R u ssia n la n g u a g e h as only one passive construction in
which the su b ject co rresp o n d s to the direct object of the
active construction:
M r. B rig h t w a s nervous - ,
a n d it seemed to him th a t he ,
w a s b ein g w atched. .
The concert w as fo llo w ed
by a dance. .

It is also im p o rta n t to rem em ber th a t a nu m b er of E n g

lish tra n s itiv e v erb s (som e of them only in certain m ean in g s)
have no p assive form. They include to becom e, to com prise, to
contain, to equal, to fit, to have, to hold ( ), to lack
( ) , to p o ssess, to sea t ( ), to suit, to
resem b le, to w a n t ():
U n fo r tu n a te ly he lacks confidence.
You h ave a nice a p a rtm e n t.
The passiv e voice ca n n o t be used either if the object refers
to the sa m e person or th in g as th e subject. In ca ses of this
kind the object is expressed by a reflexive o r reciprocal pro
n o u n o r by a noun with a possessive pronoun:
Alice m ad e herself a skirt.
They despised each other.
J a n e wiped her eyes.
N o t e . The direct passive is a lso used in the following c on struction s:
a) in the c on struction with the subjective predicative:
He is kn o w n to be a good story-teller.
M r s . G r a n t w a s seen e n te r in g the house.
M r. Stone w a s e le cte d p r e sid e n t of the club.

b) in the co n stru ctio n with the fo rm al it a s the subject of the p rin

cipal c lause:
It is ru m o u re d t h a t they a re go in g to get divorced.
It w a s said t h a t he ha d a r riv e d incognito.

2. V erbs t h a t can tak e tw o objects direct and indi

re c t have tw o passive c o n stru c tio n s the direct passive
a n d the indirect passive w ith su b jects corresp o n d in g to
bo th types of objects in active sentences. These are the verbs
to g ive, to g ra n t, to serv e ( ), to prom ise, to
sh o w , to te ll a n d others:
31
 w a s given a F rench book.
They gave him a French"'"'""^
book.
A F rench book w a s given to him
. H e w as told the news.
They told him the news.
' The new s w a s told to him.

N ote th a t some v erb s with tw o objects in the active voice

n evertheless h ave only one passive con struction in which the
subject co rresp o n d s to the direct object of the active s e n
tence. A m o ng them a re such verbs as to b rin g , to play, to
read, to telegraph, to w rite a n d som e others:
We b ro u g h t him some food. Some food w as brought
to him.
She w ro te him a sho rt note. A short note w as w ritten
to him.
3. The prepositional object can also become the subject of
a passive sentence. This co n struction is called the preposi
tional passive:
E v ery th in g w ill be taken care of.
H a s the doctor been se n t fo r ?
He is never liste n ed to.
Note th a t the preposition is placed directly after the verb.
A n u m b er of verbs which take a direct object and an
object w ith the preposition to have only one passive con
stru c tio n in which the sub ject co rresp o n d s to the direct
object of the active sentence. These verbs are: to announce,
to d edicate, to devote, to dictate, to point out, to propose,
to sa y, to s u g g e s t, to tra n sla te and som e others:
The letter w as d icta ted to the secretary.
The rule has not been explained to the stud ents.

THE COMMUNICATIVE F UNCTIO N OF ACTIVE

A N D PASSIVE CO NSTRUCTIO NS

25. In m ost E nglish sentences the sub ject which occu

pies the first position is som eth in g th at is know n from the
previou s context (so called g iv en inform ation ). New infor
m ation for the s ake of which the sentence is uttered ten ds to
be placed to w a r d s the end of the sentence. For example:
32
 D octor M edley him self opened the door.
The th o u g h t of D e n n y s d e p a rtu re distressed him.

In the above-quoted exam ples the subject ( Doctor M ed

ley in the first exam ple, the t h o u g h t in the second
exam ple) is given inform ation, while new inform ation is
introduced by the object or by the predicate a n d the object
( the d o o r or opened the d o o r in the first example,
h im or distressed h im in the second ex a m p le ).
In active sentences the sub ject of the sentence is the a g e n t
of the action an d the object the receiver of the action. In
active sentences the a g e n t re p re s e n ts given inform ation an d
the receiver new inform ation. H ow ever, in certain s i t u a
tions the receiver is know n, and the a g e n t m u s t be introduced
as new inform ation. This ca n be done with the help of the
passive voice which is used as a m e a n s of rev ersin g w o rd
order:
The door w a s opened by D octor Medley himself.
He w a s distressed by the th o u g h t of D ennys d ep a rtu re .
Thus, the com m unicative function of active an d passive
sentences is not identical, which m e a n s th a t they can only be
used in different situations.
The by-ph rase is often om itted. This h app ens when a) the
a g e n t of the action is un k n o w n , b) the a g e n t cann ot be identi
fied, c) the a g e n t shou ld n ot be m entioned. In such cases new
inform ation is conveyed by the predicate or by sec o nd ary
p a r ts of the sentence t h a t follow the predicate:
a) The docum ent w as lost.
b) M an y people are in ju re d in ro a d accidents.
c) T h an k you, I h a ve been w arned.

MOOD

26. M ood is a g r a m m a tic a l c a te g o ry of the verb which

expresses modality, i. e. the re lation between the contents of
a sentence a n d reality. The form of the finite verb in a s e n
tence sho w s w hether the situ ation described in it is real, u n
real or problem atic (hyp oth etic), i. e. not certain to happen.
There a re three m ood s in E nglish: the indicative mood,
the im perative mood a n d the su bju nctive mood.
The indicative m ood s ta te s facts:
The house is very close to the sea.
2 11 33
 The p lan e w ill re fu e l in Helsinki.
I h ea rd footsteps on the stairs.

The im perative m ood expresses co m m an d s, ord e rs, re

q u e s ts a n d the like:
C om e here tom orrow .
P a ss the pepper, please.
The indicative mood h a s been dea lt with in detail in the
previous sections.
The subjun ctive m ood expresses u nre al or p roblem atic
actions (i. e. n o n -facts):
If J a n e w ere here, she w o u ld be able to a n sw er y o u r
question.
So be it.

THE SU BJU N C TIV E MOOD

F o rm s

27. The subju nctive mood h a s analytic an d synthetic

forms.
The form s of the synthetic subjunctive a re as follows:
1. w ere for all persons:
If only it w ere true!
2. the b ase of the verb for all persons:
B e th a t as it may, we sh all go ahead.
L o ng live o u r friendship!
The analytic sub ju nctiv e is form ed w ith the auxiliary
verb s sh o u ld (for the first person sin g u la r and p lu ra l) a n d
w o u ld (for the other p erso n s) p lu s the infinitive of the m ain
verb (a simple infinitive for the present tense a n d a perfect
infinitive for the p ast ten se).
The form ation of th e analytic subjunctive is shown in
ta b le s 13 and 14.
The analytic subjunctive can also have con tin uou s a n d
passive form s:
If she w eren 't w a tch in g television now, she w o u ld be
ta lk in g on the telephone.
If it had been necessary, you w o u ld h a ve been con
su lted .
 T able 13
Affirmative and negative forms of the subjunctive mood

full form c o n tra c t e d form

I/W e should (should
pre sen t d ( s h o u l d n t) a sk
not) a sk

w ould (would
H e/She/Y ou/T hey d ( w o u l d n t) a sk
not) a sk

should (should
I/W e d ( s h o u l d n t) h a v e
not) have
asked
asked
past
v/ould (would
d ( w o u l d n t) have
H e/She/Y ou/T hey not) have
asked
asked

Table 14
Interrogative forms cf the subjunctive mood

S hould I/w e
pre sent ask?
W ould he/she/you/they

Should I/w e
past have a sk e d ?
W ould he/she/you/they

In Am E w o u ld is used for all persons. The use of w o u ld is

increasingly com m on in Br E as well.
How ever, the sub ju n ctiv e mood is not the only m ean s of
ex pressin g u n re al or p roblem atic actions. In c e rtain s t r u c
tu re s the m e a n in g of u n re a lity is conveyed by the p a s t tense
(non-perfect an d perfect) or by some m odal v e rb s (for d e
tails see the following section s).

M E AN S O F E X P R E S S I N G UNREALITY
IN S I M P L E S E N T E N C E S

28. The term u n re a lity is used in a b ro a d sense. It

com prises all non-facts: u n re a l actions proper, i. e. those
c o n tra ry to reality, an d pro blem atic or hypothetic actions
2* 35
which m ay or m ay not take place. The following m eans ex
p re s s u n reality in simple sentences:
1. The synthetic subjunctive mood is used in fixed ex
pressions and denotes problem atic actions:
L ong live our friendship!
C om e w h a t will.
Success a tte n d you.
B e y o u rs a happy m arriage!
H eaven forbid.
God b less you.
The n u m b er of such sentences is limited.
The m odal verb m a y also o ccurs in sentences of a sim
ilar kind:
M a y all her wishes com e true!
2. The analytic subjun ctiv e mood is used to exp ress u n
real actions, i. e. actions which a re c o n tra ry to fact. The
p resent su bjunctive denotes u nreal actions in the p resent or
in the future an d the p a s t sub jun ctive u n re a l actions in the
past. Their u nreality depends on an un re al condition which is
either c lea r from the situation or is expressed in ano th er
senten ce (or clau se ).
the p re s e n t subjunctive:
I sh o u ld be h a p p y to help you w ith the w ork; u n fo r tu
n a tely I m not qualified for it.
He w o u ld help you, I am sure.
the p a s t subjunctive:
I sh o u ld n 't h a ve en jo yed the p a rty yesterday.
G eorge w o u ld h a ve a rrived on S a tu rd a y , bu t he m issed
the 10.30 tra in a n d th ere w ere no other trains.

The m od al verbs can and m a y in the past tense are used

sim ilarly. C ould an d m ig h t with a simple infinitive are u sed
for p re sen t and fu ture actions; with a perfect infinitive they
denote p a s t actions:
You co u ld have dropped in at the shop on y ou r way here.
Why d id n t you phone P a t? She m ig h t have explained
it all.
N o t e . The fo rm s m ention ed in point 2 are also found in som e s u b o r d i
n a te c la u se s (m ainly in object c la u s e s ) :
He say s th a t he w o u ld be happy to come to your party, but u n f o r t u n a t e l y
he is b usy th a t day

35
 She th in k s she could do th a t kind of w ork.

3. The subjun ctive w ere or the p a st indefinite to express

p re sen t actions and the p a s t perfect to exp ress p a s t actions
a re used in em p hatic sen tences b egin n in g with if o n ly.

If only it w ere spring now!

If only we lived in the country!
If only she h a d k n o w n it then!

4. The m odal verb sh o u ld - f an infinitive is used in

em phatic questions beg in n in g with w h y :
Why sh o u ld I go there now?
W hy sh o u ld he fo llo w your advice?

M EANS OF EXPRESSING UNREALITY

IN COMPLEX SEN TENC ES

C omplex S entences w ith a S ub o rd in ate C lause

of Condition

29. S u b o rd in a te c lau se s of condition a re introduced by

the conjun ctio ns if, in case, un less, suppose (su p p o s in g ), on
condition that, p rovided. The m ost common of the co n ju n c
tions is if.
Complex sentences with a clau se of condition m ay ex
p re s s un real actions, i. e. actions which are highly unlikely to
h app en or c o n tra ry to know n facts. The u nre al situation
described in a sentence in some ca ses refers to the present or
the future, in oth ers to the past. The following verb forms are
u sed to denote un re al actions in this type of complex s e n
tences:
I. If a sentence refers to the present or the fu tu re we find
the sub jun ctiv e w ere or the p a s t tense of o ther verbs in the
s u b o rd in ate clau se an d the p resent analytic subjunctive in
the principal clause:
If P a t w ere here, everyth ing w o u ld be easier.
If he kn ew the tru th , he w o u ld n 't be so angry.
If we had ou r first exam ination tom orrow , we sh o u ld
h a ve m ore time to p re p are for the second one.
In the above-quoted exam ples the p a s t tense does not
denote past actions: it expresses u nre al actions in the p resen t
or the future.
 The m odal verbs m ig h t and co u ld -f- a simple infinitive
m a y occur both in the principal a n d in the s u b o rd in ate clause
instead of the v erb form s indicated above:
If we m ig h t fin d a taxi, w e v/ould get there in no time.
If J a m e s d id n t w a n t to come, they could a s k so m e
one else.
S om etim es the m odal verb w ere to -{- an infinitive is used
to denote an unreal fu tu re action in the s u b o rd in a te
clause:
If he w ere to arrive to m o rro w , we sho uld meet him at the
station.
Note th a t in colloquial E ng lish it is not re g a rd e d as incor
rect to use w as for the s in g u la r in stead of w e re :
If H a rry w a s n 't so ab se n t-m in d e d , he w o u ld n t m ake so
m a n y sp elling m istakes.
However, in the p h ra se If I were you... w ere is p re
ferable:
If I w ere you, I s h o u ld n t stay in th a t hotel.
2. If a sentence refers to the past, we find the p a s t perfect
in the s u b o rd in ate clau se and the p a s t analytic sub jun ctiv e in
the principal clause:
If she had been careful, she w o u ld n 't have been hurt.
If we h a d seen the book in the shop, we sh o u ld h a ve
b o u g h t it for you.

The m odal verbs m ig h t and could -f- a perfect infinitive

m ay occur both in the principal an d in the su b o rd in a te clau se
instead of the verb form s indicated above:
If he co u ld h a ve p a rk e d his car near the house, he
w o u ld n 't h a ve been late.
If Roger h a d n 't been detained, he m ig h t have jo in ed us.
3. In some cases the action of the principal clau se refers
to the pre sen t while th a t of the s u b o rd in ate clau se refers to
the p a s t c r vice v ersa. The verb form s are used in ac cord a nce
with the time reference of the ciause a s described in points
1 an d 2:
If he had w o rked h a r d e r la s t year, he w o u ld n 't have any
difficulties w ith his pronun ciation now.
If she w eren 't so selfish, she w ould h a ve helped you.
38
 ]

4. A complex sentence w ith an adverbial c lau se of c o n

dition m ay be used to express a polite re q uest or a v/ish. In
such a case the m odal verb w o u ld with the infinitive of the
m ain verb is used in the s u b o rd in ate clause; the principal
clau se co ntains the p re sen t an a ly tic subjunctive:
If you w o u ld len d the textbook to me, I sh o u ld return it
tom orrow .
If it w o u ld stop ra ining, we w o u ld go to the forest.
5. If an action is possible but unlikely, the m odal v erb
sh o u ld with the infinitive of the m ain verb is used in the s u b
o rd in ate clause, while the principal clause co n tain s a v erb
either in the im perative mood or in the fu tu re tense:
If J a n e sh o u ld phone, ask her to leave a m e s s a g e for me.
If I sh o u ld be busy, 17/ let you know.
In Br E conditional c lau se s with sh o u ld often have an
inverted w ord order: sh o u ld is placed before the subject a n d
the conjunction is om itted:
S h o u ld J a n e phone, ask her to leave a m e s s a g e for me.
Note th a t the inverted w ord o rd e r can be used in a n y
conditional clau se co n ta in in g a m odal verb, a link verb or an
auxiliary verb:
H ad he been a w a re of th a t fact, he w ould have been m ore
cautious.
W ere he to b la m e, he w ould apologize.
However, it sh ould be rem em b ered th a t inversion is
ch a rac te ristic of form al style. (C lauses with sh o u ld are the
only exception: they a re u sed in everyday E nglish.)

Complex Sentences w ith a S ub o rd in ate C lause

of P u rp ose

30. S u b o rd in ate c lau se s of purpose a re intro du ced

by the conjunctions so ( th a t) , in order that, lest, fo r fe a r
th a t, th a t. The m ost com m on of the conjunctions is
so that.
An adverbial c la u s e of purpose alw ays h a s a h yp o
thetic m e an in g as it expresses an action which is yet
going to happen. This m e a n in g is expressed in the follow
in g way:
1. If the action of the principal c lau se refers to the pre sen t
39
or to the future, we find can or m a y - f an infinitive in the
s u b o rd in a te clause:
Let us call him up so th a t he can com e on time.
All the s tu d e n ts s tu d y h a r d in ord e r th a t they m ay g e t
good gra d es.

In colloquial English the present or the fu tu re indefinite

m ay be used in a su b o rd in ate clause of purpose:
I m going to tell him the t r u th so th at he sees (o r: w ill
s e e ) th a t it is n t you r fault.
L ets say a few w o rd s of p raise to him so th a t he d o e sn t
(o r: w o n t) g ro w disheartened.

2. If the action of the principal clause refers to the past,

we find co uld or m ig h t -f- an infinitive in the s u b o rd in a te
clause:
A g u a r d w a s alw a y s station ed a t the bathing-pool so t h a t
nobody m ig h t g e t d ro w n e d .
We pinned the note to the door so th a t everybody co u ld
see it.

In colloquial E nglish the fu tu re in the p ast m ay also be

used in a clau se of purpose:
We g a v e him a key so th a t he w o u ld com e in w itho ut
d is tu rb in g us.
We ask e d the girl to dinner so th at she w o u ld n t feel
lonely.
3. In negative c lau se s of p urpose introduced by the c o n
junction lest ( ) we find the m odal verb sh o u ld - f an
infinitive:
He spoke in a low voice lest he sh o u ld be overheard.
It is im p o rtan t to rem e m b er th a t lest is used in fo rm al
style.
The m odal verb sh o u ld m ay occur in negative sentences
afte r other conjunctions as well, tho ugh it is not very
com m on:
He p u t his w eight on the la d d er so th at it sh o u ld n t slip.
N o t e . In Am E the synthetic subjunctive mood is used after lest:
Be careful lest you fall.

40
 Complex Sentences w ith a Predicative C lause
a n d a S ub o rd in ate C lause of C om parison

31. Predicative c lau se s and clau ses of com p ariso n

in trod uced by the con jun ctio ns as if and as though e x p ress
u n re ality or improbability.
N t e. A clause is considered p red icative when it follows the link v e rb s
to be, to feel, to look, to seem , to so u n d . If a c la u se follows a notional v e r b
it is t r e a te d as a n adverbial c la u s e of c om p arison. (See the e x a m p le s
below.)

The m e an in g of unre ality or im probability is expressed in

the above mentioned types of clau ses in the following w ay s
irrespective of the tense form of the verb in the principal
clause:
1. The p ast tense (or the subjunctiv e w ere if a clau se
co n tain s the verb to be) is used if the actions of the principal
a n d s u b o rd in a te c lau se s a re sim ultaneous:

The dog looks as if it u n d ersto o d everything.

I am as indifferent to him as if he w ere a s t r a n g e r ,
she said.
It seemed as though Mr. P y n e w ere d ispleased with me.
C h a rle s spoke as if he kn e w nothing.

In colloquial E nglish w as is often used in stead of w ere

for the s in g u lar:
M ichael tried to look as if he w a s en jo yin g the party.

2. The p a s t perfect is used if the action of the su b o rd in a te

c la u s e is prior to th a t of the principal clause:

He ta lk s abo ut the v illa g e as if he h a d been there.

G e o rg e felt as if he h a d n 't been a t home for a long
time.

3. The m odal verb w o u ld -+ an infinitive is used if the

action of the s u b o rd in ate c lau se follows th at of the principal
clause:

They do n 't behave as th o u g h they w o u ld fo llo w your

advice.
He looked as th ou gh he w o u ld do anyth ing she asked
him to.
41
 Complex Sentences
with a n O bject C lause
I
32. Object clauses m ay express unreal or p roblem atic
actions after certain verbs a n d expressions in the principal
clause.
1. After the verb w ish in the principal clause an object
c lau se exp resses u n re a l actions which a re denoted in the
fo llow ing w ay s irrespective of the tense form of the verb in
th e principal clause:
a) The p a st tense (or the subjunctive w ere if a clause
c o n tain s the verb to be) is used to show sim u ltan e ity of the
actions in the principal a n d object clauses:

I wish you d id n 't live so fa r aw ay from us.

N ancy wishes her b ro th e r w ere with her.
I wished it w eren 't ra in in g .
She wished her h u s b a n d d id n t sm o ke so much.

In inform al style w a s m ay be u sed instead of w ere for the

s in g u la r:

We wish M r. Leigh w a s n t ill.

C ould a n d m ig h t -f- an infinitive a re also used to express

sim u lta n e o u s actions:
I wish I co u ld speak S panish.
She wished he m ig h t be w ron g.

b) The p a s t perfect is used to show priority of the action

of the s u b o rd in a te clause to th a t of the principal clause:

I wish I h a d n 't m issed the lecture.

They wished they h a d n t la u g h ed at the boy.

C ould a n d m ig h t - f a perfect infinitive a re also used to

ex press priority:
I wish I m ig h t h a ve to ld him the truth.
She wished Prof. Taylor could h a ve received him.
i
c) The m o dal verbs w o u ld , co u ld and m ig h t - f an infini
tive a re used to show t h a t the action of the object clause
follow s th a t of the principal clause:
They wish they w o u ld n t h a ve to sta y in town all sum m er.
42
 We wish you could g ive lectures at our college next year.
I wished he m ig h t com e again.
S entences with the verb to w ish a re rendered in R ussian
as K clk , ..., ( . .) ,
... .
2. After the expression I t is (w a s ) tim e the p a s t indefinite
(or the subjunctive w ere) is u sed to denote actions
t h a t co n tra d ic t reality or actions t h a t a re not certain
to happen:
It is time we h ad b reakfast.
It is high time they visited their p aren ts.
It w a s ab o u t tim e they retu rn ed to town.
Sentences like th a t a re ren dered in R u ssia n as .
.
. .
3. S h o u ld -f- an infinitive e x p ressin g hypothetic actions is
found in object clau ses after the following verbs: to dem and,
to in sist, to s u g g e s t, to propose, to m ove (in the m e an in g of
to pro p o se ) , to order, to urge, to request, to recom m end, to
decide, to arra n g e, to p refer a n d some others. The verb in the
principal clause may be used not only in the pre sen t b u t also
in the p a s t tense:
His wife insists th a t they sh o u ld tra v e l by train .
He s u g g e s te d th a t they sh o u ld share the cost am o n g all
five of them.
The rule also applies to sentences v/ith the im p erso nal it
as su bject and one of the above given verbs in the passive
voice as predicate of the principal clause:
It is requested th a t visitors sh o u ld leave before seven.
It v/as a r r a n g e d t h a t she sh o u ld ke m et a t the station and
d riven to the hotel.
S h o u ld - f an infinitive is also used after such expressions
as it is n ecessa ry (im p o r ta n t, vital, essential, advisable,
aesira b le, u rg en t a n d som e o th e rs ):
It is im p o rtan t th a t you sh o u ld finish the a s sig n m e n t as
soon as possible.
It w a s n ecessary t h a t he sh o u ld w rite a com plete report.
In Am E the synthetic subjunctive is used instead of
sh o u ld + an infinitive in ali the above discussed cases. Some
British sp e a k e rs use this form as well:
43
 He dem anded th at they explain everything.
It v/as su g g e s te d th a t his opinion be asked.
It is essential th at he com e tom orrow .

Complex S entences with Appositive

a n d P redicative C lauses

33. In complex sentences with appositive and p re

dicative c lau se s introduced by the conjunction th a t we
find the m odal verb sh o u ld -{- an infinitive after n o u n s in
the principal c lau se e x p ressin g order, wish, su g g estio n ,
decision, such as d e m a n d , su g g estio n , proposal, plan,
decision, idea, condition, conclusion, reco m m en d a tio n ,
w ish, req uirem ent, etc.:
The recom m end ation th at nobody sh o u ld leave before
S a t u r d a y w a s received with u n d ersta n d in g .
The su g g e s tio n w a s th a t the children sh o u ld spend the
week-end with A unt A g a th a .
In Am E the synthetic sub ju n ctiv e is used instead of
sh o u ld -f- an infinitive:
The proposal th a t the discussion be p o stp o n ed w a s r e
jected.
The p lan w a s th a t the m a jo rity of the g ro u p lea ve the
cam p a t daw n.

M O D A L VERBS

34. The verb s can, m ay, m u st, ought, should, need a n d

d a re form a c lass of m o d al verbs. Besides, other verb s (to be,
to have, sh a ll, w ill, w o u ld ) som etim es occur as m odals.
M odal verb s a r e a lw a y s used with infinitives. A m o d a l
verb with an infinitive does no t denote objective ev e n ts b u t
d eals with potential e v e n ts expressin g ability, necessity, o bli
gation, possibility, etc. to p erform the action denoted by the
infinitive.
M odal verb s lack a n u m b e r of forms: they do not hav e
non-finite forms, som e of them exist only in one form (e. g.,
m u st, o u g h t). M ost of them are followed by a n infinitive
w ithout to. The n eg a tiv e an d the interrogative of m od al verbs
a re built up w ith ou t a n y aux iliary verbs.
44
 ^ CAN

F o rm s

35. The m odal v erb can has tw o forms the present

te n s e can an d the p a s t tense could.
The infinitive of the following v erb is used w ith out to:
M ichael can pla y the piano.
He could drive you to the hotel.
The interro gative and the negative are formed w ithout
any auxiliary:
C an you see the house ac ro s s the river?
They ca n n o t (Am E a lso can not) open the w indow.
He could not open the door.
The contractio ns c a n 't an d c o u ld n t are used in inform al
speech:
I c a n t m o ve t h a t bookcase.
He c o u ld n t sp ea k S p a n is h fluently then.

M ean ings

36. The m od al verb can has the following m eanings:

1. physical or intelle ctu al ability:
O nly H enry can ru n a s fa st a s you.
Even a child can a n sw e r your question it is so easy.
I c o u ld n t u n d e rsta n d his plan.
N o ra co u ld never p la y tennis well.
2. perm ission:
You can ta ke the book now.
You can lea ve rig h t aw ay.
The in terro g a tiv e form expresses request. Both can a n d v
co u ld are u sed for r e q u e s ts with reference to the p resen t o r
the future, b u t co u ld is the m ore polite:
Can (co u ld ) I ph o n e you in the evening?
C an (co u ld ) he c a ll on you tom orrow ?
The negative form ex p resses prohibition: V
You c a n t cross th e s tre e t here.
She c o u ld n t drive because she had lost her drivers license.
45
 In the m ean in g s of perm ission an d prohibition can is
frequen tly used in inform al speech and w riting.
3. possibility:
Anybody can m ake m istakes.
You can see Mrs. H a rris o n in the p a r k every m ornin g.
C ould with a perfect infinitive (ha ve - f a p a s t participle)
V ex presses a p a s t possibility th a t w as not fulfilled:
I co u ld have com e earlier u n fo rtu n a te ly I v/as too slow
a n d m issed the five oclock train.
I am su re you could h a v e w on the to u rn a m e n t. Why
d id n t you ta k e p a r t in it?
4. u n ce rtain ty (only in in te rro g a tiv e s en ten c es). In this
m e a n in g we find can and co u ld followed by different form s
of the infinitive. Both can and could are used sim ilarly but
co u ld expresses g r e a te r uncertainty.
C a n /c o u ld -j- a) a sim ple infinitive of stative verbs or b)
a contin uo us infinitive of dynam ic verbs express p re sen t
actions:
a) Can (co u ld ) she be here now?
Can (co u ld ) Alice dou b t your word?
b) Can (could.) she be sleep in g now?
Can (co u ld ) they still be sle e p in g ?
C a n /c o u ld with a perfect infinitive express p a s t actions:
Can (co u ld ) R obert have m issed the plane?
Can (co u ld ) they have le ft yesterday ?
C a n / co uld -f- a perfect con tin uou s infinitive ex press a c
tions begun in the past an d continued up or into the present
m om ent:
C an (co u ld ) she have been ta lk in g on the telephone so
long?
Can (co u ld ) they have been w o rkin g in the library for
eigh t h o u rs now?
With stativ e verbs a perfect infinitive is used instead of
a perfect continuous infinitive:
Can (co u ld ) they have been here since m orning?
C an (co u ld ) you ha ve k n o w n him so long?
Both can an d could a re rendered in R u ssian in the sam e
way: ?
?
46
 5. n egative deduction (only in negative sentences)* Both
can a n d co uld followed by different form s of the infinitive are
used in this m eaning, but could is less categoric.
C a n /c o u ld -{- a) a sim ple infinitive of stative verbs or b)
a continuous infinitive of dynam ic verbs e x p ress p re sen t
actions:
a) Anne c a n t (c o u ld n t ) be so selfish.
The w ork c a n t (co u ld n t ) be so difficult.
b) The s tu d e n ts c a n t ( co u ld n t ) be w r itin g a dic
tatio n now.
J a c k c a n t (c o u ld n t ) be p la yin g tennis a t this hour.
C a n /c o u ld n t a perfect infinitive ex press p a s t a c
tions:
They ca n t (c o u ld n t ) h a ve been m ista k e n .
M a rtin ca n t (co u ld n t ) h a ve m isu n d ersto o d you.
C a n /c o u ld + a perfect infinitive express an action b egu n
in the p a s t a n d continued up or into the present:
They c a n t (c o u ld n t ) h a ve been ta lk in g all evening.
She c a n t ( co u ld n t ) h a ve been tra n s la tin g the text since
one o clock.
With stative verbs a perfect infinitive is u sed instead of
a perfect continu ous infinitive:
He ca n t h a ve been here for tw o h o u rs now.
You c a n t h a ve k n o w n him so long.
Can a n d co u ld a re ren d ere d in R ussian in the sam e way:
, ... .

MAY

F o rm s

37. The m odal verb m a y h a s tw o form s the p resent

tense m a y a n d the p a s t tense m ig kt. The infinitive of the
follow ing verb is used w ithout to:
You m a y g o now.
it m a y sn o w today.
He said they m ig h t lea ve on S un day .
The in te rro g a tiv e an d the negative are form ed w ithout
an y auxiliary:
M a y we do the re st of the w ork tom orro w ?
 You m a y not go there.
N o t e . The c o n tra ctio n s m a y n t, m ig h tn t are ra r e l y used.

M eanings

38. The m odal verb m a y has the following m eanings.

1. perm ission:
You m a y tell y our friend everything.
You m a y a n sw er the questions later.
In this m ean in g m a y is used in formal speech and w r i t
ing. (C o m p are with can which o cc u rs in the m e a n in g of
perm ission in inform al speech or w ritin g ).
V The n egative form exp resses prohibition:
You m a y not leave the office now.
H ow ever, m u st not and cannot are m ore com m on th an
m a y not in the m e a n in g of prohibition.
The p a s t form m ig h t in the above given m ean in g s occurs
only in s u b o rd in ate clau ses (m ainly in reported speech),
when the verb in the principal clau se is in the p a s t tense:
7 we m ig h t tell her everything.
He said (th at)
^ we m ig h t not leave the office now.
In sim ple sentences or in principal clau se s of com plex
s entences the verb to a llo w is used:
We w ere a llo w ed to tell her everything.
Sim on w as a llo w e d to g o hom e because he d id n t
feel well.
The interro g a tiv e form ex p resses a polite requ est which
(unlike the other form s) is com m on in inform al speech. Both
m a y an d m ig h t are used for re q u e s ts with reference to the
pre sen t or the future, but m ig h t denotes g re a te r u n certainty
of the sp ea k er abo ut the an sw e r:
M a y {m ig h t) I sm o k e here?
M a y (m ig h t) I com e to m o rro w ?
The positive a n s w e r to such questions is Yes, you m a y .
If the a n s w e r is Yes, you m ig h t it rem ains u n ce rtain
w hether perm ission h a s been given. The negative a n s w e rs
are No, you m ay n o t ( = You are not allow ed to smoke, to
48
come, etc.) or No, you m u s t no t ( = It is your obligation
not to smoke, to come, etc.).
M a y expresses a m ore polite request th an can.
2. u nce rtain ty (in affirm ativ e and negative s e n te n c e s ). In
this m eanin g we find m ay or m ig h t followed by different
fo rm s of the infinitive. M a y a n d m ig h t are used sim ilarly,
b u t m ig h t expresses g r e a t e r u ncertain ty .
M a y / m ig h t (not) -f- a sim ple infinitive of dynam ic
v erb s express fu ture actions: ^
G loria m a y phone you tom o rro w .
M r. Ross m a y not g ive an o th e r lecture.
M a y /m ig h t (n o t) -f- a) a sim ple infinitive of stative
verb s or b) a continuous infinitive of dynam ic verbs express
p re s e n t actions:
a) Your g u ess m ay be right.
He m ig h t not be easy to deal with.
b) Mrs. R oberts m a y be w a itin g for you at the station.
They m ig h t not be w o rk in g in the library now.
M a y (m ig h t (not) -f- a perfect infinitive express p a s t a c
tions:
H u g h m a y h a ve w a n te d to buy you a present.
He m ig h t n o t h a ve fo rg o tte n your request.
M a y /m ig h t (not) -f- a perfect continuous infinitive ex
p re s s actions b egun in the p a s t an d continued up or into the V
present:
They m a y h a ve been w o rk in g a t the problem since
au tu m n .
They m ig h t h a ve been p la y in g tennis since lunch time.
W ith stative verbs a perfect infinitive is used instead of
a perfect continuous infinitive:
They m a y n o t h a ve k n o w n the tru th all the time.
M artin m ig h t not have been here all the time.
Both m ay an d m ig h t a re re ndered in R ussian in the sa m e
way: ( ), .
( ), .
3. irritation or ann o y a n ce on the p a r t of the speaker.
Note th a t only the p a s t ten se form m ig h t o ccu rs in this
m ean in g .
M ig h t -f- a simple infinitive is used with reference to the v-
p re sen t or the future:
49
 You m ig h t be m ore polite.
C h ris m ig h t of f er to help you.

M ig h t -f- a perfect infinitive is used w ith reference to

the past:
You m ig h t k a v e w arned me.
You m ig h t h a ve d isc u sse d it together.
The R u ssian tra n s la tio n is: ..., . . . .
N o t e . The set expression m a y /m ig h t (a s) w e ll d enotes intention or
r e co m m e n d a tio n :

I m a y a s w e ll leave on S u n d a y .
You m a y w e ll s ta y a t home.
It is re n dere d in R u ssia n as ... .

MUST

F o rm s

33. The m odal verb m u s t h a s only one form which is

u sed with reference to the p re sen t or to the future. The infini
tive of the follow ing verb is used w ithout to:
J a m e s m u s t help him.
You m u s t ta k e the medicine.
The in te rro g a tiv e and th e n eg a tiv e are form ed w ithout
any auxiliary:
M u s t we do the tra n s la tio n now?
You m u s t n o t sa y a w o rd a b o u t it.
The co ntraction m u s tn t is used in inform al speech or
w riting:
You m u s tn t m a ke fun of the boy.
You m u s tn t go to bed so late.

Meanings

40. The m odal verb m u s t h a s the following m eanings:

1. s tr o n g obligation or necessity: ,
W e m u s t w rite clearly.
C h a rle s m u s t visit his sick friend.
50
 M u s t can be used in s u b o rd in ate clauses to exp ress p a s t
ob ligation or necessity w hen the v erb in the principal c lau se
is in the p a s t tense:
He said we m u st p a rk here.
She told the children they m u st g et up at once.
However, in simple sentences or in principal clau ses had
to is used as a su b s titu te for m u s t:
We h a d to p a rk here.
The children h a d to g e t up because it w a s a lre ad y eig ht
o clock.
The negative form m u s t not (m u s tn 't) expresses prohi- *
bition o r s tro n g advice not to perfo rm the action denoted by
th e infinitive:
You m u s tn 't sp ea k so loudly.
F r a n k m u s tn 't d rive so fast.
N o t e . Absence of o blig atio n is e xpressed by need:
M u s t I go there now?
No, you m u s t n t. ( = It is w r o n g to go there.)
No, you n e e d n t. ( = It is u n n e c e s s a r y to go there.)

2. s tro n g advice:
You m u s t see the play.
You m u s t go to the seaside this sum m er.
3. probability. In this m e a n in g m u s t can be followed by
different form s of the infinitive.
M u s t - f a ) a sim ple infinitive of stative verbs or b) a c o n
tin u o u s infinitive of d ynam ic verb s expresses present a c
tions:
a) She m u s t be tired.
He m u st be out of his mind to act like this.
b) They m u s t be h a v in g lunch now.
Tom m y m u s t be p la y in g in the gard en.
N o t e . M u s t can n o t be u se d to e x p r e ss probability in the future. This
m e a n in g is conveyed with the help of m o d al w o rd s a n d expressions:
I am su r e they will come to m o rro w .
U n d o u b te d ly he will ta k e first place.
E v ide n tly the m atch will be postponed.

M u s t - f a perfect infinitive expresses p a s t actions:

He m u s t h a ve se n t th e m a telegram m e.
They m u s t h a ve g o n e to the theatre.
51
 M u st -1- a perfect continuous infinitive of dynam ic verbs
expresses actions begun in the p a s t an d continued up or into
the present:
They m u s t h a ve been d isc u ssin g the question for two
h o u rs now.
She m u s t h a ve been clea n in g the house since m orning.
With stative verbs a perfect infinitive is used instead of
a perfect continuous infinitive:
She m u s t h a ve kn o w n the t r u th since th a t m e m o ra
ble day.
The R u ssian tra n s la tio n is: ,
. , .
N o t e . The n e g ativ e form of m u s t can n o t be used in the m e a n i n g of
probability . The n e g ativ e e q uiv a lent of m u s t is c a n t (c o u ld n t):

P ositive N e g a tiv e
He m u s t h a v e d eceived us. He c a n 't have d eceived us.

M u s t can be used if the n e gativ e m e a n i n g is expressed in o ther w a y s (by

a n e g ativ e pron oun , a n e g ativ e prefix, a v e r b with the n e g a tiv e m e a n i n g ) .
S a m m u s t h a ve m e t nobody.
He m u s t h a v e m isu n d e rs to o d you.
She m u s t h a v e fa ile d to g e t the tickets.

SH O U LD , O UG HT

F o rm s

41. B oth sh o u ld a n d o u g h t have only one form which

is used with reference to the p re sen t or the future. The infini
tive afte r sh o u ld is u sed w itho ut to, but after o u g h t it is used
with to:
You s h o u ld w ear a d a r k blue tie with th a t suit.
He o u g h t to see a doctor.
The in terro g a tiv e an d the negative are form ed w ithout
an y auxiliary:
S h o u ld I b u y a new w a tch ?
O u g h t Stephen to d isc u ss it w ith his colleagues?
You o u g h t n o t to sw im in cold w ater.
Mr. W orth o u g h t not to encourage this irresponsibility.
The con tractio ns sh o u ld n 't and o u g h tn 't a re used in
inform al speech and w riting:
52
 You s h o u ld n t ta ke th at horrible w om an into your confi
dence.
O u g h tn t we to g o ?
N t e. In Am E the co n tra ctio n o u g h tn 't is ra re ly used. T herefore it is
often replaced by s h o u ld n t in d isjun ctive questions:
We ou g h t to call D o u g l a s up, sh o u ld n 't we?

M eanings

42. Both sh o u ld an d o u g h t have tne following

m eanin gs:
1. advisability, desirability, recom m endation:
You sh o u ld ta ke the children to the zoo by all m eans.
S h o u ld we sa y good-bye to all the guests?
You o u g h t not to use H e le n s typew riter without her
permission.
2. m oral obligation:
S tu d e n ts sh o u ld not com e late to classes.
You o u g h t to tell your p a r e n ts the truth.
A lthough sh o u ld and o u g h t a re interc h an g ea b le in the
above-given m ean in g s, it is im portant to note th a t o u g h t is
used m ore freq uen tly th a n s h o u ld to express m oral o bli
gation. In its tu rn sh o u ld is used m ore frequently th an o u g h t
to ex press advisability.
The R u ssian tra n s la tio n is , .
3. unfulfilled obligation or advisability (with a perfect
infinitive):
They sh o u ld h a ve been m ore tactful.
J a n e o u g h t to h a ve g iven you the n ecessary instructions.
The negative construction expresses disapproval of the
action denoted by the perfect infinitive:
They s h o u ld n t h ave tro u b led the old w om an.
J a n e t o u g h t n o t to h a ve m o ved to an other a p a rtm e n t
w ithout her p a r e n t s consent.
4. probability. In this m e a n in g sh o u ld an d oug h t are
sy non ym ou s with m u st, but they a re used m ore rarely th an
m u s t:
It is M onday: Mr. Leigh sh o u ld be here.
This coat o u g h t to be cheaper. Lets have a closer look
at it.
53
 TO HAVE

F orm s

43. To h a ve as a m od al verb has three tenses the

present, the p a s t and the fu tu re of the common aspect: the
p re s e n t tense have, has, the p a s t tense had, the future
tense s h a ll/w ill have. The infinitive of the following verb
is used with to:
We ha ve to a tten d c la s s e s every day.
Ned had to sta y in bed for a week.
J e r r y w ill ha ve to leave his n ative town after g ra d u a tio n .
The interroga tive a n d the n eg a tiv e a re formed like those
of a r e g u la r verb, i. e. in a c c o rd a n ce with the g en eral rules:
D id M a r th a h a ve to w o rk late yesterday?
You d o n t ha ve to tell me if you d ont w a n t to.
E d w a rd w o n t have to com e back till September.

M ea n in g s

1. The m odal verb to h a ve expresses obligation or neces

sity prescribed by some a u th o rity or by circum stances. It is
re n d ere d in R ussian a s , , :
In sp rin g we have to w ork in o u r g a rd e n every day.
F red had to borrow money from his friend to pay the rent.
W ill you ha ve to retu rn the book tom orrow ?
2. The negative form indicates absence of obligation or
necessity. The R ussian tr a n s la tio n is ,
, :
You d o n t ha ve to buy the text-books. You can take them
from the library.
We d id n t ha ve to ta ke a taxi: the th eatre v /asn t far from
o u r hotel.
You w o n t h a ve to queue for tickets: they have been
booked in advance.
C o m p are with m u st wnicn expresses prohibition or s tro n g
advice:
You m u s t not sta y in tow n. It is w ro n g to stay in town.
You d o n t h a v e to sta y in town. = It is un nec essary to
sta y in town.
 ; TO HAVE GOT

44. To have g o t is alw a y s followed by a simple infini-

tive with to. It is synonym ous with to have e x p ressin g obli
gation or necessity prescribed by som e au th o rity or by c i r
cu m stances:
J e r r y h a s g o t to sta y here till two.
H a ve you go t to g e t up early?
They h a v e n 't g o t to lea ve today.
In Br E to have g o t in this m e a n in g occurs in the p resent
an d p a st tenses while in Am E only the p re sen t tense is
used.

TO BE

F o rm s

45. The verb to be in its m odal use occurs in the p re sen t

a n d p a s t tenses. It is followed by an infinitive with to:
She is to w ait for us a t the airport.
The p a rty w as to ta ke place on S a tu rd a y .

M eanings

46. 1. The verb to be h a s the following m ean in g s:

a plan or an a rra n g e m e n t:
The expedition is to s ta r t in a month.
They w ere to stop for lunch in H a rris b u rg .
A perfect infinitive afte r to be in the p a s t tense indicates W
th a t the action did not ta k e place:
W illiam w a s to h a v e a rrived an hour ago, but he m u s t
have m issed the 4 oclock train .
A simple infinitive after to be in the p a s t does not show
w h e th e r the action took place or not.
To be is frequently used in new sp a p er an d radio re p o rts
to denote an official p la n or a rra n g e m e n t:
The prime m inister is to g o to P a ris on a tw o-d ay visit.
2. c o m m an d s or instru ctio n s:
We are to m eet a t the e n tra n c e a t six.
55
i

You are to pack your things and leave not later than
three.

3. a p redestined event:
They p a rte d an d he w as n ever to see her again.
He w as to becom e my friend and in stru cto r d u rin g all the
ye a rs I sp en t a t Oxford.
4. possibility (with a p assive infinitive). In this m e a n in g
to be is syn ony m o us to the m odal verbs can and may:
Where is such a m an to be fo u n d ? she exclaimed.
N othing is to be done.

V SH A L L

47. S h a ll as a m odal verb is alw a y s used with re fe r

ence to the future. It h a s th e following m ean in g s:
1. In the in terro g a tiv e form with the first person bu t
som etim es with the third person a s well sh a ll ex p resses
a su gg estio n:
S h a ll I g e t yo ur coat?
S h a lt he h a ve b re a k fa s t in bed?
2. In the affirm ative form w ith the second and th ird
persons s h a ll expresses a c o m m a n d or a promise:
M em b ers sh a ll en ter their n am es in the register.
You sh a ll ha ve this post.
S h a ll in this m e a n in g is often used in legal docum ents.
N o t e . In Am E sh a ll can denote a prom ise with the first person s i n
g u l a r a s it is not used a s a n a u x ilia r y for the fu tu re tense.

W IL L

F o rm s

48. W ill as a m odal verb h a s tw o form s the p resent

tense w ill an d the p a s t tense w ould.

M ea n in g s

The m odal verb w ill h a s the following m ean in g s:

1. s tro n g intention a n d determ ination. Only the p re sen t
tense form w ill is used in this m eaning ; it is often prono un ced
with an em phatic stress:
56
 You w ill do as you a re told.
I w ill g e t the main p a r t in th a t play youll see.

2. hab itu al an d re c u rre n t actions in the present or in

the past:
She w ill sp en d long h o u rs in the picture gallery.
In the evening they w o u ld listen to G r a n d m a s stories
which she told with g re a t eloquence.
3. polite requests. Both w ill and w o u ld are u sed in this
m e a n in g with reference to the future, b u t w o u ld is the m ore
polite:
W ill (w o u ld ) you b rin g me a g la ss of w a ter?
If you w ill (w o u ld ) w a it a m om ent, Ill find the book.
4. refu sal to perform an action in the pre sen t or in
the past:
He w o n t listen to re aso n .
T h oug h we alw a y s invited him, he w o u ld n t com e in.
In this m e a n in g w ill (w o u ld ) can be used w hen the sub-
ject is an in an im ate thing:
The window w o n t open.
I asked him to lend m e his pen because mine w o u ld n t
w rite.
N o t e . W o u ld is used in the set p h ra s e s w o u ld ra th er, w o u ld so o n er; it
m e a n s " t o p r e fe r :
I w o u ld ra th e r te ll him all myself.
He w o u ld sooner go h u n g r y t h a n a d m it he has no money.
W ould yo u m ind, w o u ld yo u p re fer express a polite re q u est o r invi
tation:
W o u ld y o u m in d b r i n g in g m y coat?
W o u ld y o u prefer to go out?

NE E D

F o rm s

49. In m o d e rn E n glish the m odal verb need u su ally h a s

one form which is used with reference to the p resent o r the
future. It occurs alm o st exclusively in the in terro g a tiv e a n d
the negative which a re form ed w ithout any auxiliary. The
infinitive of the follow ing verb is used w ithout to:
N eed we leave at once?
57
 You n e e d n t hurry.
They n e e d n t sta y in to w n all sum m er.
The affirm ative form is used in su b o rd in ate clau ses in the
follow ing cases:
a) in indirect questions:
I d like to know if I need go there.
I w o n d e r if he need sta y in the office.
b) after the verb to d o u b t:
I do ubt if I need call them up.
c) afte r a negation in the principal clause:
He d o e s n t say you need do that.
I d o n t think you need b u y a new dre ss for th a t occasion.
H ov/ever, the g r a m m a r of the m odal verb need is incon
sistent. Som etim es it is tre a te d a s a r e g u la r verb, i. e. its
form s are built up like those of an y other full verb. Then need
h a s three ten ses the p resent, the p a s t and the fu tu re , bu t
its use is as a ru le restricted to the negative a n d the i n t e r
ro gativ e. At the sam e time need reta in s its m odal m e a n in g
a n d is followed by an infinitive with to:
D o you n eed to trouble him?
I d id n t need to speak to Joseph.
W o n t he need to sta y there?
I d id n t need to ta ke my opera glasses: we s a t close to the
s tag e.
N o t e . N eed c an also be used a s a notio nal verb. In this case it ta k e s
a direct object an d a lw a y s h a s the r e g u l a r forms:
H e n e e d s a new coat.
D id he re ally n eed th at jo u r n a l ?
17/ need the tape reco rder to m o rro w .

M ea n in g s
50. The m odal verb need h a s the following m eanings:
1. obligation or necessity (in in terro gative senten c es):
N eed they visit the old lady?
N eed we buy a n y th in g else?
(Also: D o we need to b u y a n y th in g else?)
2. ab sen ce of obligation or necessity (in n eg ativ e
sen ten ces):
I m s u re we n ee d n t come.
(Also: I m su re we d o n t need to com e.)
58
 You n e e d n t w a lk to the station: H a r r y will give you a lift.
(Also: You d o n t need to w a lk to the station...)

3. an action v/hich w a s perform ed u nnecessarily (with

a perfect infinitive):
I n e e d n t h a ve ta ken my u m brella. It isnt g o in g to rain.
( = I have taken my u m b re lla unnecessarily.)
You n e e d n t h a ve h u rrie d . There is plenty of time. ( = You
h urried unnecessarily .)
N o t e . D id not need to can be sy n o n y m o u s with need not - f a perfect
infinitive:
You d id n t need to g o to the shops. We have all the n e c e ssa r y things.
< = You n e e d n 't have gone to the shops, i. e. you did an u n n e c e ssa r y thing.)
Besides, d id n o t need to c an be u se d a s a synonym of d id n o t h a v e to:
I d id n 't need to go to the lib ra ry y e sterd a y . I worked at home. ( = I
d i d n t have to go to the lib ra ry , i. e. I d i d n t go there.)

DA R E

F orm s

~5j. The m odal verb dare h a s the following forms: the

presenU tense da re a n d the p a s t tense dared. The infinitive of
th e follow ing verb is used w ithout to.
In m odern E n glish dare occu rs only in the in te rro g a tiv e
an d the negative which a r e formed w ithout any auxiliary:
D are we g o in?
They d a red not d isc u ss it in his presence.
However, the g r a m m a r of the m odal verb dare is incon
sistent. Som etim es its form s are built up like those of a r e g
u la r verb. In such ca s e s dare m ainly occurs in the present
a n d p a st tenses. Its use is fu rth e r restricted to the i n t e r r o g a
tive a n d the negative. The infinitive of the follow ing verb is
used with to:
D oes he dare to co n tra d ict her?
A lan d id n o t d are to m ove.
N t e 5. I n the a ffirm a tiv e d a re is used only in the set expression I dare
sa y ( I d a re sa y ) which m e a n s , . In the second
m e a n i n g it is often u se d ironic ally.
N o t e 2. D are c an be u sed as 2 notio nal verb in the m e a n i n g of to
challenge, to s u g g e s t th a t a p e rson is u n a b le or not bra v e e n o u g h to do
s o m e th i n g :
The boy da re d his friend to clim b a tall tree.
I da re you to deny the acc u sa tio n.

59
 Exercises

VERB FORM S IN T H E IND IC A TIV E M OOD

FO RM S OF T H E I N D E F I N I T E A S P E C T

1. A n s w e r the following qu e stio n s choosing an a p p r o p ria te p h r a s e from the

list. Why is the p r e s e n t indefinite u se d here? Explain the sp e llin g a n d
pro n u n c ia tio n of the e n d in g in the 3 r d person s i n g u l a r (se e 3, 5 ).

I. W h a t does an architect do? 2. W h a t does a sh o em ak er

do? 3. W h a t does a r6asontutio? 4. W h a t does an a r tis t do?
W h a t does a doctor do? W h a t does a h a ird re s s e r do?
W h a t does a broker do? &. W h a t does a law s tu d e n t do?
9> W h a t does a la u n d re s s do? 10. W h at does a s p o rts m a n do?
4 1 . W hat does a fa rm e r do?

AOjkto go in for sports,$jto stud y !aw,6)to cut and d re ss the

h air,14to pain t pictures, )to m end boots and shoes,iXo m ak e
d esig n s for buildings, to w ork in stonepjto practise medicine,
'4-jt buy and sell sh a re s ^ to w a sh linenfto g ro w crops and raise
c a ttle an d poultry)
2. Refer the action to the p a s t a d d i n g a n a p p ro p ria te time indicator a n d
m a k i n g oth er n e ce ssa ry c h an g e s. Explain the spelling a n d p ro n u n c ia tio n
of the verb e n d in g s (s e e 2, 3).

1. They will finish their dessert, pay the w a iter for the
dinner an d leave. 2. These tw o girls stud y in the sam e g rou p.
3. Why d o n t you go hom e by tra m ? 4. In spite of his ag e this
old m an tra v e ls a g r e a t deal. 5. I shall only shake h a n d s with
him an d retu rn to my seat. 6. These boys often q u a rre l but
they m ake up their q u a r r e ls very soon an d are friends again .
7. I feci very a n g r y and it is on the tip of my ton g u e to say
w h a t I think. And I shall say it. 8. In the evening the teac h er
will correct our exercise-books. 9. The speaker refers to the
editorial in the evening paper. 10. The professor will continue
his lecture after the b re a k for lunch. 11. We a re late for the
show, a r e n t we? So its no use hurryin g. 12. G e o rg e p lay s
chess very well, d o e s n t he?
*3 . In se rt shall" , will a n d l i . Give v a r ia n ts w he reve r possible arid
acc oun t for y our s u g g e s t i o n s (see 2).

1 , ,
.

60
 1. ... you re tu rn my u m b re lla tom o rro w ? 2. ... I really be
tw enty y e a rs old tom o rrow ? 3. 1 ... certainly post this letter
for you, d o n t worry. 4. I think we ... not re tu rn home tonight,
we ... stay with o u r friends in the country. 5. J a m e s and
I ... be very g la d to see you. Do come. 6. J a m e s ... be very g lad
to see you an d so ... I. 7 . 1 ... be very g lad to see you and so ...
Jam es. 8. Ann ... s ta y here a n d you ... help me to lift this box
a n d c a rry it into the house. 9 .... I help you to lift the box? Yes,
do please. 10. We ... reach hom e before dark.
4. D eterm ine the m e a n i n g of the v e r b fo rm s in te r m s of the definitions given
in 5.

1. The sun shines by day a n d th e moon by night. 2. M an y

t h o u s a n d y e a rs ago the m a in la n d of Europe stretched m uch
fa rth er w est than now. 3. W hen did you la s t go to the T re ty a
kov G allery? 4. A m a n 'o n c e set o u t on a jo u rn ey on h o rse
back and soon found himself wet th ro u g h w ith the rain. He
com plained a g r e a t deal, d e c la rin g th a t he w a s certain to be
laid up with rhe u m a tism . S u d d e n ly he w a s attacked by h ig h
w aym en. B ut ow ing to the fact th a t the pow der w a s wet, their
g u n s w ere useless. Thus the rain saved the tra v e lle rs life.
5. J a n e will be very m uch obliged to you, if you let her know
the date of the concert. 6. W hen will the next s o la r eclipse
ta k e place? 7. W hen do you s t a r t for Kiev? 8. (F ro m a play)
Ellen: M ary , put the tea in th e teapot, will you? M ary: Yes,
certainly. (M a ry goes to the cu p b o a rd a n d puts the tea in the
teapot. As she does so, the bell o u tside begins rin g in g m a d
ly.) 9. When she g r a d u a t e s from the institute, she will be
a teacher of E nglish, an in terp re ter or a tra n s la to r . 10. W h a t
time do you leave your office?

5. This is a description of daily actions given by a teacher of English,

Mr. Priestley, and his w ife Mrs. P riestley (from Essential English by
E. Eckerstey, Part II ). Read the text and retell it in the 3rd person. Retell
the text In the past tense m aking all the necessary changes.

M r. P riestley. Now I ll begin. I w a k e at ab ou t seven

o clock an d then it is time for me to get up. I like a cold b ath
every m orn ing , so I put on my d re ssin g -g o w n and slippers
a n d go to the bath-room . The w a te r feels very cold on w inter
m o rnings, but I rub myself h a r d with the towel an d soon
I feel quite w arm .
Then I shave, b ru sh my teeth an d w a sh my face an d go
back to the bedroom to dress. I b ru sh and comb my hair, tak e
a clean handkerchief out of the d ra w e r and go d o w n s ta irs for
61
b re a k fa s t a t a q u a r te r p a s t eight. After b re a k fa s t I sit and
re ad my m o rn in g p a p e r a n d sm oke a cig arette, or in the
s u m m e r I have a w a lk ro u n d m y g a rd en . I go into my stu d y
a t nine o clock and meet m y s tu d e n ts there, a n d the d a y s
w ork begins. At tw elve-thirty I have a b re ak for lunch. I g e n
era lly finish my v/ork by abo u t five o clock. Then 1 have a cup
of tea an d a biscuit, an d in su m m er I spend a n hour or so in
the g a r d e n an d play a few g a m e s of tennis, or I go to the golf
club an d hav e a rou nd of golf.
We hav e dinner a b o u t seven-thirty or eight o clock, and
then sit a n d talk, listen to the w ireless or look a t television, or
M rs. P riestley plays the piano. Sometim es, in the su m m er,
we tak e o u t the c a r an d go for a drive in the country; in the
w inter we go to the cinem a or to the th eatre.
Now, here is M rs. P riestley to describe a w o m a n s day.
M rs. P riestley. I too get up soon after seven an d go d o w n
s ta ir s to help S u s a n with the work. She cleans out the stove
a n d fills it up with coke, so th a t we get plenty of hot w a te r all
day. Then she tak es out the ashes from th e sitting-room fire
a n d re-lays it with p a p e rs and sticks and coal. Then it is all
re ad y to light, an d only needs a m atch p u t to it.
While she is doing th at, I get the b re a k fa st ready. I put
the table-cloth on the dining-room tab le a n d p u t out the
knives, forks a n d spoons, and the cups, s a u c e rs and plates.
Then I go a n d cook the b reakfast. I soon have the bacon and
the eg g s cooking in the frying-pan. I m ak e to a s t, boil the
kettle for te a or coffee, an d we are re ad y to sit down at a
q u a r te r p a s t eight.
After b re ak fa st, S u sa n and I clear aw ay the dishes. Then
she w a sh e s a n d dries them , and I go to do my shopping.
S om etim es I go to the shops to the b u tc h e rs to o rd e r the
m eat, to the g ro c e rs to buy tea, coffee, s u g a r , etc., but often
I rin g them up a n d o rd e r w h a t I w a n t by phone.
Then S u s a n and I go u p s ta irs to m ak e the beds, d u s t
u p s ta irs a n d d o w n stairs, and do the c a rp e ts with my electric
cleaner. It is abo u t eleven o clock by this time, so I ch a ng e my
clo thes a n d begin to get read y for lunch. After lunch I do
som e se w in g o r go for a w a lk and visit m y friends.
Then Mr. P riestley jo in s me for afternoon tea in the s i t
tin g -ro o m u s u a lly brin g in g one or tw o of his s tu d e n ts
with him. We h ave bre ad an d butter, ja m or honey, cakes a n d
biscuits.
My h u s b a n d has alre a d y told you how we spend ou r
evenings in su m m er, tennis, golf or a drive in the car; in
w in ter, music, the cinema, a concert; som etim es dinner in
62
tow n a n d a th e a tre a fte rw a rd s . Sometimes, in fact, very
often, we j u s t h ave a quiet evening a t home. You see, J o h n is
at the U niversity an d M a r g a r e t is now a t a b o arding -scho ol
a n d comes home only a t the weekends; so, except when they
are on holiday, there a re o n ly the two of u s a t home. And
when the w ind is blow ing th ro u g h the trees outside and the
rain is b e a tin g on the w indow s, our w a rm fire seem s w a r m e r
a n d m ore cheerful th an ever and I often think th at these
quiet even ings a re the b e st evenings of all.
6. Now t h a t you kno w the daily a ctions of Mr. a n d Mrs. P rie stle y, r e fu te or
b e a r o u t the follo w in g sta te m e n t s .

1. Mr. P riestley s ta y s in bed till high noon. 2. H e likes to

ta k e a w a rm show er every m orning. 3. After b r e a k f a s t
Mr. P riestley u su a lly sits re a d in g the m o rn in g papers. 4. H is
d a y s w o rk begins a t eleven o clock or thereabo ut.
5. M rs. P riestley w a k e s at 6 o clock and clea ns the stove all
by herself. 6. M rs. P riestley never does any sewing.
7. Mr. P riestley goes to the college to m eet his s tu d e n ts there.
8. After lunch M rs. P riestley goes out to do her shopping.
9. Mr. P riestley never w o rk s in the afternoon. He goes for
a w a lk a n d visits his friends. 10. After dinner th e P rie s t-
leys u su ally go out to the cinem a or to the th eatre. 11.
Mrs. P riestley likes to h a v e a quiet evening at home. And so
does Mr. Priestley. 12. E v ery day M r. P riestley goes to the
golf club.
7. W rite out from ten to fifteen v e rb s a n d v e r b p h ra s e s from the text a b o u t
Mr. a n d Mrs. P rie stle y (ex. 5) a n d a s k one a n o th e r q ue stions a b o u t y o u r
own daily activities.

8. Explain the difference in m e a n i n g betw een the se ntences in each s e t a n d

t r a n s l a t e th em into Russian. By w h a t m e a n s are fu t u r e events ex p ress ed ?
( S e e 5.)

1. a) We are not certain yet if we shall take p a r t in the

concert, b) If we ta k e p a r t in the concert I hope we sh all
receive a prize. 2. a) The c h ild ren will stay indoors u nless the
wind goes down an d the su n comes out. b) The w e ath er
forecast does no t say if the wind will go down. 3. a) W hy
don t you tell me when they will anno unce the r e s u lts of the
competition? b) W hen they an nou nce the re s u lts we sh all
c o n g r a tu la te the winners. 4. a) The shop will let me know
when the goods are in stock, b) The shop will let me know
when the goods will be in stock. 5. a) Will you inform me as
soon as you know the a n s w e r to my application? b) Will you
63
inform me when I s h all receive an an sw e r to my application?
6. a) When the m a n a g e r finishes interview ing the a p p lica n ts
he will come to som e decision, b) I c a n t say when the m a n
a g e r will finish interview ing the app licants. I m afraid he
will not be th ro u g h even if he s ta y s in the office till night.
9. Give a n s w e r s to the follow in g q uestio ns u s in g a d v e rb ia l c la u se s of
time.
a ) Use w h e n .

Exam ple: W hen will you come to see us?

I shall come to see you when I am free.

1. W hen will you go to see y our p a ren ts? 2. W hen will

Ann s t a r t le a rn in g G e rm a n ? 3. When will you tell us about
your trip to L en in g ra d ? 4. W hen will G eorge give up s m o k
ing? 5. When will you m ake a report on hom e-read ing ?
6. W hen do you think you will h ea r from your brother?
7. W hen will she t r a n s l a t e this article? 8. When shall we take
ou r exam in E nglish?
b) Use a s soon a s " .

Example: W hen will you give m e the a n sw e r?

I sh all give you the an sw e r as soon as I m ake up my mind.

1. W hen will they sp eak to the chief ab out the experim ent?
2. W hen will you post the letter? 3. When will Jo h n tell us
ab o u t the jo urn ey? 4. When did y o ur friends go to the co u n
try? 5. When will o u r g ro up go to the cinem a to see the new
film? 6. W hen will you ta k e a leave? You look so tired.
7. W hen will you r e tu r n the books to the library? 8. W hen will
y o u r family move to a new flat? 9. W hen will you a r r a n g e
your b irth d a y party ? 10. W hen will they publish the p r o g
ra m m e of the conference?
c ) Use be fore " or a f te r .

Exam ple: W hen will you rin g m e up?

Ill rin g you up after I finish my ho m etask .
1 shall (not) rin g you up before I go home.

1. When will the lecture begin? 2. When will the children

go for a w alk? 3. When shall we go shopping? 4. When will
you switch off the light? 4. When shall we discuss this film?
5. W hen s h a ll we have classes in the lingaphone-room ?
6. When will you tak e your first exam ination in English?
64
7. W hen v/ill the m other aw a k e her baby? 8. W hen do you
suppose your sister will first go out afte r her illness?
10. M ake up s h o r t d ialo gue s a b o u t som e actio ns in the f u tu r e . Begin y o u r
qu e stio n s with w h e n a n d use a d v e rb ia l cla u se s of time in th e a n s w e r s
join ing them to the principal c la u s e with the help of v a r io u s c o n ju n c
tions: w h e n , while , as soon a s , be fo re , a f te r , until, till ,
a s lon g a s" .

a) A pupil a sk s his teacher: 1. W hen sh all we re a d the text

of Lesson 3? 2. When shall we d ra w p ictures to this sto ry?
3. When s h all we s t a r t ou r experim ents in physics? 4. W hen
will o u r g ro u p w ork in the school g a r d e n ? etc.
b) A fresh m an asks a fou rth-year stu den t: 1. W hen shall
I get my s t u d e n t s ca rd ? 2. When shall I ta k e my first e x a m i
nation as a s tud ent? 3. When sh all we have o u r first teaching
practice? 4. When shall we s t a r t le a rn in g a second foreign
la n g u a g e ? etc.
c) A p atient asks a doctor: 1. When shall I tak e this m edi
cine? 2. W hen do you think I shall be able to get up? 3. C an
you tell me when I shall re sum e my work? 4. f w onder when
I shall go out. etc.
d) A sec re ta ry asks her chief: 1. W hen s h all I type
these pap e rs? 2. C an you tell me v/hen I shall post these
letters? 3. You told me to send them a te le g ra m . When
sh all I do it? etc.
11. Explain the m e a n i n g of the follow ing E n g lish p ro v e rb s a n d thin k of
R u ssia n equiv alents. Acco unt for the use of the te n s e in th e proverb.

1. Every cloud has a silver lining. 2. H a s te m ak es w aste.

3. He la u g h s best who la u g h s last. 4. T alk of the devil an d he
is s u re to appear. 5. A bird in the h an d is w o rth tw o in the
bush. 6. All w ork a n d no p lay m akes Ja c k a dull boy. 7. The
last drop m akes the cup ru n over. 8. A friend in need is a
friend indeed. 9. M isfo rtu nes never come single. 10. Fine
w o rd s d re s s ill deeds.
12. Com plete the follow ing sen ten ces a d d i n g a principal or a su b o r d i n a te
c la u se a n d acc o u n t for the use of te n s e s in the clauses.

1. The doctor wiil tell you v/hen... 2. The doctor v/ill w rite
out the prescription when... 3. As soon as I get the telegram ...
4. You will be duly inform ed when an d v/here... 5. I shall lie
down a n d have a rest while... 6. If you think of som eth ing
w orth saying... 7. The p atient m u s t lie in bed until... 8 . 1 d o n t
think any one will be s u rp ris e d if... 9. Before we go to the
exhibition... 10. We shall s t a r t le a rn in g F rench after... 11.
3 11 65
J a n you tell me when... 12. C an you speak to me when... 13.
W hen you re tu rn the book to the library... 1 4 . 1 shall peel the
p otatoes while...
13. Join the sim ple sentences into complex sentences u sin g a suitable co n
ju nction f ro m (he list.

when, if, as soon as, after, before, while, provided, on

condition that, unless, till, until
Example: You will p re p a re a report. You will m ake the
rep o rt a t th e conference.
If you p re p a re the report, you v/ill m ake it a t the
conference.
1. The lesson v/ill be over. We shall look at the pictures in
this m ag az in e. 2. You a re th ro u g h v/ith your tra n sla tio n ,
a r e n t you? Will you h a n d me over the dictionary? 3. You will
n o t follow the doctors advice strictly. The treatment w ont do
you any good. 4. The p o rtra it v/ill a t t r a c t ev ery bo dys a t
tention. We shall h a n g it on the light v/all opposite the w in
dow. 5. I shall be late for the m eeting. Keep a seat for me in
the hall. 6. We shall not ask John to w o rk in the g a rd e n . He
will be too tired a fte r classes. 7. We shall not discuss the
m atter. Think it over beforehand, will you? 8. I can sp a re you
my o p era-g lasse s. You will re tu r n them on S a tu rd a y . 9. Jo h n
v/ill continue to smoke... I am afraid he will not feel better.
10. M a r y will look after the children. I shall be av/ay. 11. The
discussion v/ill be postponed. We shall receive all the n eces
s a r y inform ation.
*14. T r a n s la te the following sen ten ces into E nglish pa ying special a tte n tio n
to the fo rm of the verb e x p re s s in g a f u tu re action.

1. , .
2. , ? 3.
, . 4.
,
. 5. ,
. 6.
,
. 7. ,
. 8.
, . 9.
,
. 10. ,
. 11. ,
66
, ? 12. ,
. 13. ,
. ,
. 14.
,
. 15.
,
. 16.
( ). 17.
, . 18.
,
. 19. ,
. 20.
, .
21. ,
. 22.
, . 23. , ,
, . 24. ,
, ?
*15. T r a n s l a t e the following se n tenc es into English. Define the type of the
su b o r d i n a te clause a n d a c c o u n t for the c h o k e of the tense ex p ress in g
a fu t u r e action.

1. ,
? 2. ,
. 3. ,
( ).
4. , .
, ,
. 5.
,
. 6.
,
. 7. , ,
. 8. ,
, . ,
. 9. ,
? , ,
11.30. 10. ,
. ,
. 11. ,
. , . 12.
,
. , .
13. , -
3* 67
 . ,
, . 14.
,
. ,
, .
, . 15.
,
. ,
. ,
.

I N D E F I N I T E AND C O N T I N U O U S F O R M S

16. Add t a g - q u e stio n s to the fo llow ing st a te m e n t s a n d give sh o r t a n s w e r s ,

n e gative o r a ffirm ativ e. Use full form s o r c o n tra c t e d form s.

Example: My father re a d s the n e w sp a p e r in the evening.

Your fa th er re a d s the n e w sp a p er in the evening,
d o esn t he?
Yes, he does. No, he doesnt.
1. The s e c retary will type these letters to m o rro w . 2. Anne
w ash ed the dishes after dinner. 3. This c a n t be true. The boy
is lying. 4. You did not v/ear your new shoes a t the p arty .
5. Joe w a s j u s t o penin g the door when the phone ra n g . 6. At
five you will be w a itin g for me a t the e n tra n ce to the institute.
7. G eo rge is afraid to sw im ac ross this swift river. Leave him
alone. 8. They, alw a y s a rriv e pun ctu ally for their lessons.
9. H u r r y up. We a re leav in g in half a n hour. 10. I am n o t
b o thering you with my questions.
*17. Use a c o n tinu ous fo rm in the requ ired tense choosing a su itab le v e rb
from the list. Explain th e spelling of the participle (s e e 7).

to a n s w e r, to cry, to take, to play, to cancel, to begin, to

a rg u e, to lie, to learn, to see, to get on, to try, to feqeive, to
protest, to dye, to drive

1. Why ... you not ... the medicine the doctor h a s p r

scribed? 2. How ... you ... in your new job? I am su re you ... to
g et used to it. 3. D o be quiet, will you? I ... to co n c en trate .
4. Why, he ... n o t ... any questions w hatsoever. The e x a m in e r
will certainly give him a b ad m ark. 5, Look, Amy ... not
... with her toys any longer. She ... bitterly. W h a t is the m a t
ter? 6. J a c k know s th ree l a n g u a g e s quite well and at p resen t
he ... a fourth. 7. On the 25th of Ju ne the s t u d e n t s tlieff' '
diplomas. 8. He ... on the w ro n g side of the ro a d a n d a lm o s t
' )&s> */
68
collided with an o th e r car. 9. How foolish an d q u a r re ls o m e he
is! He ... a lw a y s ... and ... a g a in s t w h a te v er sug g estio n you
make. 10. The girl ..., w a s n t she? Nobody accused her of
an ything . 11. We cancelled o u r conference la s t week, but we
not c&rThe conference on M onday. There are too m an y
m a t t e r s to discuss. 12. I ... j a c k next week a n d shall certainly
invite him to the party. 13. Blue is the most fashionable col
our, so Ellen ... now ... her white suit blue.
I ? vU a I W<A
18. Make a p p r o p ri a te q u e stio n s f o r these a n s w e r s . Ask them a n d give
sh o r te r a n s w e r s : they will s o u n d more n a tu r a l.

Example: Ann did not play with the children because she
h a d a headache.
W hy d id n t Ann play with the children?
B ecause she h ad a headache.

1. The bell rin gs a t eight sharp. 2. No, I dont rem em ber

his ad dress. 3. You c a n t go o u t yet: it is ra in in g very h a rd .
4. P e te r is g e ttin g on at school quite well. He seem s to like
it. 5. C a n t you see? Tom is polishing his shoes. 6. Those
people are w a itin g for the shop to open. 7. We are using this
classro o m to d ay b ecau se the w indow in the other room is
broken. 8. The m other forbad e the little boy to leave the room.
9. My sister an d I ta lk e d abo u t you the other day. 10. E d w a r d
w o n t be co m in g to y o u r b irth d ay p a rty a s he will be a w a y
th a t day. 11. I fou nd this p h o to g rap h l a s t night when I w a s
looking th ro u g h som e old papers. 12. The c a r w a s tra v e llin g
at 80 kilom eters per hour w h en it b egan to skid. 13. They are
g oing to dig for oil here. They s t a r t on M onday. 14. I expect
the children will be h a v in g su p p er when we get home. 15. The
room s w ere in g r e a t d iso rd er because he w a s re d e c o ra tin g
them. 16. G e o rg e could not a n s w e r the phone, he w a s h a v in g
a b ath w hen it ra n g .
19. D eterm ine the m e a n i n g of the c on tinu ous fo rm s in t e r m s of the defini
tio ns given In 8. Do the se n ten c es in this exercise cover ail the m e a n
in g s of the c o n tin u o u s f o rm s o r c an you a d d som e more?

1. Look, the b ridge is p a r tin g and the two halves a re

m ov in g u p w a rd s as a big steam er is p a s s in g u n d ern eath .
2. None of us know w h ere we shall be or w h a t we shall tie
doing in ten y e a r s time. 3. Why are you looking at me like
th at? Do I look funny? 4. M rs. B rown is alw a y s co m p lain ing
a n d b la m in g other people for all her failures. 5. I d o n t kn ow
when we s h all be seeing each other again. I shall be aw ay for
the next few m onths. 6. C a n t you see he is being deliberately
09
rude?! 7. W h a t were you doing last night a t eight? You did
not a n s w e r the c a ll. I w a s dead tired. I w a s sleeping
(slept) the whole ev en in g . 8. A nne w a s p ra c tisin g the pian o
w h en her friends c a m e to see her. T h a ts why her m other sent
them aw ay. 9. T o m o rro w , the rector said to the s tu d en ts,
y o u ll be settlin g down to serious w o rk . 10. The c o m m is
sion a re now considering a very serious m atter. I dont think
they will come to an a g r e e m e n t until the end of the week. 11.
I w a s j u s t telling J a c k a b o u t our plans. Sorry, you w ere not
here. 12. When a re you g oin g home for the holidays? 13. My
g r a n d p a r e n ts are c e le b ratin g their g o ld e n w e d ding next
year. 14. P eter is b e h a v in g very s tra n g e ly these days. W h a t s
come over him? 15. D o nt ta k e the n ew spaper aw ay. I am still
re a d in g it. 16. We didnt h a v e the o pportunity to discuss the
r e s u lts of the experim en ts w ith the professor a second time,
for the very next d ay he v/as leavin g for Kiev.
*20. Use the v e rb in b r a c k e ts In th e p re se n t indefinite or the pre sen t c o n tin
u o u s a n d com m en t o n the difference in the m e a n in g of the form s, if
any.

1. F a t h e r u s u a lly (to drin k ) coffee in the m orn in g but

to d ay he (to drink) tea. 2. Im ogen (to m ake) h erself a new
dress. She (to m ake) all her own clothes herself. 3. A
w atc h ed pot never (to b o i l ) says the proverb. B ut look, the
kettle (to boil) alre ad y , s h a ll I m ake tea? 4. You (to enjoy)
you rself or v/ould you like to leave now? 5. I never (to w e a r)
h a t s in su m m er, b u t I (to w e a r) a h at today b ecause the s u n
is very hot. 6. Jo h n an d D avid (to have) a long conv ersatio n.
I (to w on der) w h a t they (to talk ) about. 7. You (not to
recognize) this m a n ? Let m e see, 1 (to think) I have seen
him before, b u t I (not to rem em b er) his n a m e . 8. You (to
u n d e r s ta n d ) w h a t the lectu rer (to s a y ) ? No, I (not to
u n d e r s ta n d ) him a t all, th ou gh I (to listen) w ith g r e a t a t
ten tio n . 9. You (to h e a r) w h a t he (to say) ? No, I (not to
l i s t e n ) . 10. He (to prom ise) alw a y s to m end the window b u t
he never (to do) it! Do it together, will you? 11. The c o n tin
uous a sp e ct (to differ) from the indefinite in form a n d
m ean in g . 12. H u rr y up. The tra in (to s ta rt) a t six thirty. 13.
I alw ay s (to buy) lo tte ry tickets but u n fo rtu n a te ly I never
(to w in ). I (not to buy) any more tickets. 14. We (to h av e )
visitors tonight, so I m u s t get the dinner ready.
*21. Use the verb in b r a c k e ts in the p a s t indefinite or the p a s t c o n tin u o u s
a n d c o m m e n t on the differe nce in the m e a n i n g of the form ,
if a ny.

70
 1. When a t la s t I reached her house Anne j u s t (to leave)
a n d therefore we only h ad time for a few w ords. 2. W hen
1 (to reach) h er home, Anne (to go aw ay ) a t once, t h a t is
why I h ad no time to sp eak to her. 3. As he (to g et) into the
tra m , it (to s t a r t ) su d d e n ly and he (to fall) b a c k w a rd s on
the pavem ent. 4. As soon as he (to get) into the b u s, the bus
(to s t a r t ) . 5. W hen I (to h e a r) his knock, I (to go) to the door
a n d (to open) it but I (not to recognize) him a t first, because
I (not to w e a r) my g lasses. 6. S u d d en ly he (to realize) th a t
he (to trav e l) in the w ro n g direction. 7. M a r g a r e t w a s v ery
e x tra v a g a n t, she a lw a y s (to buy) h erself new clothes.
8. Why you (to in te rru p t) me? I (to have) an a m u s in g c o n
versatio n with Dick. 9. W hen i (to come) to his studio, he
(to paint) the p o rtra it of his wife. You (to like) it? He
only j u s t (to s t a r t ) w hen I (to see) it, so I could n ot j u d g e .
10. As we (to w alk ) a lo n g the ro a d we (to h e a r) a c a r com
ing from behind. Tom (to t u r n ) ro und an d (to hold up) his
h and. The c a r (to s t o p ) . 11. W hen I (to a rrive) a t the m eeting
the first s p ea k er had j u s t finished sp eakin g a n d th e audience
(to c lap ).
22. Replace the time in d ic a to rs by those given in b ra ck e ts , c h a n g e the form
of the verb a c c o rd in g ly a n d m a k e other nece ssa ry ch an g e s.

1. It ra ine d y esterd ay (now, all day lo n g y esterd ay, at

this time y esterd ay , to m o rro w , say s the w e a th e r forecast,
w hen we left home, all the time while we v/ere w o rk in g in the
g a r d e n ) . 2. Jo h n re g u la rly w rites le tters to his p a r e n ts (s e l
dom, the day before y este rd a y , to night, w hen we called on
him last night, a t p re sent, n e v e r). 3. Philip s tayed with his
friends d u rin g his v ac a tio n s (when he v/as in M oscow, w h e n
ever he comes to M oscow, for the time being, still, no
longer he lives in the s t u d e n t s hostel). 4. M rs. S t u a r t is
go ing sh opping tod ay (on S a tu r d a y s , after her children
re turned from school, while her children h ad c lasse s, a s soon
as she finished doing the ro o m ). 5. The family will be w a tc h
ing TV when I come hom e (the whole evening, from 7 till 10,
afte r dinner, every night, still). 6. P ro fe sso r C la rk will be
giving a ta lk on G reek s c u lp tu re at the sam e time next week
( a t the s am e time la st week, la s t M onday, next F riday, from
9 till 11 a. m., w hen the te rm is over, already, w hen we e n
tered the lecture h all, a t this very m o m en t).
23. Make up se n tenc es out of the p a r t s in c o lu m n s w ith out c h a n g i n g the
f orm of the ve rb.
I a r e m oving into the once in a while
The G r a n t s new flat y e s te rd a y
Jo h n w a s j u s t unlocking w hen I s a w him
O liver a n d M a the door next m onth
riam w a s w e a rin g her new at a q u a r te r to six
O ur cat boots w hen you re tu r n
The s tu d e n ts w ent to the s am e w hen the n u rs e
The doctor school en tered the w a r d
The w a tc h s h all be still w o rking when the bell r a n g
C hristin e stopped at the a g e of ten
The little boy w ere w ritin g a d ic ta all day long
The driver tion w hen we switched
The old w om an catches mice on the w ireless
The p h o to g r a w a s ex am inin g the the m om ent the
pher patient en gine died
Tom ju m p e d o u t of the c a r w hen a boy
P ro fe s s o r Sm ith w a s kn itting (k n it when a n o th er c a r
My family ted) stopped near him
G r a n d f a th e r w a s not sleeping yet in s u m m e r
The y o u n g w o m will give a lecture on when the client
an Im pre ssio nists m a d e a new o r
The driver s ta y in the co untry der
w a s constantly lau g h to m o rro w
ing a t his friends a lw a y s
w a s looking th ro u g h w hen we get hom e
the sn a p s h o ts
w a s oiling his c a r
will be still w ork ing
in the g a rd e n
is c o m p lain in g of her
poor h ea lth
24. Explain the difference in m eaning (if a n y ) between the continuous and
indefinite form s in the follo w in g sets of sentences. T ranslate the sen
tences choosing a su itab le asp ect in R ussian (se e 1 f f ) .

1. a) After su pp er I v/orked till m idnight, h a d a sh o rt

w a lk in the g a r d e n a n d w en t to bed. b) I w a s still w ork in g a t
m idnight, so you could ce rta in ly rin g me up. 2. a) W h a t do
you think we o u g h t to do u n d e r the circum sta n ces? b) W h a t
a re you thin k in g abo ut? You a re so ab sent-m in ded . 3. a) I am
g r a d u a l l y fo rg e ttin g all the F rench I ever le a r n t a t the insti
tute. b) I a lw a y s fo rg e t (a m fo rg ettin g ) your telephone
num ber. Will you w rite it dow n for me, please? ) I forg ot to
look up the w o rd s in the dictionary, so I c a n n o t tr a n s l a t e
these sentences. 4. I w a s j u s t sm ellin g your roses. D o n t they
72
smell w on derfu l? 5. a) I see you have got a new b a g . b) I m
seeing him later this week, c) Now t h a t my eyes a re g e ttin g
used to the dark, Im s e e in g thin gs a bit m ore clearly. 6. a)
The g a r d e n will look at its b e st in April, b) You ca n find him
in the library tonight. He will be looking for books and e s
s ays for his g ra d u a tio n paper. 7. a) The m on um ent s ta n d s on
a hill overlooking the town, b) D o n t you realize you a re
s ta n d in g on my toe? 8. a) I a lw a y s m eet her a t the station:
she ta k e s the s am e tra in to tow n as I. b) W h a t a nuisance!
I am a lw a y s m eeting her a t the station an d she keeps on
as k in g a lot of e m b a r r a s s i n g questions. 9. a) Mr. P riestley
gives E nglish lessons every d ay from ten to twelve, b) I am
giving a lesson a t five o clock tom o rro w . The h o u r is fixed, c)
I shall be giving a lesson a t five o clock tom orro w . D o nt
call me a t th a t time. 10. a) It rained all day long yesterday.
So we h ad to postpone o u r trip, b) It w a s raining all day lon g
y esterday , so we h ad to postpone our trip. 11. a) You looked
very bu sy w hen I s aw you la s t night. W h at w ere you d o in g ?
I w o n t tell you. You are being too inquisitive. b) I w a s
looking for you in the th e a tre la st night. W here w ere you
sitting? (W here did you sit?) 12. a) I place a j a r over the
can dle an d afte r a few m o m en ts the w a te r g r a d u a l l y
rises, b) I am p lacin g the j a r over the candle. There! Can you
see w h a t is h ap penin g? The w a te r is g ra d u a lly rising. 13. a)
While S u s a n w a s sw eepin g the floor, M ag g ie w a s g etting the
dinner ready, b) While S u s a n sw ep t the floor, M a g g ie w a s
g ettin g the d in ner ready, c) While S u s a n w a s sw eeping the
floor, M a g g ie got the din ner ready, d) While S u s a n swept
the floor, M a g g ie got the d in ner ready. 14. a) I d o n i re
m em ber your a d d re s s , let me p ut it down, b) The p a rtic ip a n ts
of the p ro g r a m m e a re re m e m b e rin g the days of their child
hood. 15. a) I talk ed to J a c k last night. U n fo rtu n a te ly he
refused to help us. b) I w a s ta lk in g to Jac k la s t night. W h a t
an u n p le a s a n t person! ) I w a s ju s t talk in g to Ja c k . You
in terru p te d us. 16. a) This city h a s a population of 200,000.
b) Helen is h a v in g her m usic lesson. D o nt call on her
now. 17. a) The c o u rt is h e a rin g this p a r tic u la r p a r t of the
evidence in private, b) Do you h ea r the wind? It is b low ing
very s tro n g ly tonight, c) A re you listening to w h a t I am
saying? Did you hea r w h a t I s a i d ? Well, you said so m e
thing, but I w a s not really lis te n in g . 18. a) W hat were you
doing from eight till ten y e s te rd a y ? W ere you w a tc h in g TV?
b) We w a tc h ed TV from eight to nine, then a friend of mine
cam e to see me a n d we sw itched off the sot. 19. a) Can you
re tu rn me the book n o w ? I am afraid not. I w a s re a d in g it
73
yesterd ay but I still have a few c h a p te rs to read (also: I re ad
it y e s te r d a y ...) . b) C an you r e tu r n me the b oo k? Yes,
certainly. You m ay h av e it. I read it y e s te rd a y .
J5. A n s w e r the fo llo w in g qu e stio n s u s i n g the c o n tinu ous forms. The
p h r a s e s in b r a c k e ts m a y se rv e a s cues in the s u g g e s te d situations.

a) A t school. W h a t w ere the pupils doing when the

teach er entered the clas s ro o m ? (to check up ones hom ew ork,
to do o nes w ritten exercises hurriedly, to play a n d talk, to
w a tc h a TV te a c h in g film, to do an exercise in g r a m m a r , to
open (close) the w indow s, to look throu gh some books and
m ag a z in e s , to s ta n d a t the desks, to sit at ones desk, to m ake
a terrib le noise, to clean the b lack board, to write som ething
on the b lackbo ard , etc.).
The bell is rin g in g . W h a t are the teacher and the pupils
doing? (As fa r as I can see now the teacher is..., the pupils
are...) (to enter the c lassro o m , to sit down at o nes desks, to
w rite to d a y s d ate a t the top of the black board, to get the
textbooks and exercise-books out of the b ag s, to p u t the desks
in order, to switch on o nes ta p e record ers, to h a n g up a m ap
of E n g la n d , to open o n e s books, to h an d o ut the books for
a r e a d in g lesson, etc.).
b) A t the rea ding-room . W h a t were the s tu d e n ts doing in
the re a d in g -ro o m (lib rary ) w hen Anne entered? (to sit at the
ta b le s re adin g, to look t h r o u g h j o u r n a ls and n ew sp a p ers, to
look for books on the shelves, to w rite som ething out, to re ad
for ones exam inations, to t a l k with the librarian, to re tu rn
books to the lib raria n , to t a l k in a low voice, etc.).
c) A t the d o ctor's. G e o rg e entered the docto rs reception
room without knocking. W h a t w a s the doctor doing when
G e o rg e cam e in? (to exam ine a patient, to exam ine the p a
tie n ts lung s a n d h ea rt, to p rescrib e a medicine for a patient,
to give medicine to a p atient, to a sk the patient v a rio u s q u e s
tions, to discuss a case with a grou p of stud ents, to tell the
patien t to u n d re s s a n d lie dow n on the couch, to feel the
p a tie n ts pulse, to tak e the p a tie n ts tem p eratu re, to ask the
patien t how he w a s feeling, to write down som ething, to read
the m o rn in g paper, etc.).
d) A t the cafeteria. A nne a n d Joh n go to a cafeteria to
have lunch. W h a t a re they d o in g there? I see that... (to look
a t a m enu c a rd , to ta k e so m eth in g for lunch (e. g. boiled
m eat a n d potatoes, sm a s h e d potatoes, tom ato juice, veg e
tab le dish, fish a n d chips, fried egg s, ro a s t chicken), to c a rry
the t r a y with the dishes, to pay the cashier, to h ave som e
74
dessert, to enjoy o nes lunch, to h u rry to their office as the
b re a k for lunch is over, etc.).
26. M ake up a situation b a se d on the follow ing sentences, u s i n g indefinite
a n d co n tin u o u s forms. Use the p h r a s e s s u g g e s t e d in bra ck e ts.

1. We are h a v in g visitors to n ig h t (to do the room, to lay

the table, to sit down to table, to serve the visitors first, to
ha v e an in tere stin g talk, to hav e a d an c e). 2. Jo hn is leaving
for his v ac atio n to m o rro w (to pack ones things, to telephone
o n e s friends, not to be late for the tra in , not to forget ones
s p o rts clothes, etc.). 3. I m not w o rk in g very h a r d at the
m om ent (to have s p a re time, to tak e r e g u la r w a lk s, to w o rk
at o n e s course paper, to feel w eak after the flu, to re ad detec
tive stories, e t c . ) . 4. M a ry is being kind, isn t she? (to behave
differently, to be know n as a cruel person, to be a surp rise, to
expect such a ttitu d e of someone, to be in a n especially good
h um our, etc.) 5. Why d o n t you accept the offer? I think you
a re bein g ra th e r foolish (to think som ething over, to a r g u e
with someone, to have difficulty v/ith your studies, to accept
a p ropo sal, etc.).
27. Make up d ialo g u e s b a se d on the follow ing s itu a tio n s, u s i n g indefinite
a n d c ontinuo us form s. Use the p h ra s e s s u g g e s t e d in b ra ck e ts .

1. Ann and Helen are d iscu ssin g their p la n s for the c o m

ing holidays (to m o rro w , at this tim e tom orrow , at this v ery
time on M o nday, in two days, in two hours; to sit in the plane,
to tak e off, to land, to lie in the sun , to w a lk a lo n g the sea
shore, I w onder, to be precise, I suppose, to go sightseeing,
to bath e in the s e a ). 2. Bill a n d A ndrew are in M oscow on
a to u rist trip. They are d is cu ssin g their itinerary for their
first and second day (righ t afte r b re ak fa st, for tw o hours, a t
tw elve s h a rp , three h o u rs later, at five thirty p. m., in the
evening, after the excursion tom o rro w , this time to m o rro w ,
to m o rro w night; to sp en d the day, to arriv e a t the hotel, to
m eet with the guide, to le a r n the p ro g ra m , to w a lk a lo n g the
streets, to go sig h tse e in g ). 3. John B row n and his wife dis
cuss their d a y s work: they did the rooms, w a sh e d the car,
w orked in the g a r d e n (while you w ere sm oking, while...,
before lunch, a t seven a. m., when the po stm an came, in the
afternoon, before dark , from two till four, before it s ta r te d
raining ; to clean the room, to w a sh the dishes, to v a c u u m the
upholstery, to cut the dry tw ig s ).
*28. T r a n s l a t e the fo llo w in g se n ten c es into E ng lish u s in g Indefinite a n d
co n tin u o u s form s in the p r e s e n t tense.

75
 \

1. ? ?
, .
, ( ),
. 2. ! .
, .
, . 3.
, -
?! , . 4.
? , .
, .
. 5. , .
.
. 6.
? . .
. 7. !
,
. 8.
,
,
. 9. ? .
, , .
*29. T r a n s la te the follo w in g se ntenc es into E nglish u s i n g indefinite a n d
co n tin u o u s fo rm s in the re q u ire d tenses.

1. , ,
. ,
. 2.
,
. 3. ,
? 4. ,
, .
, :
5. ?
. 6.
. .
. 7.
.
, ,
. 8. , .
,
,
. .

. , ,
76
 . ?
, .
9. , . 10.
.
.

IN D EFIN ITE, CO N TIN U O U S, PER FEC T

AND P E R F E C T C O N T I N U O U S F O R M S

*30. Choose a su ita b le v e rb fr om those given in b ra c k e ts a n d fill in the

b l a n k s with the c o rre c t form.

1. a) The S can d in a v ia n sea -ro v ers ... pieces of u n in h a b

ited land to the south -w e st of G re e n la n d a long time before
C h risto pher C o lu m b u s discovered th e N ew W orld. They
... s e ttlem en ts which did not survive for long, b) Some time
after C olu m b u s discovered the islan d s called the W est Indies
the E u ro p e a n s ... t h a t they w e re not p a r t of India; they b o r
dered on a new, u n k n o w n continent, (to find, to found, to find
out) 2. a) Anne th rew herself flat on the sofa a n d ... m otion
less for some m inutes, b) The children ... the tab le and s a t
quietly w a itin g for th e dinner, c) The se c retary ... the doc
u m en ts out on the tab le for the com m ission to exam ine
them, d) The sec re ta ry ... the p a p e rs out on the tab le an d the
com m ission w ere ex a m in ing them when the telephone
ra n g , e) The fa th e r felt ce rtain t h a t the boy ..., b u t he had not
sto pped him: he did not w a n t to e m b a r r a s s him in the p re s
ence of s t r a n g e r s , th o u g h he knew it v/as a lie. f) Eliza ... in
bed for tw o weeks a n d w a s now too w eak to go out; as a
m a tte r of fact she could h a rd ly w alk, (to lie, to lay, to lie)
3. a) The old m a n ... his h at to greet all those present, b) The
p a s s e n g e r ... the heavy suitcase a n d w a s try in g to put it on
the u p p er shelf, c) T hat w a s real success. The sp e c ta to rs
... from their s e a ts an d clapped (were cla p p in g ) their h a n d s
s h o u tin g B r a v o , d) The b alloon ... high up in the air and
moved over the forest driven by the wind, (to rise, to raise)
31. D eterm ine the m e a n i n g of the p e rfect form s in t e r m s of the definitions
given in 16.

1. Will you h av e dinner v/ith u s ? No, th a n k you. I have

dined a l r e a d y . 2. I m et S a m in a nea rb y cafeteria an d to ld
him w h a t h a d hap p e n ed . 3. By the first of M ay the builders
h ad erected a s p e a k e r s tribu ne in the park. 4. The sec retary
h a s typed all the papers. You m a y hav e them. 5. H a v e you
ever been in the F a r E a s t? 6. I hav e ask ed Jo h n abou t his
77
p la n s for the su m m er m an y tim es b u t have received no defi
nite a n sw e r. 7. H a s the bell ru n g y e t? Yes, it has a lre a d y
r u n g b u t the lesson h as not yet s t a r t e d . 8. I am certain th a t
by 1986 G eorge will have p resented his thesis and will have
received a B achelors degree. 9. Anne h a s been ill for tw o
weeks now. You m ust help her with her studies. 10. They
could not cross the river b ec au se the w a te r h ad risen d u rin g
the night. 11. W e have know n the C oopers for only a s h o rt
while. 12. I m afraid I shall not see you in L en in g ra d . I sh all
have left by the time you arrive there. 13. The tra v e lle rs h a d
h a r d ly reached the forest w hen it g rew d ark .
*32. Use a perfe ct form in the re q u ire d tense choosin g a suitable v e rb from
the list.

to punish, to lose, to disobey, to break, to have, to miss, to

'receive, to borrow , to buy, to leave, to enter

I. You ... the d o cto rs o rd e rs an d I am afraid of the con se

quences. 2. The ticket-inspector fined her 2 s she ... her tra in
ticket. 3. Quick! The train ... by th e time you get to the statio n
if you d o n t hurry. 4. The boy ... severely ... because he ... the
w indow . 5. Anne ... my dictionary, t h a t s why today I am
w o rk in g in the library. 6. The teacher ... h a rd ly ... the c l a s s
room w hen the bell ra n g . 7. I ... a h ea d ach e since m orning,
I believe I am falling ill. 8. M other ... som e foodstuffs and is
cooking dinner. 9. I am afra id t h a t when he comes he will be
ann oyed th a t he ... you. 10. We ... no letters from David since
he left.
33. M a k s a lte rn a tiv e q uestion s f ro m the foHov/ing se ntenc es u s in g the
w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s given in b r a c k e ts .

1. O u r friends hav e b o u g h t a su m m er co ttag e n ear

a river, (to ren t) 2. I hav e never been in C en tral Asia,
(the F a r E ast) 3. Jo h n h a s left his textbook at home,
(his exercise-book) 4. The b ab y h a s h a d a high te m p e r a tu re
for several days, (only tod ay) 5. G eorg e h a s called on
A nn today, (to telephone) 6. You have h ad tw o F rench
lessons this week, (four lesso ns) 7. Sue spent the su m m er
on the sea shore to geth er w ith her sister, (all by herself)
8. You are m eeting Ann in the ca feteria in tw enty m inutes,
a r e n t you? (in the park ) 9. You have m et (seen) G e o rg e
only once this week, (m a n y times) 10. You look tired.
Evidently you h ave been w o rk in g h a r d the la s t few days,
(n o t to feel well)
78
34. D eterm in e the m e a n in g of the p a s t indefinite, p re s e n t p e rfect a n d p a s t
perfect in the following sentences. Account for the choice of the forms.

1. You have been a b r o a d ? ask ed M artin. 2. It w as six

m o n th s since she had been in the room. 3. The children a t
tem p ted to go in with her and only left h er w hen she h a d
given them each a penny. 4. Let me see. It is over ten y e a rs
since we s a w each other. 5. Mr. G o rd o n has tele g ra p h e d from
New York th at he will be here tonight. 6. Things have changed
a lot since my y o ung days. 7. He will not come here after
the w o rd s you have spoken. 8. I have come to offer my co n
g ra tu la tio n s . 9. I m erely cam e back to w a te r the roses.
I thou g h t yGU were with U ncle Jack. 10. He w ent u p s ta irs ,
a n d we w ere sewing, j u s t a s u s u a l, and we never h e a rd
anything. 11. I have a lw a y s said you are a w o nderful m an.
12. It w a s all very quiet a n d still. The sto rm h a d a lre a d y died
aw ay. 13. W hen he h ad recovered from the shock his sense of
h u m o u r re turned .

35. Use the verb in b r a c k e ts in the p a s t indefinite, p r e s e n t perfect o r p a s t

perfect. Account for the choice of the form .

1. P ro fe sso r B row n (to arrive) on M onday, b u t I (not to

see) him yet. 2. The doctor (to exam ine) six p a tie n ts by ten
o clock. 3. You (to find) your pen, the one you (to lose) y es
terd a y ? 4. I (not to see) the exhibition yet: it (to open) on
S u n d ay , b u t I (to be) very busy this week. 5. G e o rg e (to be)
in M oscow for about tw o weeks now. You (to see) him? 6. We
(to be) only three m inutes late b u t the p e rfo rm an c e (to
s t a r t ) already . 7. The travellers (to reach) the village when it
(to begin) to rain. 8. The com m ission (not to come to a conclu
sion) though they (to hold.) three m eetings. So far a s I know
they (to have) heated discussions an d (not to reach) an y
decisions at the m eetings. 9. You (to be) to Tbilisi? Yes,
I (to be) there last a u tu m n . I (to a tte n d ) a scientific c o n f e r
ence a n d (to w ork) as an in te rp re te r. 10. The m o ther (to
cook) dinner an d w a s v /aiting for the children, l i . I (to
finish) my w o rk and a m re a d y to go. And w hat ab o u t you?
You (to do) your h o m ew o rk an d a re you free to go?

36. P a r a p h r a s e the fo llow ing s t a t e m e n t s u s i n g the p re s e n t pe rfect o r the

p a s t indefinite with tim e in d ic a to rs in tr o d u c e d by f o r , since , it is
... since .

Example: I la s t met him in M a y 1980. I have not m et him

since 1980. I h ave not m et him for four y ears.
79
 They cam e to M oscow in 1981. They h ave lived
there since. It is tw o y e a r s since they have been
living in Moscow.
I. I la s t went to the dentist two m onths ago. 2. The g irls
us a b o u t their p lan s for the su m m er in sp rin g bu t I d o n t
know w h a t they are really doing now. 3. When I last m et
George, he w a s a boy of eighteen. 4. The lesson sta rte d ten
m inutes ago. 5. I know him quite well. I m a d e his a c q u a in t
ance three y e a rs ago. 6. W e moved to o u r new flat in S ep
tember. 7. Ann fell ill in April. She is g e ttin g better now. *8.
i a m n o t su re I ll recognize him after these five years.
37. C o m ple te the fo llo w in g se n tenc es a d d i n g a p rincipal or a su b o r d i n a te
c la u se with a suitable form of the verb.

1. It w a s some time since... 2. They w e re still w a itin g

when... 3. ...after the teacher left (had left). 4. We h a d n t
been there for ten m inutes before... 5. The doctor h a d scarcely
exam ined the patient when... 6. ...since he re tu rn e d from his
expedition. 7. ...since we h ave been talking. L ets go home.
8. ...while we w ere d iscu ssin g the m atter. 9. ...as he s a t th in k
ing it over ag a in and again . 10. ...when the train arriv ed . 11.
He will a n s w e r your letter after... 12. ...till the lesson is over.
13. ...before you ask such silly questions. 13. ...as long as you
can. 14. ...as soon a s he com es to Moscow. 15. ...before he
(h a d ) told her the news. 16. ...until the c a r passed. 17.
...when the plane h a d a lre a d y taken off.
*38. T r a n s l a t e the follo w in g se nten c es into E ng lish p a y in g special a tte n tio n
to the use of the p r e se n t p erfe ct, p a s t perfect a n d p a s t indefinite.

1. ? .
. 2.
? . 3. ,
. 4. ,
. .
5. / .
.
. 6. ,
, . 7.
? , . 8.
. 9.
? .
. 10. ,
. 11. .
12. ?
80
 . 13.
. 14. ,
. 15.
, .
16. -. ,
? 17.
, .
, . 18.
,
. 19. .
? 20. .
,
.

39. Explain the difference betw een the m e a n i n g of the italicized form s in the
follo w in g s e t s of se ntences a n d t r a n s l a t e the sen ten ces into Ru ssian.

1. a) W hen our visitor arrived , my wife w as m a k in g tea.

b) When o u r visitor arriv ed, my wife m ade tea. c) When o u r
visitor arrived my wife had a lre a d y m a d e the tea. 2. a) W hen
she got hom e her p a r e n ts w ere h a v in g dinner, b) When she
got home, her p a r e n ts h a d a lre a d y d ined an d w ere w a tch in g
TV. c) W hen she got hom e she had dinner a n d w atched TV
for two ho u rs instead of doing her hom ew ork. 3. a) The floor
w a s covered with balls of wool: M rs. B row n w as k n ittin g
som ething, b) The floor w a s covered w ith b a lls of wool,
obviously M rs. B row n had been k n ittin g som ething. 4. a) As
he w a s g e ttin g into the bus, it sta r te d s u d den ly an d he fell
b a c k w a rd s on the ro ad, b) As he g o t into the bu s it sta rte d
su d d en ly an d he fell betw een the seats. 5. a) The m other had
cooked the lunch and w a s w a itin g for the children to com e
hom e from school, b) She cooked lunch a n d sa t dow n at the
w in do w to w a tc h the children co m in g back from school, c)
She h a d been s ittin g a t the v/indow for quite a while before
the children came. As soon a s she s a w th em she went to the
kitchen for the dishes. 6. a) No sooner h a d the p ro fessor
b eg u n to sp eak th an he w a s In terru pted by the a rriv al of
a g ro u p of stud ents. They h a d been detained a t the c lo a k
room. b) The professor h a d not yet begun to speak when
a n o th e r g ro u p of s tu d e n ts entered the hall. 7. a) C lare h a s
been w a sh in g the dishes since you h ave been m e n d in g y ou r
coat, b) C la re has been w a sh in g the dishes since you began
m e n d in g your coat. Who will be the first to finish? 8. a) P e te r
w o rked for two y ea rs at a factory after he had fin ish e d
school, b) P e te r w o rked tw o y e a rs a t a factory after he fin
81
ished school, ) Alter he fin ish e d school he w ork ed two y e a rs
at a factory an d then took his en tra n ce exa m ina tions to the
university. 9. a) Next m o nth o u r E nglish teac h er w ill h a v e
been w o rkin g at the in stitu te for twenty-five y ears, b) I am
sure th a t tw e n ty y e a rs fro m now she w ill still be w o rkin g
here, as active as ever.

40. Respond to the follo w in g s t a te m e n t s o r q u e stio n s u s i n g the p e rfect

f o rm s in the su itab le tense a n d aspect; a d d a time ind ic a to r if n e c e ssa ry .

Example: D o n t you know m y friend G e o rg e Thom pson?

C ertain ly not. (to m eet) I have never m et him.
1. All the p a v e m e n ts are w e t. Yes, (to r a i n ) .
2. There is an a m b u lan c e a t the door. I am afraid (to be
tak en i l l ) . 3. Your h a n d s a re filthy and your clothes are all
covered with p a in t. No v/onder, (to p a i n t ) . 4. I saw him
last M onday, he looked very tired . So he w ould (to c o m
plete the second volum e of his book, to w o rk on his b o o k ).
5. The m eat m u s t be n e a rly re a d y . Yes, I (to cook for
ne a rly an h o u r ) . 6. G e o rg e w ent to see a doctor y esterd ay
(to feel ill for quite a long tim e ). 7. There is no m ore ty p in g
p a p e r in the d r a w e r . No, we (to use u p ) . 8. W hy a re you
crying? Is a n y th in g the m a t t e r ? Nothing w hatsoever. I (to
cu t up o n io n s ). 9. I did not expect to find you here. Are you
feeling b e tte r ? Yes, I am feeling fine, t h a t s w hy we (to
change ones plans, to come h e r e ) . 10. He entered a n d
glanced a r o u n d . There w a s an u n com fortab le silence (to
in te rru p t a conv ersation, to talk ab o u t him ).

41. Com ple te the follo w in g se ntenc es a c c o rd in g to the e x a m p le s u s in g in

definite, co n tin u o u s, perfect a n d perfect co n tin u o u s form s.

Exam ple l a : I have packed my things...

I h ave packed m y thin gs and I am re ad y to go.
l b : ...I am re a d y to go.
I have packed m y things and I am re a d y to go.
1. The teach er h a s corrected o u r papers... 2. G e o rg e has
b ro u g h t som e in te re stin g books... 3. ...so we m u s t leave a t
once. 4. ..we a r e g oin g to w rite to them. 5. Now t h a t we
can re su m e o u r w ork. 6. I hav e not received an y letters from
John... 7. I h av e looked for m y pu rse everyw here... 8. ...she
looks w orried. 9. ...we a r e g oin g to visit the exhibition. 10.
M other h a s locked the door an d taken aw a y the key... 11.
...we a re w a itin g for him to re tu rn . 12. I have not seen M a r
g a r e t for quite a lon g time...
82
Exam ple 2a: Ann had finished her w ork an d w a s w a tc h in g
TV (when we ca m e ).
2b: ...was w a tc h in g TV.
Ann h a d finished her work an d w a s w a tc h
ing TV.
1. ...was re a d in g an article in the new spaper. 2. She h ad
opened the window... 3. ...and w a s sm oking a c ig arette on the
balcony. 4. He h ad rep aired his bicycle... 5. S u s a n h ad passe d
all her exam inations... 6. F a th e r h ad d ru n k his coffee...
7. ...Jack had w a sh e d his hands... 8. ...and w a s sta y in g w ith
his relatives.

Exam ple 3a: We h a d h a r d ly reached home {H ardly had we

reached hom e)...
We h a d h a r d ly reached home when it b eg a n to
rain.
3b: ...when the telephone ra n g .
I h a d h a r d ly (b arely) entered the room v/hen
the telephone ra n g .
1. ITardly h ad the visitors arrived... 2. We h a d h a r d ly
s ta r te d the discussion... 3. They h ad barely finished their
work... 4. No sooner h a d I left the house than... 5. ...when
a sto rm broke out. 6. ...than he s a w the note on the table.
7. ...when the tra in s ta rte d . 8. ...when the curtain rose and the
show beg an . 9. ...when the c a r stopped.
Exam ple 4a: She h a d been w ork in g as a doctor for
a year...
She had been w o rking as a doctor for a y ea r
v/hen I m et her.
4b: ...when I first met her.
She h ad been w o rk in g as a doctor for a yea r
w hen I first m et her.

1. We h a d been w a lk in g in the forest for several hours...

2. ...when the clock s tru c k twelve. 3. He h a d been sittin g on
the ban k for quite a lo n g while when... 4. I h ad been le a rn in g
G e rm a n for tw o y e a r s when... 5. ...when we realized t h a t it
w a s very late. 6. The p atie n t h a d been ill for tw o m o n th s
w hen at last... 7. The s e c re ta ry h a d been w o rk in g in the
office for tw o h o u rs when... 8. G eorge had been asleep for
h a lf a n hour...
*42. T r a n s la te the fo llo w in g se t s of sentences into E nglish a n d a c c o u n t for
y o u r choice of pe rfe c t a n d pe rfe c t c o n tinuo us forms.

83
 1. .
, . 2.
! ?
3. , .
, , .
, .
. 4. ,
. ,
.
. ,

.
, .
. 5.
.

, .
. 6.
. . ,
.
. 7.
, .
, ,
.
43. Use the a p p ro p ria te fo rm of the v e rb w ith each of the tim e indicators.

Jo h n (to write) letters (a letter to his p a r e n ts ) .

every week, a t the pre sen t m om ent, this week, when M a r y
en tered the room, a t tw o oclock y esterd ay, a t two o clock
to m o rro w , by two oclock, for an hour, still, already, .when
M a r y r e tu r n s home, till he left for school, before he left for
school, while M ary v/as cooking, as soon as he comes home,
a fte r he cam e home, from 10 till 12 y esterd ay

*44. T r a n s la te the follow ing se ts of se nten c es into E nglish p a y in g special

a tte n tio n to the fo rm s of the verb.

a) 1. . 2.
. . 3.
. 4. .
5. . 6.
. , b) 1.
. 2.
, . 3. ,
? 4.
84
. 5.
, . 6. ,
. 7.
, . 8.
,
, ) 1. .
. 2. .
. 3. .
. 4. . . 5.
. . .
6. . 7.
. 8.
. 9.
, . 10.
, . 11.
, . 12.
. ?

*45. T r a n s l a t e the follo w in g d ia lo g u e s into English. Explain the m e a n in g of

pe rfe c t a n d perfect c o n tin u o u s form s you used.

1
A. , !
?
B.
. .
A . , .
?
B . .
A . ...
, .
, ,
.
, , .
.
B. ,
. ! ?
.
A. !
, .

B. , . . ,
.
85
 2

. , ?
? ?
. .
.
. ? . , ...
?
. , . . ?
. , . ,
, . ?
- ?
. .
. , . ,
.
. , . , .
, .
, .

*46. T r a n s la te the following f r a g m e n t s into English a n d c o n tin u e to speak

on the s a m e subjects.

1.
. ,
.
,
. ,
.
? , ...
2.
.
. ,
. ,
, .
, ,
... , , ,
... 3.
.
, .
.

... 4. , ,

. ,
, ,
86
 .
, ,
...
47. Account for the use of the italicized fo rm s a n d retell th e stories.

1. Insufficient Local Knowledge

A L ondoner who w a s g o in g to the W est of E n g la n d for

a holiday arrived by train a t a town, and found th at it w as
p o u rin g with rain.
He called a p o rter to c a r r y his b a g s to a taxi. O n the w a y
out of the station, p a r tly to m ake co nversation an d p a rtly to
get a local opinion on pro sp ects of w e ath er for his holiday, he
asked the porter:
How long has it been raining like th is?
1 d o n t know, sir, I ve o n ly been here for. fifteen y e a r s ,
w a s the reply.

2. M uch M ore Difficult

A fam ous doctor w as p ro te stin g to the ow n e r of a g a

r a g e abo u t the larg e su m of money he h ad to pay for re p airs
to his car.
All this for a couple of h o u rs w o rk , he exclaimed.
Why, you people a re p aid a t a higher ra te th a n we a r e .
Well, you see, replied the g a r a g e m an, y o u oe been
w o rkin g on the s am e m odel since the beg inn ing of time, b u t
we have to learn all a b o u t a new m odel every y e a r .

3. S ellin g a n E lephant

A m e rc h a n t w a s s e llin g a larg e elephant. A m an cam e up

to the e le p h a n t an d beg a n to examine it very carefully. The
m e rc h a n t w e n t up to him an d w hispered in his ear:
D o nt s a y an y th in g a b o u t the elephant till I ve sold it
a n d I'll m ak e you a p r e s e n t .
All r ig h t, said th e m an .
After the ele p h a n t h a d been sold, the m e rc h a n t g a v e him
one-tenth of the price he h a d g o t for it, saying:
Now, will you tell m e how you found o ut th at blem ish on
the left fore leg of the elep h a n t? I th ou g h t it w as quite h id
d e n .
I never fo u n d an y b lem ish, said the m a n .
87
 Then why did you look so carefully at every p a r t of the
e le p h a n t?
B ecause I'd never seen one before, and w a n te d to know
w h a t they w ere like.

4. Raleigh a n d his S ervant

Sir W a lte r Raleigh b ro u g h t home from A m erica to E n g

l a n d two im p o rta n t p l a n t s the potato a n d the tobacco
plant. He w a s probably the first m a n in E n g la n d to smoke.
It is said th at one evening, when he w a s sittin g in his
study, sm oking a pipe, his s e rv a n t cam e in with a letter. This
m an had n ever seen anyone sm oke a n d he th o u g h t th a t his
m a s te r w a s on fire. So he dropped his letter and ran o ut of
the s tu d y crying:
My m a s te r is on fire. The smoke is b u rs tin g out of his
nose and m o u th .
Then he quickly w ent back into the stu d y with a pail of
w a te r a n d th rew it all over his m aster, before R aleigh had
time to explain w h a t had happened.
48. A ccount for the use of c o n tin u o u s a n d perfect form s in the following'
e xtra ct. W rite out a ll the v e r b s in the form s u se d a n d retell the
e x tr a c t u sin g the s a m e form s.

She w a s sittin g on the v e r a n d a h w aiting for her h u s b a n d

to come in for luncheon. The M a la y boy had d ra w n the blinds
when the m o rn in g lost its freshness, but she h a d p a r tly
raised one of them so th a t she could look at the river. U n d e r
the b re a th le ss sun of m id day it had the white p allo r of death.
A native w a s p a d d lin g a lo n g in a du g-ou t so sm all th a t it
h a rd ly show ed above the s u rfa c e of the w ater. The cica d as
s a n g their g r a ti n g so n g w ith a frenzied energy: it w a s as
continual and m ono ton ous as the ru stlin g of a brook over the
stones: but on a su d d en it w a s d row ned by the loud s in g in g
of a bird, m ellifluous a n d rich; a n d for an in stan t, with a
catch at her hea rt, she th o u g h t of the English b lackbird.
Then she h e a rd her h u s b a n d s step on the gra v el p a th
behind the b u n g a lo w , the p a th th a t led to the cou rt-h ou se in
v/hich he h ad been w o rking, and she rose from her chair to
greet him. He ra n up the s h o r t flight of steps, for the b u n
galo w w a s built on piles, and a t the door the boy w a s w a itin g
to take his sun-helm et. He c a m e into the room which served
them as dining-room an d p a rlo u r, and his eyes lit up with
p leasu re a s lie s a w her.
88
 H ulloa, Doris. H u n g ry ?
R avenous.
I t ll only tak e me a m in u te to have a b ath and then I m
ready.
He d isappeared into his d re s sin g -ro o m and she h e a rd him
w h istlin g cheerly while, with the c a re le ss n e s s with which she
w a s a lw a y s re m o n s tra tin g , he tore off his clothes and flun g
them on the floor. He w a s tw enty-nine, bu t he w as still a
schoolboy; he w ould never g ro w up. T hat w a s why she h ad
fallen in love with him, p erh a p s , for no am o u n t of affection
could p e rs u a d e her th at he w a s good-looking. He w a s a little
ro u n d m an, with a red face like the full moon, and blue eyes.
She h a d exam ined him carefu lly a n d h ad been forced to
confess to him th a t he had not a single feature which she
could praise. She had told him often th a t he w a s n t her type
a t all.
I never said I w a s a beauty, he laughed.
- I c a n t think w h a t it is I see in you.
B u t of course she knew perfectly well. He w as a gay, jolly
little m an who took n othing very solem nly, and he w a s con
s t a n t l y laug hing. He m ade her la u g h too. He found life a n
a m u s in g r a th e r th an a serious business, an d he h ad a c h a r m
ing smile. W hen she w a s v/ith him she felt happy a n d good-
tem pered.
It w a s h a r d to realize th a t nine m o n th s ago she h ad never
even h e a rd of him. She h a d m et him at a s m all place by the
seaside w here she w a s s p e n d in g a m o n th s holiday with her
m other. D oris w a s sec re ta ry to a m em b er of parliam ent. G uy
w a s home on leave. They w ere s ta y in g a t the s am e hotel, an d
he quickly told her all abou t himself. He w a s b o rn in Sem-
bulu, w h ere his father h a d served for thirty y e a rs u nder the
second S u lta n , a n d on leaving school he had entered the
sam e service. He w a s devoted to the country.
After all, E n g la n d is foreign land to m e, he told her.
M y hom e is Sem bulu.
And now it w a s her hom e too. He asked her to m a rry him
a t the end of the m o n th s holiday. She had known he w a s
going to, and had decided to refuse him. She w a s her w id
ow ed m o th e rs only child an d she could not go so far a w a y
from her, but when the m o m en t cam e she did not quite know
w h a t h app ened to her, she w a s carried off her feet by an
unexpected emotion, a n d she accepted him. They h ad been
settled now for four m o n th s in the little out-statio n of which
he w a s in ch a rg e. She w a s very happy.

89
 She told him once th a t she h a d quite m ade up her mind to
refu se him.
Are you s o rry you d id n t? he asked, with a m erry
sm ile in his tw in k lin g blue eyes.
I should have been a perfect fool if I had. W h a t a bit of
luck th at fate or chance o r w h a te v e r it v/as stepped in an d
took the m a tte r entirely out of my hands!... (After
W. S. M a u g h a m )

SEQUENCE OF T E N SE S AND REPORTED SPEECH

49. T u rn the follo w in g sentences into re porte d speech: a ) u sin g the p r e s e n t

ten se of the verb in the prin cip al clause; b ) u sin g the p a s t tense in the
principal c lause, a n d m a k i n g o th e r n e c e ssa ry chan ges.
Use the fo llow ing v e r b s to i n tro d u c e sta te m e n ts: to s a y , to t e li , to
a d m i t , to d e c l a r e , to a n n o u n c e , to s t a te , to explain", to d e n y ,
to claim , to p ro m is e", to w h isp e r , to b o a st , to s h o u t ; to in tr o
du ce c o m m a n d s an d r e q u e s ts use to o r d e r , to a sk , to teli, to
b e g , to c o m m a n d .

Exam ple I: I like cycling. a) P eter say s th a t he likes

cycling, b) P e te r said t h a t he liked cycling.
Exam ple 2: W rite down my a d d r e s s . a) Ann a s k s m e to
w rite down her ad dress. r: Ann is askin g me
to v/rite dow n her ad dress, b) Ann asked me to
w rite down her address.

1. I have seen m a n y good films d u rin g the fes

tival. 2. We s h all finish the v/ork in a few days. 3. I w o n t
let you go w itho ut b re ak fa st. 4. You dont realize t h a t you
h av e offended me. 5. I h ave been expecting you all this time.
I am g lad you hav e come a t last. 6. We were ju s t spea k in g
ab o u t you. 7. I d o n t sp ea k G e rm a n but I can read G e rm a n
books with a dictionary. 8. This m o n th I have m issed six
lessons of phonetics. 9. W e are no w le a rn in g French as
a second foreign la n g u a g e . 10. I shall do the room while
you a re cooking lunch. 11. D o n t interru p t me. Let me finish
m y story. 12. P o s t this lette r for me, will you? 13. D o n t
a s k me any questions, I s h a ll tell you everythin g a little
later. 14. You a re a lw a y s g ru m b lin g over trifling m a t
ters. 15. is her p a r e n t s who m a d e her this w onderful
p resent. 16. I am w ritin g my course paper at present. I have
no t yet finished.

50. C h a n g e the follow ing d irect q ue stions into indirect a c c o rd in g to the

e xam ples. A n s w e r the q u e stion s a n d re p o rt the a n sw e rs. Mind the p r o
n o u n s a n d the w o r d o rd e r.

90
Exam ple: W h at do you usu ally do on S u n d a y s in w inter?
S ally, ask P eter w h a t he u su a lly does on S u n d a y s
in winter.
S a lly : Peter, can you tell me w h a t you u s u a lly do
on S u n d a y s in w inter?
P eter: U s u a lly I go sk a tin g o r skiing.
S a lly : P e te r s a y s th a t he goes s k a tin g or skiing.
S ally asked P eter w h a t he usu ally did on S u n d a y s
in winter. He a n s w e re d th a t he u su ally went
skiing or skating .
1. Are there any new houses in your street? 2. W ho
w a s h e s up the dishes in you r family? 3. H ave you an Eng-
lish-R ussian dictionary? 4. Is there e nough ink in your fo u n
tain-pen? 5. How m any larg e lakes are there in G re a t B r i t
ain? 6. W here do you put your scissors? I c a n t find
them . 7. Do you play the g u ita r? I s a w one h a n g i n g in y o ur
room. 8. H ave you inform ed the group a b o u t the time of the
lecture? 9. C an you lend me your u m b rella? I have left mine
a t my s is te rs. iO. H ave you been w a itin g for me
long? 11. When did you finish school? 12. How did you
m a n a g e to repair your a p a rtm e n t so quickly? Did anyone
help you? 13. Did Sidney see off his sister y e s te r
day? 14. Did you m eet D avid in Yalta? I believe you stayed
a t the sa m e hotel. 15. W h a t do you think we shall be doing
a t this time next year? 16. I m issed the lecture in E nglish
lite ratu re the day before y esterday . Will you show me y o u r
notes? 17. In abo ut a m on th the bridge will be com pleted.
Will the road to the station be any sh orter? 18. W hy are you
so often late for classes? 19. Do you often v/ork in the l a n
guage la b o ra to ry or do yGU prefer w ork in g at
home? 20. Who is the best s tu d e n t in you r group? 21. W hen
did you last go to the th e atre? 22. Are you fond of classical
music? 23. You are not feeling well, are you? Why d on t you
co nsult a doctor? 24. H a s it been rain ing all day? The g r a s s
is all wet. 25. Were you ta k in g a bath? I knew you
w ere at home but you did not h e a r the telephone ring,
did you?

55. C h a n g e the foilo w in g s t a te m e n t s into q uestio ns, a n s w e r the questions

a n d re p o rt the question s a n d a n s w e r s in indirect speech.

Example: I don t read books in the tra m . I read n ew spap ers.

W h at did A. s a y he re ad in the t r a m ? '
He said he d id n t read books. He read n e w s
papers.
91
 1. I d o n t listen to the radio in the m orning. I listen to it in
the evening. 2. I d o n t go to the office on foot, u su ally I ta k e
the u n d e r g ro u n d to get there. 3. I d ont like to play football,
I like to p lay hockey. 4. I d o n t get up ea rly on S u n d ay s.
I get up at 10 or thereabout. 5. I dont like to w rite letters,
I prefer to type them. 6. I d o n t go home by bus, I tak e the
u n d e rg ro u n d . 7. 1 do nt stay in town over the week-end. I go
to the country. 8. I d on t like skating, I like skiing.

52. Ask one a n o th e r q ue stions a b o u t y o u r daily activities u s i n g the c u es

below. A n s w e r the q u e stions a n d re p o rt the questio ns a n d a n s w e r s in
in direct speech.

Exam ple: to w ake up

A. W h a t time do you w ake up?
B. I w ake up at seven oclock.
C. A. asked B. w h a t time he woke up. B. a n
sw ered th a t he woke up at seven o clock.

to take a shower, to comb o nes hair, to shave, to d ress, to

cook bre ak fa st, to w a sh the dishes after b re a k fa st, to go to
the institute, to ta k e the b u s (tram , u n d e rg ro u n d , tax i), to
leave home, to have c la s se s from... till..., to have an interval
for lunch, to w ork in the re ading-room , to go for a w alk, to go
to the sk a tin g -rin k (sw im m ing-pool, cinema, t h e a tr e ) , to go
to bed

53. T urn the follo w in g q u e stio n s a n d s t a te m e n ts into indirect speech. Mind

th e choice of the a u x ilia r y v e r b with different p rono uns.

Example: A. S hall we h e a r from you soon?

B. W h a t did you say?
A. I asked you if we sh o u ld h ea r from you
soon.
C. A. ask e d B. if th ey w ould h ea r from him
soon.
1. I sh all not be ab le to come tom orrow . 2. Will you be
w o rk in g late in the office this evening? 3. We shall n ev e r
get there before d a r k a t the ra te we are w alking. 4. S hall we
know the re s u lts of the experim ent soon? 5. We s h ali be
m a k in g an e a rly s t a r t to m o rro w m orning,-so we m u s t n t be
late to bed. 6. W hen do you think we shall s ta rt?

*54. Use the a p p r o p ri a te fo r m of the verb in brackets. Reproduce the d i a

lo gues in indirect speech w ith the re p o rtin g verb in the p a s t tense (see
list of v e rb s in Ex. 48).

92
 1

S h e: H a n d so m e m en (to be) alw a y s conceited.

He: Not alw ays. I (not to be).

P atient: Doctor, I (to be) so nervous. This (to be) m y first

operation.
S u rg eo n : I (to know ) how you (to feel). You (toi>e) my first
patient.

M other: Go an d w ash. All people (to w a sh ) in the m orning.

L ittle Johnny: Not all. J a c k (not to do).

M ary: W h a t y o u r sister (to do) every evening?

S u sa n : She (to play) the violin!
M ary: So it is she who (to play) it so well.
S u s a n : Ask o u r neig h b o u rs w h a t they (to think) of her art.

E m ployee: Why Mr. M o rto n (to m a rry ) his secretary ?

A n o th e r em ployee: E vidently he (to think) he (to keep on)
d ictatin g to her.

M an: I (not to know ) w h a t to do with my son. He (to be) so

unreliable.
Friend: G et him a job in the m eteorological d ep artm ent. I (to
be su re) the job (to suit) him.

Father: I (to prom ise) to buy you a car, if you (to p a s s) y o u r

exarns, b u t you (to fail). W h a t you (to do) la s t te rm ?
Son: I (to le a rn ) to drive a car.
93
 8

S h e: I h ear, you (to be) a g r e a t artist.

He: I hope to be. I only j u s t (to s t a r t ) .
S h e: W h a t you (to do)?
He: Well, I (to live) in a studio a n d (to grow ) a beard.

M o th er: T hom as, w h a t (to be) the m a tte r with your brother?
T h o m a s: He (to cry ), b ecause I (to ea t) my cake a n d (not to
give) him any.
M other: ... his own cake (to be finished)?
Thom as: Yes, a n d he (to cry) while I (to eat) that, too.

10
U ncle Bob: Well, F rankie, w h a t you (to d o /to be going to
do) this vacation?
F rankie: L a s t year 1 (to have) m um ps and chicken-pox. This
y ea r I (not to know) w h a t I (to be going to do).

M other: Jessie, I (to tell) you ag ain and ag a in not to speak

w hen older people (to talk) b u t w ait till they (to stop ).
Jessie: I (to try) th a t alre ady , m am m a. They never do stop.

12

M o ther: H erbert, is it possible th a t you (to teach) the p a r ro t

to use sla n g ?
H erbert: No, m am m a, I w a s j u s t (to tell) him w hat not to
say.

55. A ccount for the use of the italicized form s a n d c om m e nt on the sequence
of ten s es o r its violation (see 20).

1. We took o u r u m b rellas, because we w ere afraid it

w o u ld ra in , for the b a ro m e te r h ad been falling for som e
time. 2. He refused to ta k e money as he co u ld n t give an y
g u a r a n t e e th a t the tre a tm e n t w o u ld help. 3. Did I re ally
believe th a t I w o u ld die when thinking sto p p ed ? 4. S o m e
w h ere in her h ea d or h e a r t w a s the lazy nebulous hope th a t
th in g s w o u ld change. 5. He told me t h a t w h a t you d id n t
94
know of w h a t goes on in St. M a ry M ead isn t w o rth k n o w
ing. 6. I found th at he d id not seem to be ta k in g in w h a t
I w as sa yin g . 7. H a r r is said th a t he co u ld n t help fe e lin g
that, to a certain extent, he h a d becom e u n p o p u lar. 8. The
Prim e M inister announced yesterday th at the G en eral E lec
tion w ill ta ke place on April 15. 9. We took it for g ra n te d
Y d go in fo r law. 10. He m en tally checked over the list of
celebrities who w o u ld be a rriv in g in Athens before n i g h t
fall. 11. He asked w hen I w as le a v in g the Kelseys. 12. The
question rem inded him of so m eth ing which happened y e a r s
before w hen he once visited the C a n a d ia n city of V a n
couver. 13. They k new im m ediately w hat had happened th a t
October m o rn in g in 1968 v/hen an Arm y m an showed up at
the door of their w o rn fram e house. 14. She w a s stiil b l a m
ing herself for v/hat had happened for not g o in g to the
doctor im m ediately when they h a d retu rn ed to the is
land. 15. F ro m a d is ta n t d ra w e r she b ro u g h t a w a rm je rse y
an d put it into her suit-case. She w o u ld need th a t w here she
w as g o in g . B ut w here w as she g o in g ? 16. E v e ry th in g seemed
m arv e llo u sly beautiful. At th e th o u g h t t h a t he w o u ld soon
be le a v in g all this b e a u ty he felt a m o m en tary pang, b u t
com forted himself by recollecting how decisively he w a s
acting. 17. He said th a t w hen he had d ried him self w ith
a towel, he w o u ld g et d re sse d . 18. I came to tell you t h a t
S oam es has been to see me. 19. You were told th a t the e a r t h
goes ro u n d the sun, an d the moon g o es rou nd the
earth. 20. I v/as j u s t s a y in g th a t all of us here h a ve heard of
your h u s b a n d , but no one yet h as seen him.

*56. T r a n s la te the follow ing s e n te n c e s into English o b se rv in g the se quence

of tenses a n d the r a le s of p r e s e n t i n g rep orted speech.

1. , , . 2.
, .
. . 3. ,
, ,
. , .
4. , ? ,
. '
. 5. ,
,
. 6. , .
,
, . 7.
, .
95
 . ,
. 8. .
, . ,

, . 9.
, , .
, ,
. , , ?
10. ,
. , ,
, ,
. 11.
,
.
.
57. W h at forms of the v e rb s w ould you use in English to render the m e a n in g
of R u ssia n verbs in the follow ing text? Nam e the form s w itho ut t r a n s
l a t i n g the text.

( )

. ,
, ,
-6 .
, ,
. -
,
,
.
,
. ,
.
. ,
,
,
, .
, , ,
,

. .
.
. .
, ,
96
, .
. .
:
. .
- .
.
. ,
,
.

. .
.

, 38
,

.
,
.
,
.

T H E P A S S I V E VO ICE

58. Determ in e to w h a t object of the active c o n structio ns the sub je cts of the
follow ing passive sentences c o rre sp ond . Analyse the form s of the verbs.
T r a n s la te the sentences into R ussia n.

1. G eorge w a s invited to spend the m onth of A u g u s t in

Crome. 2. Everybody has been ta u g h t th at J a m e s W a tt one
day w ent into the kitchen where ca b b a g e w a s being cooked
a n d sa w the lid of the s a u c e p a n rise and fall. Now let m e
think , he m u rm u re d . Then he s tru ck his forehead an d the
s team engine w a s discovered. 3. After a few routine q u e s
tions had been asked a n d a n s w e re d Dr. Lord leant back in
his chair a n d sm iled a t his patient. 4. We have been given to
u n d e r s ta n d th a t som e day we shall be well-to-do. O u r co n
duct h a s n a tu r a lly been influenced by th a t fa c t, said Roddy.
5. He craned over the o p e r a t o r s sh oulder try in g to read the
w o rd s as they were being po un ded on to the sheet of paper in
the typewriter. 6. Tell them th a t all altitud es below a re
being cleared and th a t they ll be advised of lan d in g in
structio ns la t e r , said the controller. 7. At luncheon it w a s
noticed that the sisters ate a little m ore than usual. 8. I re a d
in the paper a few w eeks ago th a t Richards h ad been m a d e
4 11 97
a vice-president and director of P a n a m e ric a steel. 9. She
knew where he h a d been h ea rd of, spoken of, seen, but she
never met him ag a in . 10. M ary , the ideal maid, w a s m issing!
Her bed had not been slept in a n d the front door w a s found
a j a r she had slipped quietly d u rin g the night. 11. His c a r
v/as closely followed by an o th e r car con tainin g detectives in
plain clothes, said Lord E stair. 12. The letter w a s h a n d e d to
Lord H enry on the day of his d ep a rtu re . 13. I am su re her
conduct is disap p ro v e d of by everybody, said M rs. Bright.
14. A chair w a s b ro u g h t him from the tent. 15. We h ave been
given some other jo u r n a l s to read. 16. Their behaviour w a s
so o u tra g e o u s t h a t we w ere forced to leave the h ou se, said
the colonel.

59. W rite o u t the se n te n c e s in w hich th e com bination to g e t Jr a p a s t

p a rticip le h a s a p a ssiv e m ea n in g .

i. They got in ju re d in a ro a d accident. 2. W hen did they

get m a rrie d ? 3. He got fined becau se he crossed the street
v/hen the red light w a s on. 4. R o ger got re prim an ded for
com ing late. 5. S u s a n got in terested in archeology when she
w a s in Egypt. 6 . H e r best d re s s go t to rn yesterd ay she
v/as very u pset a b o u t it. 7. The child got lost in the crow d.
8 . He got expelled from the university for cheating a t the
exam inations. 9. t i e told lies, b u t finally he got ca ug ht. 10.
C h a rle s could not get ac cu sto m ed to g oing to bed e a rly for
a lon g time. 11. The boy got frightened a t the sight of the dog.
12. Once he n ea rly got ru n over in this street. 13. When
Tom m y w a s still o u t at m idnight, she got w orried. 14. People
get annoyed when they are asked the sam e question several
times. 15. I get called for, he said, when there is a big
d e a l.
60. C h a n g e the follo w in g se n ten c es into the p a ssiv e voice u sin g the Italicized
w o rd s a s the g ra m m a tic a l su b je c t. U se a b y -p h rase w h ere in d icated .

1. They g u a r d e d th e secret well. 2. They extinguished the

lig h t im m ediately a n d then they slowly opened the door.
3. M rs. H a stin g s is s u b le ttin g the fla t a t eighty pounds, (by)
4. The c a re ta k e r show ed them all over the house, (by)
5. I am s u re som ebody is w a tc h in g the h o u se, said Poirot.
6 He h a s lost the briefcase," S repeated. 7. Do you know
t h a t M rs. R idgew ay h a s offered the co tta g e for sale? (by)
8 They knew th a t the authorities had e n tru ste d him with
sim ilar missions in the past. 9. Finally Mr. S h aw politely
bowed us out. (by) 10. When v/e arrived, they were still
S8
discussing the question. 11. Mr. G reen will take c a re of e v e
ryth in g . (by) 12. He w a s offended because they took no
notice of him . 13. He w a s s u re the p irates h a d hidden the
treasure on the island, (by) 14. H is p a r e n ts give him no
pocket money, (by) 15. The la n d la d y will a s k you no q u e s
tions. (by) 16. The discovery h a s aroused the g rea tes tin te re st.
(by) 17. He did not give a n y d eta ils in his report. 18. I h ave
j u s t sent a te le g ra m m e to them . 19. The m a id s e rv a n t in
formed h im (by) th a t M iss M a rp le w a s not a t home. 20. The
patient com plains th a t you have allow ed the co m p ress to get
quite dry. 21. E liza's lo n g absen ce a la rm e d P ro fesso r H ig
gins. (by) 22. His s h o rt neck distressed M r. B a rb e c u e -S m iih
in his eariier m iddle a g e (b y ), b ut then he learned th a t the
sam e peculiarity h ad m ark e d all the w o rld s g r e a t men. (by)
23. In E n g la n d if you do not repeat the p h ra s e Lovely day,
isnt it? a t least tw o h u n d re d times a day, people consider
you a bit dull. 24. He sighed so comically th a t this forced m e
to laugh. 25. We a re not s u r e , he said into the m icrophone,
but we think th at the fish served on b oard a t dinner h a s
caused the p o iso n in g . (by) 26. Doctor R oss h a s n t o p e r
ated on the p a tien t y et, (by) said the nurse. 27. They will
deal with the p ro b lem in due time. 28. They th o u g h t of a b ril
liant p la n to save A rth u r. 29. All the soldiers looked on him
(by) as their son. 30. D o n t you u n d e r s ta n d th a t they m ake
fun of y o u ? 31. The fam ily sen t for M ary if som ething w a s
w rong . 32. He w a s co m m en tin g on the in tern a tio n a l situ a
tion, when I entered the lecture hall.

61. C h an g e the fo llow ing se n ten c es in to the p a ssiv e voice w h e rev e r p e rm is

sible.

1. The m isfortune c h a n g e d M rs G r a y s a p p e ara n ce o v e r

night. 2. His g ra n d m o th e r alw ay s wore her hair in a bun.
3. Everybody considers N a n cy charm ing. 4. A soft sm ile
som etim es softens his s te rn features. 5. Anne h ad d a r k hair
an d blue eyes. 6 . He painted the picture several y e a rs ago.
7. A black spaniel w a s follow ing the old m a n : 8 . B a r b a r a cut
her finger yesterday. 9. We shall meet Jac k a t the a i r p o r t 10.
W hen I w ent out on the porch, the girl w a s w a v in g her h a n d
to somebody. 11. The J a c k s o n s have invited a lot of people to
their g a rd e n party. 12. They a re looking for a m an in a b ro w n
suit. 13. Doctor B rad y h a s m a d e an in teresting rep ort today.
14. P a m e la w o n t show us h er novel. 15. S u s a n h as alread y
told them the news. 16. H e wiped his face on the towel. 17.
I have done the w o rk unw illingly. 18. A m an is w a itin g for
4* 99
M iss Ross dow nstairs. 19. The hall seats several h u n d re d
people. 20. H a s anyone sent for Jea n ? 21. His wife is w e a rin g
a flowered dress. 22. I am afraid this will ann o y F ather. 23.
D o n t worry, they will look after the old m an properly. 24.
She will become an a c tre s s in two years. 25. Mr. Ashley h a s
show n me the document. 26. They are ta k in g no notice of
Emily. 27. F r a n k praised himself for that. 28. J a m e s alw ays
ca lls for her after classes. 29. They were d iscu ssing so m e
th in g im p o rtan t when I cam e in. 30. She is d ictatin g the
w o rd s too fa st for him to be able to w rite them down.
31. People have a lw a y s ta lk e d ab o u t their family. 32. She is
so beautiful th a t everybody alw a y s looks at her. 33. D o n t
you see they are la u g h in g a t you? 34. M iss Robinson e x p lain
ed a new g r a m m a r rule to them yesterday. 35. The boys
su g g e s te d a d a r in g plan to us. 36. The dean ann o u n c ed the
decision of the com m ittee to the audience. 37. He pointed o u t
the w eak points in our a r g u m e n t s to us.
62. A nsw er the follow ing q u e stio n s in a cc o rd an ce w ith the exam ple.

Example: H a s the w ork been done?

No, it h a s n t. It is still being done.
1. H a s the repo rt been w ritten ? 2. H a s the letter been
typed? 3. H a s tea been m ade? 4. H a s the stu d en t been e x a m
ined? 5. H a s the a p a r t m e n t been cleaned? 6. H a s the novel
been tra n s la te d ? 7. H a v e the questions been a n sw e red ?
8 . H a s the house been built? 9. H ave the exercises been done?
10. H ave the w inn ers been chosen? 11. H a s the text been
learned? 12. H a s the question been settled? 13. H a s the suit
been pressed? 14. H a s the film been show n? 15. H ave the
flow ers been v/atered?
63. C h a n g e the follo w in g se n ten c es u sin g the co n stru ctio n w ith the su b je c
tive p red icativ e. Follow the exam ples.

Exam ple 1: They appointed him sec retary of the committee.

He v/as appointed sec retary of the committee.
Exam ple 2 : They s aw him enter the shop (e n te rin g the
sho p).
He w a s seen to enter the shop (e n te rin g the
shop).
Exam ple 3: They say he is (w a s) a good sw im m er.
He is said to be (to have been) a good sw im m er.
1. We have elected him cha irm an of the m eeting. 2. We
tre a te d her as head of the delegation. 3. We noticed the girl
100
hide som ething behind her back. 4. They e n c o u ra g e d R o bert
to stu d y foreign lan g u a g e s . 5. We w atched the boy climb the
tree. 6 . We know he is a good specialist. 7. We think he is
a keen observer. 8 . They s a y G eo rge is a good h u sb a n d a n d
father. 9. They know he took p a r t in the concert. 10. We think
G re g o ry has moved to a n o th e r a p a rtm en t. 11. We think M o
nica has applied for the job. 12. They appointed him director
of the firm. 13. They have chosen him as their rep resentative.
14. We r e g a r d them as ta le n te d y o u n g people. 15. We elected
him p resident of the society. 16. We consider her a good p ia
nist. 17. They m ad e him r e tu r n the book to the library. 13.
We w atched the children b a th in g in the lake. 19. We h e a rd
them discu ssin g the question. 20. They suppo se P eter w a s
busy la s t week. 21. W e sup pose they have won the contest.
22. They say Mr. A d a m s is g ood a t playin g billiards. 23. We
believe he is a b ra v e m an. 24. They say S ally found a new job
la s t month. 25. W e o b serv ed them leav in g the building. 26.
They expected us to a tte n d the party. 27. We know he is a
h a rd -w o rk in g student. 28. They s a w him c ro s sin g the street.
29. They advised me to co n s u lt the doctor. 30. We believe he
is a b ra v e m an. 3!. We believe he took the final ex am ination s
last year. 32. They h e a rd the child crying.
64. C h a n g e th e fo llow ing se n te n c e s u sin g th e p a ssiv e c o n stru c tio n w ith tiie
p ro n o u n it a s the su b je ct.

Example: They an n ou nced (th a t) the tra in w a s an hour late.

It w a s ann o u n c ed (th a t) the tra in w a s an
h our late.
1. They re p o rted t h a t the delegation w ould arrive the next
day. 2. We u n d e r s ta n d t h a t the m a tte r w ill be kept secret.
3. They said the shop w ould be opened on T uesday. 4. They
ag ree the perfo rm an c e w a s very good. 5. They decided th a t
the m eeting sh ould be postponed. 6. W e expect the book w. li
be praised by the press. 7. They knew th a t the property wou id
come into the m arket. 3. They say th ere will be firew orks in
the park. S. They explained we m is u n d ersto o d them. 10. They
felt nobody co uld believe their story. 1 1. They think Tom w 11
get aw ay w ith it. 12. We a g r e e d the m a n s behaviour w a s
o u trag e o u s. 13. They say the house is to let. 14. We u n d e r
s ta n d they a re g oing to get m arrie d . 15. They s u g g e s te d th a t
th e debate sh o u ld be postponed. 16. They re q u est th a t visitors
should leave their coats In the cloakroom
*65. T ra n s la te the fo llow ing se n ten c es info E nglish u sin g the passive voice.

101
[ 1. . 2.
, 9
. 3. . 4.
, .
5. .
. 6. ?
, . 7.
.
, ' ,
. 8 .
. 9.
, . 10. (
) : . 11.
. 12. ,
. 13. ,
.
14. ,
. 15.
, . 16.
. 17.
. 18. ,
. 19. ,
. 20 .
. 21. ,
. 22. ,
. 23.
. 24.
;
, . 25.
? , . ?
. 26. ,
. 27. ? 28. ,
. 29.
.
66. Retell the fo llow ing text p a y in g a tte n tio n to the use of the p assive voice.

Tom S aw y e r Testifies
At la s t the sleepy a tm o sp h ere of the village v/as s tirred
a n d vigorously: M uff P o tte r v/as being tried for the alleged
m u r d e r of Dr. Robinson. It becam e the ab so rb in g topic of ihe
v illage talk immediately. Tcm knew t h a t he w a s not s u s
pected of k no w in g any th in g about the m u rd er, but every
reference to it se n t a sh u d d e r to his heart. His d re am s a t
102
 nig h t w ere full of horrors. In the daytim e he w a s d ra w n to
the courtro o m by an a lm o s t irresistible im pulse to go in, b u t
he forced himself to stay out. Tom kept his e a r s open, b u t
in variably h e a rd d istressin g news: Indian J o e s evidence w a s
u nsh aken a n d there w a s not the slig htest doubt th a t M uff
P o tte r w ou ld be convicted.
O n F rid ay m o rn in g all the village flocked to the c o u r t
house for it v/as to be the la s t day of the trial. After a lo n g
w ait the j u r y took their places; sho rtly a f te r w a r d s P o tte r,
pale, timid a n d hopeless, v/as b ro u g h t in, w ith ch a ins upon
him, and seated w here all the curiou s eyes could s t a r e a t him.
Then the J u d g e arriv ed, an d the openin g of the co u rt w a s
proclaim ed.
N ow a w itn ess w a s called w ho testified t h a t he h ad found
M uff P o tte r w a s h in g in the brook a t an ea rly h o u r of the
m o rn in g th a t the m u rd e r w a s discovered a n d t h a t P o tte r
im mediately sneaked aw ay . The next w itn ess proved the
finding of the knife n ea r the corpse. A th ird w itness sw o re
th a t he h ad often seen the knife in P o tt e r s possession. S e v
eral w itnesses testified to P o tt e r s guilty b eh av iour w hen he
had been b ro u g h t to the scene of the m urder. But they w ere
all allo w ed to leave the s ta n d w ithout being cro ss-ex am ined
by P o tt e r s lawyer. The perplexity and dissatisfaction of the
house w ere expressed in m u r m u r s an d provoked a reproof
from the Ju d g e.
A g ro a n escap ed from poor P o tter, and he put his face in
his h a n d s an d rocked his body to a n d fro, while a painful
silence reigned in the courtroom . M any m en w ere moved,
a n d m an y w o m e n s com passion testified itself in tears.
C ounsel for the defence rose and asked the J u d g e for p e r
mission to call T ho m as S a w y e r a s a w itness for the defence.
Tom rose and took his place upon the sta n d . E very eye
fastened itself on him as th e o a th w a s being ad m in istered.
Thom as S aw y er, w here were you on the seventeenth cf
June, ab ou t the hou r of m id n ig h t?
Tom glanced at In dian J o e s iron face an d his ton g u e
failed him. After a few m om ents, however, he m a n a g e d to pu t
enough s tre n g th into his voice so th a t he could be h ea rd by
p a r t of the house. Tom w a s asked to speak up a little l o u d e r ,
a n d to tell the co u rt ev erything th a t occurred t h a t n ig h t
w ithout skipping anythin g. Tom w a s also asked n ot to m e n
tion his com p an io n s n am e as the latte r w ould be pro d u c ed a t
the pro per time.
Tom b egan h esitatin g ly a t first, bu t a s he w a rm e d to
his subject, his w o rd s flowed m ore an d m ore easily; in a little
103
 while only his voice w a s heard ; every eye w a s fixed upon
him; the audience h u n g upon his lips ra p t in the g h a s tly
fascination of the tale. Tom said th at he h a d been hidden
behind the elm s in the g ra v e y a rd . He confessed a trifle shyly
t h a t he h a d tak en a dead c a t with him to the g ra v e y a rd . P o t
t e r s law yer ad d e d th a t the skeleton of the cat would be
produ ced as evidence. There w as a ripple of la u g h te r when
the dead c a t w a s m entioned, but it'w as checked by the Ju d g e .
The s tra in of the audience reached its clim ax when Tom
b eg a n describing the fight in the g ra v e y a rd . The audience
h e a rd th a t Dr. Robinson h ad been killed by In d ian Joe with
M uff P o tte r s knife while P o tte r lay un con scio us on the
g ro u n d .
C rash! quick as lightning, Indian Joe s p r a n g for a w in
dow, tore his w ay th ro u g h all opposers, and w a s gone!
Tom w a s a g litte rin g hero once more the pet of the old,
the envy of the y oung. His n am e w a s even im m ortalized in
print, for the v illage p ap e r m agnified him. There were som e
t h a t believed th at he w o u ld be elected P re s id e n t yet, if he
escaped h ang in g.
T om s d ay s w ere d a y s of splend ou r a n d exu ltation for
him, b ut his n ig h ts w ere s e a so n s of horror. His d re a m s w ere
infested by In d ian Joe, a n d alw a y s with doom in his eyes.
H alf the time Tom w a s afra id th at Indian Joe w ould never be
c a p tu red ; the other h a lf he w a s afraid he w ou ld be. Daily
Tom w a s m a d e hap py by M u ff P o tte rs g ra titu d e , b u t nightly
he w a s s o rry th a t he h a d n o t sealed up his tongue.
R ew a rd s h ad been offered, the country h a d been scoured,
b u t no Ind ian Joe v/as found. The slow day s drifted on, and
each left behind it a slig h tly lightened w eig h t of a p p r e
hension. (After Af. T w ain)
67. W rite o u t th e se n ten c es c o n ta in in g the passive voice. R etell the tex t
u sin g these sentences.

On A rt T re asu re s

O u r g r e a t - g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r s m u st h av e h ad very fair
notions of the artistic a n d the beautiful. Why, all o u r a r t
t re a s u re s of tod ay are o nly com m onplaces of three or four
h u n d re d y e a rs ago. I w o n d e r if there is any real intrinsic
beauty in the old sou p-p lates, beer-m ugs, a n d c a n d le -sn u f-
fers t h a t a re prized so highly now, or if it is the halo of a g e
th a t gives them their c h a rm s in our eyes. The old b lu e th a t
a re tre a s u re d now w ere the common everyday household
104
utensils of a few centu ries ago; and the pink sh ep h e rd s and
the yellow shephe rdesses th a t a re hand ed rou nd now for all
our friends to gush over, a n d p retend they u n d e r s ta n d , w ere
the u n v alued m antel o r n a m e n t s t h a t h a d been given to the
bab y of the eighteenth ce n tu ry when he cried.
Will it be the s am e in the fu tu re ? Will the prized t re a s u re s
of to day alw ays be the cheap trifles of the day before? Will
ro w s of our w illo w -p attern dinn er-p lates be ra n g e d above
the chimney pieces of the g r e a t in the y e a rs 2000 and odd?
Will the white cups w ith the g old rim and the beautiful gold
flower inside (species u n k n o w n ), th at a re broken now in
sheer lig h t-h earte d n ess of spirit, be carefully m ended, an d
stood on a bracket, a n d d u sted only by the lady of the house?
T hat china dog th a t o r n a m e n t s my furnished lodgings. It
is a white dog. Its eyes a re blue. Its nose is a delicate red,
with black spots. Its expression is amiability carried to the
verge of imbecility: I do not a d m ire it myself. It is jeered at
by th o u g h tle s s friends, a n d even my la n d lad y h erself h a s no
adm ira tio n for it, and excuses its presence by the c irc u m
s tan ce th a t it h ad been given to her by her aunt.
But in 200 y e a r s time it is m ore th an probable th a t th at
dog will be du g up from som ew h e re or other, m in u s its legs
an d with its tail broken, a n d will be sold for old china, an d
pu t in a g la s s cabinet. And people will p ass it rou nd a n d
adm ire it. They will be s tru c k by the w onderful depth of the
colour on its nose, a n d sp ec u la te as to how beautiful the bit of
the tail th a t is lost no do ubt was.
The beau ty of this dog is n ot seen in this age. We are too
fam iliar with it. It is like the s u n s e t and the s ta rs: we a re not
aw ed by their loveliness b ecau se they are com m on to o u r
eyes. So it is with t h a t china dog. In 22S8 people will gu sh
over it. The m ak in g of such d ogs will become a lost art. O u r
d e s c e n d a n ts will w on d e r how they were m ad e a n d say how
clever we were. W e shall be referred to lovingly as those
g r a n d old a r tis ts t h a t flourished in the nineteenth cen tury,
a n d produced those china d o g s .
The s a m p le r th a t the eldest d a u g h te r did at school will
be spoken of as ta p e s try of the Victorian e r a , an d be alm o s t
priceless. The blu e-a n d -w h ite m u g s of the p re sen t-d ay r o a d
side inn will be h u n ted up, all cracked an d chipped, an d sold
for their w eight in gold. They will be used by rich people for
claret cups. S o u v en irs of M a r g a t e and P re s e n ts from
R a m s g a t e th at may have escap ed destruction will be
bo ugh t by to u ris ts and ta k e n to their home countries. (After
Jerom e K. Jerom e)
105
*G8. R ender the follow ing text In E nglish. Use the p a ssiv e voice in the ita li
cized se n ten c es 2 nd c la u se s.

.
i ,
.
,
.
? , -
. ?
.
! , ,
. !
?
,
. ...
?! .
?
.
, .
. , .
.
,
?
, .
.
! . -
? ( ?)
, .
.
.
, ! . :
!
, ! .
.
.
.
,
?
, .
106
 ! .
!
, , . .
,
.
, .
. ,
.
! .
?
, , :
. 3
.
,
.
, .
, ,
. .
.
. , ,
, ...
.
, ?/. .

, ... (After S. L eacock)

69. Retell the follow ing jokes. P u t q u e stio n s to the se n te n c e s c o n ta in in g

v e rb s in the p a ssiv e voice.

A r a w y o un g s p o rts m a n w a s observed ta k in g aim at

a p h e a s a n t ru n n in g a lo n g th e ground.
As it is considered u n s p o rtsm an lik e to shoot a bird while
it is on the gro u n d , his friend shouted:
D o nt shoot!
Of course not," cam e the reply. C a n t you see i m w a i t
ing til! it s to p s ?

Judge: You a re accused of shooting sq u irrels out o! season.

H ave you any plea?
H unter: Yes, your honour. Seif-defence.
107
 3

A u n t: And how did Jim m y do at his history exam ination?

M other: Oh, not a t all well, b u t it w a s n t his fault. Why, he
v/as asked thin g s th a t h ap pened before the poor boy w as
born.

M a m m a , said little Linda, do all fairy-tales begin

with once upon a tim e?
No d a r li n g , said M a m m a grim ly. Som etim es they
begin, My love, I will be detained at the office pretty late
to n ig h t.
5

It w a s a sleepy s o rt of day, the c la s s w a s ab ou t h alf the

usu al size a n d the professo r w a s c a llin g the roll in a half-
ab se n t m anner. To each n a m e someone h ad an s w e re d h e r e
until the nam e Sm ith w a s called. Silence reigned su p re m e for
a mom ent; then it w a s b roke n by the p ro fe s s o rs voice.
My word! H a s n t M r. Sm ith any friends h e r e ?

The prirn old lady v/as given the first g l a s s of beer she
ever had. After sipping it for a m om ent she looked up with
a puzzled air.
How o d d ! she m u rm u re d . It tastes j u s t like the m ed i
cine my h u s b a n d had been given for the last tw en ty y e a r s .

\ : Hollywood no script is considered w o rthy u nless it has

been rew ritten at least six times. Even S h ak esp e are is r e w r i t
ten. A story is told ab ou t a scenario w riter nam ed Cyril who
lay dying. On his d ea th b e d he com posed a poem an d asked
his closest pal to re ad it a t his funeral. After his death the
friend called a n o th er w riter a n d said: Cyril g av e m e a poem
to re ad at his g ra v e, an d frankly, it stinks. I w a n t you to help
me fix it u p .
108
 So the deceased s last w o rd s w ere completely rewritten.

A m an at the th eatre w a s annoyed by continual con v e r

sation in the row behind.
Excuse m e , he said, but we c a n t hea r a word t h a t s
being s a id .
O h , replied the talk a tiv e one, indignantly. And is it
any b u siness of y o u rs w h a t I m tellin g my wife?

Silence in the c o u rt! th u n d e re d a Kentucky ju d g e.

H a lf a dozen men have been convicted alre ad y w ithout the
c o u rts h av in g been able to h e a r a w o rd of the testim on y.

M OOD. PR O B LEM A TIC A N D UNREAL ACTION S

70. Define th e m e a n s u se d to e x p re ss d iffe re n t m o d al m ean in g s: fa c ts
a n d n o n -fa c ts (c o m m an d s, re q u e sts , d e sirab le, u n re a l a n d p ro b lem atic
e v e n ts ). T ra n s la te the se n ten c es in to R ussian.

1. I suppose it is time we w ere thinking ab o u t the m atter.

2. D o n t be ab su rd . I w o n t prom ise you anything. 3. I w a s
out of the city or I w ould have certainly seen you. 4. One
w o uld think you were terrib ly anxious to get rid of him.
5. L ets have two m ore r e h e a r s a ls before the first night.
6 . I wish you w o u ld n t ju m p to wild conclusions. 7. Ask John
to help you, he is so clever. I think he could solve the problem
for you. 8 . I wish you h a d m ore o rd in a ry clothes o n , he said
s o m ew h a t irritably. 9. When we learn ed the tru th we wished
we h ad not. 10. It is re ally im p o rta n t th a t I should see
George. 11. If only I could get to tow n this n ig h t! Why
not? You could hire a c a r . 12. a) If you told a lie, it w as very
foolish of you. b) If you told a lie it would be very foolish of
you. c) If you had told a lie, it w o uld hav e been very foolish of
you. 13. I wish I could have been a painter. 14. If the w eather
w a s fine they m ight even have reached G rim sby and land ed
there. 15. Let him come in here, so th a t he ca n hear w h a t
I have to say. 16. It m ight all have been well if we had been
a little m ore patient. 17. I w ould ra th e r tell you the tru th
rig ht aw ay. It would make th ing s easier. 18. P a s s me the
salt, please, will you? 19. If the plane h ad taken off in time we
109
should be a p p ro ach in g the airp o rt now. 20. Come w h a t may!
I dont care a bit. 21. Theyd alw a y s tre a te d her as if she w ere
their own d augh ter, she felt that. 22. Then lets go so m e
where else, j u s t so we get o ut of h ere, she insisted. 23. W ould
you m ind m oving aside a little. I c a n t see the screen. 24.
I s u g g e s t th a t everyone should recall an d tell all the details
of the case. It might help us to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t re ally h a p
pen ed , said the inspector. 25. I fear we m ay h ave to v/ait
a few m om ents... 26. You really did act very well indeed, he
said in a low voice, I w ould not hav e clap ped so h eartily
had I not th o u g h t so . 27. B u n b u ry is perfectly invaluable.
I f it w a s n t for B u n b u ry s e x tra o rd in a ry bad health,
I w o u ld n t be able to dine with you to n ig h t. 28. As you go,
leave the door open so th a t the light from the lam p m ay show
you some Gf the w ay down. 29. W h a te v er I can do for you will
be n o th in g but pay in g a debt. 30. She wished her son w ould
be a doctor, like his father. 31. The o rd e r w a s th a t the thing s
should be packed in ten m inutes. 32. I tu rn e d aw a y so th a t
F red should not see my face.

71. C h a n g e the form of the verb so as to m ak e the s ta te m e n ts less c a te g o ric

a n d to e x p re ss p ro b lem atic or u n re a l actions. T ra n s la te the o rig in a l a n d
the tra n s fo rm e d se n ten c es into R ussian.

Example: It is in tere stin g to re ad this article.

It w ould be in tere stin g to read this article.
.
.

1. You can get this book a t an y library. 2. It is p le a s a n t to

b athe in the river on duch a hot su m m er day. 3. We s h all be
g ra te fu l to you for yo ur assistance . 4. He will p ro bab ly object
to your s ug gestion . 5. Will you come with us? We shall be
h app y to have you with us. 6 . I like to sit in the shade, if p o s
sible. 7. I w o n d e r w h a t you will do u n d e r such u n fa v o u rab le
c ircu m stan ces. 8 . I sh all take m usic lessons with pleasure.
9. We ca n visit you next S u n d ay . 10. I shall tell them the
whole story. This is the best w ay out. 11.1 shall follow your
advice, tho ugh it m ay be of no use.
72. C om plete th e follo w in g se n te n c e s u sin g th e a n a ly tic a l fo rm s of the
S u b ju n c tiv e M ood o r m o d al v e rb s w ith the sim ple o r p erfect infinitive.

Example: U n fo rtu n a te ly the tra m w a s overcrow ded, o th e r

wise..
...otherwise we w o u ld have taken the tr a m ( o t h e r
wise we could have taken the t r a m ) .
no
 1. It is lucky you picked up a taxi, otherwise... 2. W hy
d id n t you tell them the tru th ? In your place... 3. T h an k
you lor your help; w ithout it... 4. I had a terrible hea d ach e
on S unday; but for this... 5. We d id n t a tten d the conference
as we did not know the exact date, or else... 6. My v acation
this year is too short, so I c a n t go far, otherw ise...
7 . I m a n a g e d to finish the repairs so quickly because my
brother helped me, otherwise... 8 . You c a n t bathe in the
river today, it is too cold, or else... 9. I have a b ad tooth ach e
as I failed to go to the d entist this v/eek. But for the to o th
ache... 10. Why are you so shy with s t r a n g e r s ? Even a
child... 11. You are not on sp ea k in g term s, a re you? B ut
for th a t q u a rre l last week... 12. Why d ont you ta k e music
lessons? With your good e a r for music... 13. We a re su re she
will be a g re a t success at the concert, otherwise... 14. Why
do nt you explain the ru les to them ? K now ing the rules...
15. I knew you needed the book badly, therefore I r e tu r n
it at once. U n d e r o th e r circum stances... 16. I w o n d e r
why he behaved so foolishly on h e a rin g th a t silly re m a rk . A
clever man...

73. Define the m ea n s u se d to e x p re ss u n re a l a n d p ro b le m a tic a ctio n s in

sim ple se n ten c es a n d in c la u se s of com pound a n d com plex sentences.
T ra n s la te the sen ten ces in to R ussian.

1. Selena h ad ch a n g e d from her sh orts to a dress, a fact

th at o rd inarily w ould have annoyed Ginnie. 2. You h av e no
docum ents otherw ise you w o uld have h an d e d them to the
colonel. 3. W ould she testify on his behalf? If so, w h a t good
would it do? W ould anyone believe a m o rally victimised
m an? 4. This is not the s o rt of life anyone of u s w o u ld have
chosen. 5. One w ould think you w ere terribly anxious to get
rid of me. 6. Id ra th e r you forgot me, F ather. 7. S om ebod y
might rem em ber s om ethin g th a t w ould give us a clue to the
w o m a n s identity. 8 . Well, Id better go and see if the d in in g
room h as cooled off a bit. 9. I d much ra th e r we d id n t d iscuss
it, said N orm an. 10. I am su re there is som eth ing I could do
to help him.

*74. T ra n s la te the fo llo w in g se n ten c es into E n g lish u sin g v a rio u s m e a n s of

e x p ressin g u n re a l a n d p ro b lem atic actio n s.

1.
. 2. . , , -

. 3. ? ,
. 4. , , .
. 5.
, , , . 6 .
. 7. .
, , . 8 .
, . 9.
,
. 10. , , i 1.
:
!

75. M ake a list of m eans u sed to e x p ress u n re a l and

p ro b lem atic a ctio n s in com plex se n ten c es w ith su b o rd in a te c la u se s of
c o ndition ( P a r t A ). O pen th e b ra c k e ts u sin g th ese m e a n s
( P a r t B ). T ra n s la te the se n ten c es into R ussian.

A. 1. The h a r d e s t thin g to believe is that if he h a d lived we

w ould have a m idd le-aged son. 2. If a n y th in g sh ould happen
to me j u s t now, Id never get on my feet a g a in politically.
3. O ther figures were flitting th ro u g h the p a r a d e g ro u n d
which the co m m a n d e r m ight have seen had he no t slept so
quietly. 4. If he could have overcom e th a t P en n s y lv a n ia
D utch accent theyd have tak en him. 5. I sold the fa rm to
a cousin of mine, but I could buy it back if you w ere to insist.
6 . If you w ent aw a y from here you could not come back. 7. He
h ad p ledged himself to fight for Ire la n d should the m om ent
ever come. 8 . If anyone sho uld w a n t me, Ill be with Dr. P e a r
son. 9. Good m orning, Dr. S h e p p a r d , said M iss Russel.
I should be m uch obliged if you wGuld tak e a look at my
knee. 10. If only i d had my chance earlier, you w ould now
be stu d y in g for a diplomatic career. 11. If a d r a m a tis t au th o r
w ere to publish a pantom im e, he could m ake it intelligible to
a re a d e r by giving him the w ords which the p an to m im is t is
s upposed to be u tte rin g . 12. In case any difficulties arise, the
a g re e m e n t will be broken. 13. If you will kindly w ait a few
m om ents, I ll send som eone to w a rn him before you see him.
14. If the g en tle m a n w ou ld give m e the n u m b e rs of some of
the stolen notes, efforts w o u ld be m ad e to trac e them . 15. If
any m an doubts this, let him sta y for a few h o u rs in the hot
sun a n d see w h a t happens.
*B. 1. I (to be) in her place I (to feel) the sam e. 2. If
you (to have) a son, you (to w a n t) him to play football?
3. I never (to see) th a t side of him before, but if I (to be) you,
I (not to count) on w o rk in g for him again. 4. Im agine the
1 12
effect it (to have) on the public if the fact (to come o u t).
5 . If I (to stay) in the a r m y , he said to Sophia, I (to have)
my own division n o w . 6. E v ery th in g (to be) quite easy if one
of o u r men (not to m ake) a m istake. 7. If he (to do) it for iove
of a w o m an, M artin (to u n d e r s ta n d ) . 8. I (to be) quite m is
erable if I (not to w o rk) for my living. 9. The fact of the
m a tte r is, if I (to see) you the next day, I never (to stop)
seeing you. 10. If I (to have) any sense of h u m o u r , ! ju s t (to
la u g h ) my head off, she said. 11. I th o u g h t I alm o st decided
to go home if I (not to hear) her p laying the piano, th a t w a s
really wonderful.
76. C om plete th e fo llow ing se n ten c es a d d in g a principal c la u se o r a su b o r
d in a te c la u se of condition. Use a p p ro p ria te fo rm s to ex p ress fa c ts a n d
n o n -fac ts, a n d to d istin g u ish betw een sim u lta n e o u s o r successive ac
tions.

1. If I were in your place... 2 . S u pp ose you received all the

inform ation in time... 3. We w o uld not have b lam ed him
unless... 4. ...they v/ould be in to w n now. 5. In case the
m em bers of the com m ittee shou ld disagree... 6 . ...if we can fix
the d a te of the d ep a rtu re. 7. We w ou ld have left long ago...
8. If he w ould accept our proposal... 9. ...she would not be ill
now. 10. ...provided they h a d all th e inform ation at their
disposal. 11. H a d the s e c re ta ry typed the letters... 12. ...we
w ou ld not have m issed the train . 13. ...he would have re
ceived a better m a rk a t the exam ination. 14. If the patient h ad
not been o p erated upon... 15. ...you w ould know his answ er
now. 16. ...frankly speaking, I sh o u ld be a t a loss w h a t to
do. 17. ...unless we a r e w a rn e d beforehand. 18. Suppose he
w ere late... 19. I w o uld not have ta k e n the troub le to p re p are
all the p ap e rs unless... 20 . Ke w o u ld be ready to help on
condition that... 21. If only..., we v/ould have met them a t the
station. 22. ...the conference w ould be postponed.
77. M ake up com plex sen ten ces w ith su b o rd in a te c la u se s of condition, u sin g
th e fo rm s g iv en in the ex am p les. M ake u se of v a rio u s c o n ju n c tio n s ( if ,
in c a s e , m ie s s , su p p o se , s u p p o s in g , on c o n d itio n ) or of
in v e rte d w o rd o rd er.

Exam ple 1: If I am free to m o rro w , I shall join you.

Exam ple 2: If I w ere free, 1 sho uld (w ould) do the w ork at
once.
Exam ple 3: If he w orked m ore re g u la rly , he w ould know the
la n g u a g e better.
Exam ple 4: If you h ad w orked d u rin g the term, you v/ould
have passed the exam.
1 13
E xam ple 5: If you had read the book, you w ould rem em ber
the facts.
E xam ple 6 : If it should rain, d o n t go out.
Exam ple 7: If anyone sho uld call, he w ould not (will not)
find me in.
Exam ple 8 : If he v/ould come, we should be g lad to see him.
Exam ple 9: If I w ere to offer my help, they w ou ld accept it.
E xam ple 10: If he could a tte n d the concert, he w ould like it.
Exam ple I t : If she could have helped you, she w ould have
done it.
E xam ple 12: They could (m ig ht) join you, if you invited
(should invite, were to invite, could invite)
them.

*78. T ra n s la te th e fo llow ing sen ten ces into E n g lish u sin g d iffere n t m ea n s
of e x p ressin g u n re a l a n d prc-bfem atic actions.
A. U se n o n -p e rfe c t fo rm s to in d ic a te p re se n t a n d fu tu re actions.

I. ,
. 2. ,
, , . 3. ,
, .
4. ,
. . 5.
, , , ,
. 6 . , -
, , . 7.

, , . 8 .
, .
9. , ,
, .
. U se pe rfe c t fo rm s to indicate p a s t actions.

I. ,
. 2.
, . 3.
,
. 4.
, .
5. .
- , .
114
6 . ,
. 7.
, . 8 .
, .
9. , ,
.
. U se p erfect a n d n o n -p erfect fo rm s to in d icate p re se n t o r p a s t actions.

1. ,
. 2. ,
. 3.
, . 4.
,
. 5. ,
. 6 .
, . 7.
,
.
79. Use com plex se n ten c es w ith su b o rd in a te c la u se s of condition to p re s e n t
a chain of successive s ta te m e n ts a b o u t yo u r e v e ry d a y a ctio n s o r Use
a ctio n s of som e c h a r a c te rs in the books you re a d , e. g.:

a) I? Eliza had not h e a rd th a t her boy m ig ht be sold, she

w ould not h ave ru n aw ay . If she h ad not discovered th a t she
w a s bein g followed, she m ig h t not have atte m p te d to c ro s s
the river. If she h a d not been so d esp erate a n d brave, she
w ould not h av e m a n a g e d to cross it. If she h a d not received
any help from som e kind people on the o th er b a n k of the
river, she m ight h a v e died from sheer exhaustion...
b) If G eorg e w e re not so absent-m inded, he w ould not
have left A n n es a d d r e s s a t home. If we knew her a d d re s s , we
should go and see her. If we could go an d see her, we w ould
find out why she did n o t a tte n d classes...
c) If it h ad not ra in e d on S u nday, we sh ou ld have gone to
the forest. If we h ad gone to the forest, we w ould have c e r
tainly picked flow ers a n d m ushroom s. If we h a d b ro u g h t
m any m u shro om s, w e sho u ld have h ad a fine supp er of fried
m ushroom s an d potatoes...
80. T ra n s la te th e follo w in g se n te n c e s into R ussian. E xplain the use of fo rm s
e x p ressin g u n re a l a n d p ro b le m a tic actio n s in o b ject c la u se s a n d o th e r
nom in al c la u se s.

1. How I wished the people in the front w o u ld stop ta l k

ing. i co u ld n t h e a r the speaker. 2 . It is re qu ested th a t all
115
applications should be h a n d e d in before the first of June.
3. Ann wished she w ould com e back. She wished she could
speak to him once more. 4. F ro m now on he lived in c o n s ta n t
fear t h a t he should lose his health. 5. The c h a ir m a n s p r o
posal w a s th a t the com m ission discuss the m a tte r in a p riv ate
session an d subm it their decision a t the next m eeting.
6 . W a s it really necessary th a t I should go th ro u g h all th a t
tro u b le a g a in ? she w ondered. 7. He feared lest all his efforts
sh ould be useless. He c o u ld n t c h a n g e anything. 8 . It is high
time I w a s g etting b a c k , she said. 9. I wish I h a d n t cried so
m u c h , said Alice as she looked around. 10. No, it w a s your
fa th e rs su ggestion th a t we talk the m a tte r over.

81. M ake a lis t of m ean s e x p ressin g u n re a lity in object c la u se s a f te r wish'*

( P a r t A ). O pen the b ra c k e ts u sin g sim ila r m ean s ( P a r t B ). T ra n s la te
th e se n ten c es into R u ssian .

A. 1. I wish it w ould nev er end. I wish I could stay here

forever j u s t like this. 2. I wish youd all go aw ay, all of you,
a n d leave me in peace. I wish I could go aw ay too. 3. He
wished th a t he m ight h ave a n u rs e with whom he did not
have to choose his w ords. 4. She wished she h ad rem ained
ig n o ra n t an d u n a sh a m e d . 5. I wish there w a s som eth in g
I could do to help her. 6 . H o w he wished they w ere sp ec u
la tin g on her!

*B. 1. I wish you (to ju m p ) to wild conclusions,

T u ppen ce, s u g g e s te d Tommy. 2. I wish we (can get) go ing
now. 3. I d o n t mind doing the hom ework, only I j u s t wish
you all (to rem em ber) not to tra c k sa n d into the living-room.
4. She wished it (to be) a lre a d y the end of the day a n d C a r o
line safely in bed and asleep. 5. W hat is it you a re talk in g
about? If its a n y th in g th a t h a s any sense in it I wish you (to
say) it out plain, an d if not, I wish you (not to say) it at all.
6 . M an y bachelo rs wish they (to have) kind, u n d e r s ta n d in g
w ives, observed a w riter. So do m an y h u s b a n d s . 7. I
wish you (not to call) him th e old m an, she said irritably.
8. I wish I (to know) w hy people think its so im p o rta n t to
be em o tio n al, Teddy said. 9. You did not get a proper e d u
cation. I wish you (can go) to Oxford.

*82. T ra n s la te the fo llow ing se n te n c e s into E nglish u sin g o b jec t c la u se s

a fte r w ish a n d choosing a p ro p er w ay of e x p re ssin g a d e sira b le or
u n re a l actio n ( c o u ld , w o u ld , m ig h t , p a s t ind efin ite or p a st
p e rfe c t).

Ho
 1. ,
, , . 2.
, ,
. 3. ,
, ,
, . 4. ,
. 5.
, . 6 . ,
. 7. ,
- . 8 .
- . 9.
. 10. , .
, ( ) .
1 1. ,
. 12.
,
!

83. M ake a list ? m ea n s u se d in n o m in a l c la u se s to e x p ress p ro b lem atic,

su g g e ste d a ctio n s a fte r s u g g e s t, h ig h tim e" a n d the like ( P a r t A ).
O pen the b ra c k e ts u sin g sim ila r m eans ( P a r t ) . T ra n s la te the se n
tences into R u ssian .

A. 1. M rs. P er looked u n com fo rtably a ro u n d the tab le

an d s u g g e s te d they should p a s s to the next item on the a g e n
da. 2. After dinner Mrs. F e d d e r s u g g e s te d we listen to the
p ro g ram . 3. He refused to join the com pany it v/as im p e ra
tive th a t he sh ould be alone. 4. God, all Im ask in g is th a t we
be honest w ith each other. 5. No, it w a s your fa th e rs s u g
gestion th at we talk the m a tte r over. 6 . I t s high time I w a s
getting b ac k , she said. 7. T o w a rd s lunchtim e she left with
the advice th a t M a rth a sh o u ld go and see the doctor and g et
a good tonic. 8 . He w a s an only child a n d his p a r e n t s insisted
th a t he escape abroad . 9. A c a n a ry called out in a trem b lin g
voice to its children, Com e aw ay, my dears! Its high time
you w ere all in b ed . 10. Well, Hal G ra h a m , I g u e s s its time
you w ere go ing home.

* 8 . 1 . 1 think its time I (to call) you Lilly. 2 . 1 suppose its

time we (to think) a b o u t it. 3. And it is really im p o rtan t
th a t I (to see) M iss C rac k entho rpe. 4. If I h ad s u g g e s te d th a t
we (to sit) do w n for a m om ent you w o uld have th o u g h t it
w a s a trap. 5. You insist t h a t I (to say ) som ething, b u t will it
m ake thin gs easier for you? 6 . The sug g estio n t h a t he (to go
a ro u n d ) with a Griffiths even if he w a s new here an d did not
117
know m an y people, ap pealed to him. W o u ld n t it reflect a lot
of credit on him?

*84. T ra n s la te th e fo llow ing sentences into E n g lish u sin g a p p ro p ria te

fo rm s of e x p re ss in g d e sira b le a n d p ro b lem atic a c tio n s a f te r s u g g e s t ,
in sist a n d the like (In o bject c la u se s a n d o th er nom in al su b o rd in a te
c la u s e s ) .

1.
. 2. ,
?
3. ,
. 4. ,
6 . 5. ,
. 6 .

. 7.
, ,
. 8 . ,
. 9. -
, ? ,
, . 10.
. 11. ,
. 12.
,
. 13. ,
. 14. ,
.

85. Define the type of th e su b o rd in a te c la u se s In the follow ing se n

ten c es a n d c h a n g e them into object c la u se s p re se rv in g the sam e m ean s
of e x p ressin g d e sira b le a n d p ro b lem atic actions.

Exam ple: The cap ta in gav e an o rd er that the s team e r should

be u n lo ad ed a t once.
The ca p ta in o rdered (It w as o rd e red ) that the
s te a m e r should be unloaded a t once.
1. The p ropo sal w a s t h a t the tre a ty should be signed at
once. 2. The c h a irm a n expressed the desire that the meeting
be a d jo u rn e d . 3. The doctors advice w a s th a t the child
should be ta k e n to hospital. 4. The w o rk e rs d em an d v/as th a t
new equ ipm ent be installed. 5. The host m a d e a proposal th a t
the visitors s h o u ld p a s s into the draw in g-ro om .
86. M ake a lis t of m e a n s e x p ressin g p ro b lem atic a ctio n s in com plex se n
ten c es w ith s u b o rd in a te c la u se s of p u rp o se ( P a r t A ). O pen the b ra c k e ts
u sin g the sa m e m e a n s ( P a r t B ). T ra n s la te the se n ten c es Into R ussian.
I 1
 A. 1 . Get M artin in here so th at he can hear w h a t I have to
say. 2. We packed his bag s before he went d ov/nstairs to do
his la s t show, so th a t he would be ready to leave for Los
A ngeles the m om ent he finished. 3. I only w an ted you to say
it so it could go in my memoirs. 4. I will give it to you m erely
so th a t you m ay familiarize yourself with the subject. 5. He
m et their s ta r e s for a few seconds, and then risked an o th er
g lan ce to the right, cautiously, so th a t they should not g u e ss
his plan. 6 . At the la s t m om ent, he h ad requested the p a rtic i
p a n ts to arriv e a t a q u a r te r to two instead of two, so th a t they
m igh t become acq u ain ted inform ally. 7. She is sh o w in g me
the latest letter, so th a t I will be am en a b le by the time she
g e ts here. 8 . They set a s tro n g g u a r d lest anyone should
escape.

X / ' ' *B. 1. And he ab ru p tly tu rn ed aw ay so that Jill (not to

see) the te a r s in his eyes. 2. Then he m ade his escape, so th a t
she (not to have tim e). 3. The n u rse pulled the cu rta in s back
so th a t m ore daylight (to spill) into the room. 4. Mr. B row n
w a s e a g e r to reach the town so th a t his a rm (to be X-rayed)
a n d the bullet removed. 5. He left the violin in the hall so th a t
it (not to seem) t h a t he w a n te d to be asked to play. 6 . She
stra in e d herself to speak louder, so th a t he (to h e a r ) . 7. This
com m ittee is in v estig atin g vario u s spheres of life so th a t it
(to g a th e r) full inform ation. 8 . They crossed the y a r d on
tiptoe so th a t the snow (to come) up over their rubbers. 9. He
held a g u a r d e d co nversation for fear th a t she (to tak e) a d d i
tional offence. 10. An access of joy m ad e him s h u t his eyes
lest te a rs (to flow) from them.
87. C om plete the follow ing se n ten c es a d d in g a prin cip al c la u se o r a s u b o r
d in a te c la u se of p u rp o se .

1. He cam e ea rlier th a n he had prom ised so that... 2. ...so

th a t the children sh ou ld not touch the stove. 3. Irn h u rry in g
to the institute in o rd e r that... 4. All the p artic ip a n ts were
officially w a rn ed lest... 5. ...in ord e r th a t they m ight be able
to discuss the m a tte r alone. 6 . The teacher told them the
m a rk s an d showed the p a p e rs so that... 7. ...so th a t the pupils
could see w hat w as w ritten on the b lackboard. 8 . 1 shall close
the door so that... 9. ...that I can w ork till late a t night. 10.
Give me your pen for a m om ent, so...

*88. T ra n s la te the follow ing se n te n c e s Into E n g lish u sin g com plex sen ten ces
w ith su b o rd in a te c la u se s of p u rp o se a n d a p p ro p ria te m ea n s of e x p re ss
in g d e sira b le and p ro b le m a tic actions.

119
 1. ,
. 2. ,
. 3. ,
. 4.
, ,
. 5. ,
. 6 .
,
. 7. ,
. 8 . ,
.
89. M ake a list of m ea n s u sed to e x p ress u n re a l or p ro b lem atic actions in
p re d ic ativ e c la u se s a n d su b o rd in a te c la u se s of m a n n e r ( P a r t A ). O pen
the b ra ck e ts u sin g sim ila r m e a n s ( P a r t B ). T ra n s la te the se n ten c es into
R ussian.

A. 1. After a few m o m e n ts it seemed quite n a t u r a l to Alice

to find herself ta lk in g fam iliarly with them, as if she had
know n them all her life. 2. He w a s b re a th in g h a rd an d every
now a n d then his m outh m oved as if he were s a y in g so m e
th ing the sound of which w a s lost in the ro a r of the sea.
3 . 1 feel as tho ugh Im a b o u t to be born. 4. Denise pulled back
from the door as if it were a guillotine. 5. He felt a p a s s in g
affection for the scene, a te n d e rn e s s for the g ath e rin g , as if it
w a s som ething he m ight touch. 6 . In London in w inter its as
th o u g h the sun has w a n d e re d aw ay p erm an ently. 7. It
seem ed as if the su m m er w e re a continent, h arm o n io u s a n d
self-sufficient. 8 . The sm a ll room looked as th o u g h it h ad
been visited by a to rnad o. 9. You m ak e me feel a s if I h a d n t
done my duty to you.

*B. 1. Then w hat will you d o ? she asked nervo usly as

if she (to be ab out) su d d en ly to be confronted by his presence
for the first time. 2. He looked at his d a u g h te r a s if he (not to
see) h er before. 3. He felt a s if he (to re -learn) a la n g u a g e
he h a d n t spoken since childhood in ano th er country. 4. He
looks som etimes as th oug h he (to be) not all there. 5. It w as
a s though I (to be) too tired to feel emotion. 6 . You look as if
it (to be) the last time you see me. 7. He s tare d at his sh o e
laces as if they (to in terest) him. 8 . She looks as th o u g h she
(to be drained) by a v am pire. 9. Nobody acted as if a gu n
(to go off).
, *90. T ra n s la te the follo w in g se n te n c e s Into English using complex sentences
w ith pred icativ e c la u se s a n d s u b o rd in a te c la u se s of m a n n e r in tro d u c e d

120
 by as if , as th o u g h . E m ploy p ro p e r m eans to e x p ress u n re a l or
p ro b lem atic actions.

1. , .
2. ,
. 3. ,
. 4. ,
. 5. , .
6 . ,
. 7. ,
. 8 . ,
. 9. , -
. , ? 10. ,
.
*91. T ra n s la te the fo llow ing se n te n c e s Into E nglish. Define the ty p es of
se n ten c es an d c la u se s p re se n tin g u n re a l o r pro b lem atic events a n d
a c c o u n t for y o u r choice of m e a n s to in d ic a te these e v en ts.

1. ,
. 2. ,
. 3. ,
. ,
. 4. ,
.
5. ,
. 6 .
, . 7. ,
.
. 8 .
.
. 9.
. ,
. , .
92. E xplain th e use of the italicized fo rm s a n d use them In re te llin g the
s to ry . M ake up o th e r co n d itio n al sen ten ces on the b a sis of the tale .

A H u s b a n d Who W as to Keep House

(An E nglish tale)

There lived a m an who w as alw a y s an g ry because he

th o u g h t th a t his wife never di d a n y th in g right in the house.
One ev en ing he cam e home gru m b lin g .
121
 D e a r h u s b a n d , d o n t be so a n g r y , said his wife. I h ave
been th in kin g , a n d I have th o u g h t of a plan. If we exchange
work, ev erything v/ill be all right. So tom orro w , if you d o n t
object, I shall go to the fields and you v/ill stay a t home and
m ind the hou se. The h u s b a n d th o u g h t t h a t if he did so, it
w o u ld be very good.
E a r ly next m o rn in g the w o m an went into the fields th in k
ing: If my g ru m b le r d o e sn t do his work, I sh a ll m a ke fu n of
him on re tu r n in g hom e.
The h u s b a n d w a n te d a t first to ch u rn the bu tter, but then
he thou ght: If I w en t down into the cellar to tak e some ale,
I s h o u ld w o rk with g re a te r p le a s u r e . B ut j u s t a s he had
ta ken the tap out of the barrel, he h e a rd th a t the pig cam e
into the kitchen. Then he ra n out of the ce lla r with the tap in
his h a n d as fast as he could to look afte r the pig lest it sh o u ld
o v e rtu rn the c h u rn because he k new t h a t if his wife fo u n d no
b u tter on r e tu r n in g home, she w o u ld s c o ld 'him.
B ut when he rush ed into the kitchen, ta p in his h an d , he
s aw th a t the pig had a lre a d y o ve rtu rn e d the churn, had eaten
the cream a n d w as now lo o kin g a t him a s if saying, I sh o u ld
be very g la d if you w o u ld g iv e m e cream every d ay.
It m ad e him so a n g r y th a t he g a v e the pig such a kick th a t
it fell down dead.
Then a t once he rem em bered th at he h a d the tap in his
h a n d but v/hen he got dow n into the ce lla r, the la s t drop of
ale h a d a lre a d y run out of the barrel.
W h a t a fool I w a s , he tho ug ht. If I h a d n t flo w n into
a ra g e, I s h o u ld n t h a ve killed my only pig, and I sh o u ld n t
h a ve lo st my a le .
Then he found som e m ore cream and b e g a n to chu rn , for
if he d id n t m a k e any bu tter, his wife w o u ld scold him. But
then he rem e m b ered th a t he h ad to b rin g w a te r to boil some
p o rrid g e b u t he w a s afraid to leave the room. If I leave the
ro o m , he tho ugh t, the child is su re to o v e rtu rn the c h u r n .
So he took th e ch u rn on his b ac k and w ent with it to the
well. B ut a s he b en t down over the side of the well, all the
cream ra n out of the chu rn over his shoulders. W hat a block
head I a m , he cried in despair. If I h a d n t taken the chu rn
on my back I s h o u ld n t h a ve lost the la s t drop of c re a m .
J u s t then his wife cam e home, and g re a t w a s his sham e
w hen he found himself s ta n d in g before her in such a position.
H ad I only kn o w n how difficult it is to keep house I should
h a ve never a g reed to take your p lace.
You are a n old fool, replied his wife. Now listen. If
ever a g a in you retu rn home g ru m b lin g , I sh a ll tu rn you c u t
122
of the house. If a m a n tries to find fault w ith other people
without any reason, it is he who is at fa u lt.
Then she ad ded looking a t his dirty clothes, Well, if
I w ere you, I sh o u ld go and w a s h

R E V IS IO N

S3. Read the follow ing se n ten ces, tr a n s la te them into R u ssia n a n d say by
w h a t m e a n s rep eated a ctio n s c an be in d icated . A re th ere any sp ecial
w ay s to in d ic a te re p ea te d a c tio n s in th e p ast?

1. The g a te which opened from the y ard w a s g e n e rally

s ta n d in g wide open an d in this w a y the poultry used to get
out a n d the cattle used to get in. 2. H e d lau g h and say t h a t of
course, if he h a d n t been such a kid, hed never h a v e h ad the
cheek to ask her. 3. The little crick ets loved to h e a r the old
cricket talk, an d they w ould often come to the door of his
house and a s k him to tell his stories. 4. In her d e sp e ra te sta te
she w ould say unforgiv able things to m e even while the te a r s
stre a m e d down her face. 5. H e r father, indeed, w a s alw ays
telling her th a t she only d ra n k C hina tea b ec au se it w a s
a fashion. 6 . W henever I have gone, there h av e been either so
m an y people th at I have not been able to see the pictures,
which w as dreadful, or so m a n y pictures th at I have not been
able to see the people, which w a s worse.
84. T ra n s la te the follow ing se n te n c e s info R u ssia n g iv in g v a r ia n ts w ith the
In d icativ e o r S u b ju n c tiv e M ood w h e rey e r possible. T u rn re p o rte d
speech into direct speech u sin g a p p ro p ria te form s of th e v e rb s to e x p ress
fa c ts, u n re a l c r p ro b lem atic actions. (N o te th a t in re p o rte d speech the
fo rm al difference betw een the Ind icativ e a n d S u b ju n c tiv e M oods m ay be
lo st, e. g. wlH go a n d w o u ld g o b o th becom e w o u ld go .)

1. We asked the lecturer w he th e r he w ould prefer to be

asked questions o ra lly or to receive them in w ritten form.
2. a) He asked the m a n a g e r if he should go a h e a d with the
project, b) He asked the m a n a g e r if he v/ould go ah e a d with
the project. 3. You said th at you w ould dance with m e if
I b ro u g h t you a red rose, cried the student. H ere is the
red d est rose in all the w o rld ! 4. O th ers told me th a t if they
h ad know n w h a t the p u n ishm ent w a s they w ou ld suffer, they
w ould certainly have h eld their h ands. 5. There could be
nothing betv/een them n ot even friendship, he re a s s u re d her,
u n less he v/as fully convinced th a t no h a r m w o u ld come to
him. 6 . We ag reed th a t we w o uld puli this m o rn in g as a
ch a n g e from row ing, an d H a rris said the best a r r a n g e m e n t
w ould be th at G eorge an d 1 should scull and he steer. 7. M iss
123
P o h ti prom ised to see w h a t she could do. 8 . J a n e said th a t if
we would come to her party, shed introduce us to som eone
who w a s who w ou ld who could. 9. The law y e r w o n
dered w heth er he w o uld ever know w h a t lay behind th a t h a t
red. 10. I b egan nerv ously to reflect w hat f shou ld do. 11 .
I w a s v/ondering w h eth er you an d your lady w ould step
across an d join rny table. 12. He wondered why he should
look back. 13. Boon an s w e re d th at he would try to get her the
inform ation which she w a n te d if he could. 14. To this
I a d d e d the s u g g estio n th a t I should give some e x p lan a tio n
of his history and c h a ra c te r to Mr. Pegotty, who 1 knew could
be relied upon. 15. He w a s ag a in to rtu red by the doubt
whether or not he m ig ht v e n tu re to meet A ntonia a t the s t a
tion. 16. You d o n t know a n y th in g about me. I think th a t if
you did, even you w ou ld t u r n aw ay from me.
95. How c an fu tu re a n d su b s e q u e n t actio n s be ex p ressed ? T r a n s la te the
follow ing se n ten c es into R u ssia n an d explain the sh a d e s of m ea n in g , if
any, in d icated by v a rio u s m e a n s ex p ressin g fu tu re a n d su b s e q u e n t
actions; d e te rm in e the fa c to rs w hich m ay have influenced th eir choice.
M ake up y o u r ow n se n te n c e s w ith sim ila r form s o r p h ra s e s o r find ex
am p le s of th eir use in th e books you re a d an d use them to illu s tra te a n d
confirm y o u r a n sw e r.

1. S ta n d here! They will be ch a n g in g the g u a r d in a m in

ute and youll g et a good view. 2. Lets wait. They a re
c h a n g in g the g u a r d a t two. 3. V/ill you.tell him w h a t I said?
4. S hall i tell them the good new s or do you prefer to do it
yourseif? 5. I will not be so rry to see the end of the b a d
w eather. 6 . W hen you g et older, youll feel different. 7. I m
going to tell them all th a t happened. D on t try to p reven t
me. 8 . I shall feel sa fer when I have told ev e ry th in g , said
the girl. S. You v/ill hav e to w a rn him before he does a n y
thing. 10. It is go ing to be ra th e r difficult to p e rs u a d e her to
ch a n g e her mind. 11. He w a s sitting here ta lk in g a b o u t t r e a t
ing a patient when, for all he knew, he w as going to be m u r
dered within the next tw en ty-fou r hours. 12. He w o n dered
when the u ltim a tu m w o u ld expire. 13. We took it for g r a n te d
I d go in for law. 14. W e shall have finished the re p airs to
your car by tom orro w . It will be read y for you at 10 o clock.
15. I told you we s h all be m arrie d in four weeks. 16. I m a d e
up my mind th a t if there w a s anyone else there to m eet him,
I d keep well out of the way. 17. I ll make a call a n d see if
theyll cooperate. 18. I b e g a n nervously to reflect on w h a t
I should do if he cam e while I w as alone. 19. a) I w o n t feed
your dog again. He a lw a y s tries to bite me when I come
124
n e a r him. b) I m not going to feed your dog again. He
d o esn t seem to like me. 20. By M ay 1 I shall h av e been living
in M oscow for four years. 21. H u rr y up. The m atch begins a t
five o clock.

96. W h at fo rm s a re u se d in com plex sen ten ces w ith s u b o rd in a te c la u se s of

tim e? W rite o u t the c o m b in a tio n s of fo rm s u se d in th e p rin cip al a n d
su b o rd in a te c la u se s jo in ed by v a rio u s c o n ju n c tio n s a n d m ake up new
se n ten c es w ith the sam e c o m b in atio n s, use them to illu s tra te y o u r a n
sw e r. E xplain the m e a n in g of th e form s.

a ) w hen

1. W hen I touched her arm , she jerke d away. 2. And then,

when I w a s t u rn in g to go home, she stopped me. 3. Her voice
v/hen she spoke w a s very deep. 4. Lane gave her a light when
the w a iter w a s gone. 5. We had reached the door when the
girl spoke. 6 . He w a s still p ack ing when M oses came. 7. He
tu rn e d a b ru p tly to w a r d F a n n y when he h e a rd her say so m e
thing. 8 . W hen he h ad m oney he alw a y s invited her to
a r e s ta u r a n t or to a th eatre. 9. W hen a stu d en t is h a v in g
difficulties with studies, we select som eone to help him. 10 .
B urley h ad been gone for less th a n ten m inutes when there
w a s a knock on the door a n d a quiet voice said: C an I come
in ? 11. W hen I say it, French said, Ill try to m ake it like
I believe it. 12. I ll be there when I ve cleaned myself. 13. He
knew t h a t the body w o uld be discovered a t once, when they
s ta rte d to dig the b u nker. 14. The second s e c re ta ry ad v a n ced
with caution an d h a d reached only the foot of s t a i r s when the
tw o ladies gre eted him. 15. J u d d felt again the sam e heart-
tu r n in g feeling th a t h a d hit him when he h ad first seen her.
16. It w a s a collection obscurely d epressin g to him, m ostly
books his m other h ad acquired when she w a s young. 17. His
plan, the shadov/y outline of which had first form ed in his
brain when the doctor h ad told him th a t his au n t m igh t with
due ca re live for m a n y years, had succeeded ad m irably . 18.
The w o rs t m inu tes for Miles w ere on, when he h a d located
the c a r and v/as d riv in g it to the city p a r k in g lot.
b ) while

1. While we w ere w a itin g for coffee, the head w aiter, with

an in g ra tia tin g smile on his false face cam e up to us b e a rin g
a la rg e b ask e t of huge peaches. 2. While I w aited for her
I rack ed my b ra in s to think v/hat hot w a te r b o ttle could
possibly be in Italian. 3. While she w a s e n te r ta in in g g u ests in
the g a r d e n , I w a s h a v in g tea in the kitchen. 4. C learly W h it
ting ton w as m a k in g the jou rney alone while the others r e
125
m ained in London. 5. H ere the children can play while their
p a r e n ts are en jo yin g them selves. 6 . S h all we come inside
while we w ait for a better car to be obtained? 7. You w o n t
see m a n y p a sse rs-b y while you a re riding on the top. 8. in her
d e s p e ra te s ta te she w ould say u nforgiv a b le things to me
even while the te a r s s tre a m e d dow n her face. 9. You order
w h a t you w a n t, why d o n t you, and I ll ! while youre e a t
ing. 10. Suppose I pick you up in my c a r from your home this
evening, and we talk while we drive. 11. While hes here
for three, four d ays your other w o rk can wait. 12. Do
com e a n d see us while you a re here, she said. 13. L ongm an,
it seemed, h a d said very little while he w a s there. 14. I re
m em b ered so m eth in g while I w a s w a lk in g over j u s t n ow , he
said. 15. The w o m an w as an im ated ly explaining som ething
while the m an seemed not to listen, m ore intent on pulling
o u t his pocket w a tc h a n d noted th a t it w a s two m inutes to six.
16. While they talked, the others, by this time out of the
w a te r w ere tow elin g th em selves and slipping on rcbes from
a pile beside the pool.
c ) S

1. As we w alked, tak in g the way he h a d indicated, I re

c o u n ted all I knew. 2 . As you g row older, these things seem
to m a tte r a g r e a t deal less. 3. He v/as sm iling nod d in g a little
a s he listened to her. 4. As the light had grow n dim, she
t u r n e d on the lam p. 5. As I w a s d ressing , I s a w from my
w in d o w the d istu rb er of my n ig h ts rest. 6 . The heavy-set
black m an, who h ad been a m o n g the e a rliest a rriv als, w a s
g e ttin g up a s E dw ina arrived .
d ) since

1. I ve knov/n B yrnes since he w a s a tiny little boy. 2 . 1 be

lieve the cashier h a s been w o rkin g on cash since we opened
this m o rn in g . 3. He h a s n t really done it to me since w eve
been m a rrie d . 4. i think you are lying for the first time since
you c a m e in. 5. It was. ne a riy five y e a rs since Celia h ad e n
te re d the M edical Centre. 6 . Two y e a r s had passed since we
h a d seen him. 7. On a few occasions since the affair with
A.vril b eg a n , conscience h a d tro u b led him. 8. J e r ry had not
been th ere since he h ad left the sem inary . 9. Have you been
g o in g to g eth er since you w ere k id s ? Rita asked. 10. S u d
denly he realized how m uch they had ch a n g ed since they la s t
w a lk e d to g eth er in the night of this town. 11. It is a long time
since I talk ed to you much.
126
 e ) a fte r

1 . After I h a d met her she told me a b o u t her past. 2. After

he left she co u ld n t get back to sleep. 3. After he had gone
Roberta tu rn e d in a ra th e r lorn an d w eary w ay and looked
out of the w indow after him. 4. P oo r Daisy h a d to listen to
this every m o rn in g after she h ad sent the boy off to school.
5 . After I have done my w o rk I shall speak to you.
f) a s soon a s, as long as

1. I slipped aw ay from the dance as soon as I got there.

2. As soon as we get to hospital, hell get the best treatm en t.
3. I am g oing to find out all the details as soon as I get back.
4 . B rin g him in as soon as you can. 5. D o n t reckon i ll ever
get back to Albany a s lo n g as I live.
g ) before, till, u n til

1. E d w a rd drove until they cam e to a big wall. 2. They

tripped on their high heels until they reached the aircraft.
3. Joe d id n t reply till he h ad opened a new p a c k a g e of r a z o r
blades. 4. U ntil she spoke he h ad not realized th a t she w a s
not E nglish. 5. Youll h ave to w ait here until I dress. 6. W ere
go ing to hide you aw a y som ew here until the h ea t cools down.
7. H e ll sta y till I come out. 8 . I m u s t get a shine before
I see the minister. 9. The door h a d scarcely closed behind her
before it opened ag ain, a n d she ca m e in to announce:
Dr. C o lp u s . 10. He h a d re ad it before he cam e out here.
11. Before they had m ounted the rid g e it w a s raining. 12.
That evening, before the shops closed, P h u c n g bo ugh t three
m ore silk scarves. 13. Then, before the people h ad u n d e r
stood the la s t word, the sp eak er stepped out of the th eatre
a n d w a s gone.

*97. O pen the b ra c k e ts u sin g the re q u ire d fersn of the verb. P ra c tise d iffer
e n t k in d s of sen ten ces w ith fo rm s e x p re ss in g u n re a lity c n the b a sis of
the sto ry . R etell th e sto ry u sin g d iffe re n t fo rm s of m ood, asp e ct, p h a se
a n d tense.

Lost in the P o st

Jac k Ainsiey, a post office sorter, (to look) through the

letters. He (to tu rn ) an envelope over and over in his h an d s.
The letter (to be a d d r e s s e d ) to his wife an d (to have) an
A u stra lian stam p.
Jac k (to know) t h a t the sender (to be) Dicky Soarnes, his
wifes cousin, it (to be) the second letter Mrs. Ainsiey (to
127
receive) since Dicky (to leave) for A ustra lia. The first (to
come) six m on ths before; J a c k (to b u rn ) it w ithout reading.
No m an (to have) ever less re aso n for jealo u sy than Ainsiey.
His wife A dela (to be devoted) to him; she (to be) a splendid
house-keeper and a very good m other to their two children.
B ut Jac k (to know ) t h a t Dicky S o am es (to be) in love with
Adela. And the fact th a t y e a rs back Dicky (to go aw ay ) to
A u s tra lia to join his an d A d e la s uncle (to m ake) no
difference. J a c k (to be a fra id ) th a t some day Dicky (to re
tu rn ) and (to take) Adela from him.
Ainsiey (not to p ut) this second letter in his pocket as
som ebody (m ay see) him do it. So at night he (to come) back
to the post-office to ta k e it and (to g et in) th rou gh the w in
dow. U n fo rtu n a te ly , w hen he (to get o ut) he (to be seen) by
the p o s tm a s te r. Ainsfey ,(not to w a n t) to tell him the tru th
it' (to be) too hum iliating . Amd so he (to lose) his job. Soon
Ainsiey (to discover) t h a t he (can n o t get) any other p e r m a
n ent job as people (not to t r u s t ) him. Life (to become) h ard .
One afterno on, w hen Ainsiey cam e hom e he (to be s u r
prised) to see the fam iliar face of Dicky Soam es, who (not to
ch a n g e ) at all. Dicky (to say) th a t he (to be delighted) to see
Adela an d Jack. I (to m iss) b o th of you ever so m uch , he
(to a d d ) with a friendly smile.
Uncle Tom (to d ie ), A^dela (to exp lain), and Dicky (to
inherit) a g r e a t deal of m oney. She (to t u r n ) to Dicky. Teli
him the r e s t, she (to say) quietly.
Well, you see, (to say) Dicky. U n d e Tom (to leave)
som ething over sixty th o u s a n d and he (to wish) Adela to
have h alf of his money! B u t he (to get) a n g r y because she
never (to a n s w e r) the two lette rs I (to w rite) to her for him.
So he (to c h a n g e) his will a n d (to leave) A d e la s sh a re of the
m oney to hospitals. W hy you (not to a n s w e r) them, A d e la ?
Adela (to look) a t her h u sb a n d . Then she (to come) up to
him a n d (to tak e) his h and. The letters m u s t hav e been
lo s t, she (to s a y ) .
At. th a t m om ent Ainsiey (to realize) th a t Adela (to know)
e v erythin g. (A.fter A. P h ilip s)

88. Read the text an a d v e rtis e m e n t c? a book a b o u t th e arch eo lo g ical

e x c a v a tio n s a t U r a n d a n e x tra c t from the bode Ur of the C h a ld e es" by
C. L. W oolley. W rite oat the verb fo rm s a n d retell the text u sin g the
sam e form s.

M o st people h e a rd of the excavations at U r of the C h a l

dees, b u t few know m uch about the w o rk th a t has been done
there. N e w sp ap er articles are re ad a n d soon forgotten, such
128
scientific re p o rts as hav e been published a re too technical for
the a v e r a g e public w hose in terest is purely g en e ral and even
so m ay not be easy to obtain: there has been a w id esp read
d e m an d for some account which w o uld deal with the re su lts
of the ex cavations as a whole an d describe *hem in a simple
an d re ad ab le m ann er.
In the p resen t book only the m ore im po rtant re s u lts of the
w o rk at U r are described, an d its technical asp e cts have been
om itted altogether; m ore attention h a s been paid to individ
ual o bjects and to the m a n n e r of their discovery th an to the
historical conclusions which m ay be based upon them: the
objects and the buildings b ro u g h t to light d u rin g the seven
yea rs j u s t p asse d are d ea lt with in historical order, so fa r as
th a t is possible, because only so can they be seen in true p e r
spective; but the book is in no sense a history of the S u m e r
ian people or of the city of U r, but an account of the e x c a
vation s which are h elpin g to m ake th a t history possible.
The story is fa scinatin g. We s t a r t with the discovery
m ad e last w inter of m ateria l evidence for the Flood, and for
the cu ltu re which preceded t h a t d isaster in s outhern M e so
potam ia; then com es a n account of the e a rly cemetery, in
cluding the now fam ous Royal Tombs, the tre a s u re s from
which hav e revolutionized o u r ideas of the b eginnings of
w estern civilization; next a re described the ruins of the time
of the Third D ynasty, when U r w a s an imperial city and its
finest buildings were erected, an d so on until the later days,
when the sister of B elshazzar w as Hinh Priestess of the Moon-
God and C y ru s King of P e rs ia resto red for the la s t time the
age-old m o n u m en ts of the holy city. Few excavations h ave
produced in so s h o rt a space so co ntinuous a record of civili
zation, an d for some of the periods the only evidence we
possess comes from the ru in s of Ur; b ut if it is an historical
evidence th a t the objects th e re u n e a rth e d gain m ost in in
tere st their artistic ap p e al is scarcely less pre-eminent.
The history of U r goes back fa r beyond the flood into
those dim days when the E u p h ra te s Valley, at least a t its
lower end, w a s still a g r e a t m a rs h th ro u g h which the w a te r s
of the two rivers m ad e their slu g g ish way to the sea. G r a d u
ally, as the s tre a m s b ro u g h t down m ore a n d m ore silt from
the north, the m a rs h la n d b e g a n to shrink, the w a te rs w ere
g a th ered to gether into one place, and the dry land a p p e a re d ,
a n d from the u p la n d s of A rabia o r from the higher
reaches of the m iddle E u p h ra te s s e ttle rs drifted down to
occupy such is la n d s as g a v e a chance for men to live a n d
cultivate the earth.
5 It 1 21>
 One of these islan d s w a s Ur. O u r excavations hav e not
yet gone deep en o u g h to lay b a re more th a n a few s ca tte red
relics of the very early days, b u t a t al Ubaid, about four
miles from U r, we have d u g out p a r t of such a primitive
settlem en t. Here a tittle knoll, fo rtu n a te ly never covered
a i t e r w a r d s with buildings, p re serv ed the re m a in s of h uts
co nstru c te d of m u d an d w a ttle or slight tim ber fram in g filled
in with reed m ats, w ith floors of beaten m u d a n d fireplaces of
m u d or cru d e brick, and w ooden doors w ho se hinge-poles
tu rn e d on stone sockets.
In the ruins w e found quan tities of the fine painted h a n d
m ad e p ottery such a s occurs in the low est levels touched at
U r (P l a t e l a ) , ro u g h e r household w a re s used for cooking
a n d s to ra g e , hoes and adzes of chipped and polished stone,
saw -tooth ed flints and flakes of im ported volcanic g lass,
sickles m ad e of h a rd -b a k e d clay (P la te l b ) , all the evidence
of a very sim ple cu lture. It w as clear t h a t these people cu lti
va te d the soil and reap ed their h a r v e s t of g rain; they kept
dom esticated cattle, sheep an d goats; they fished in the
m a rs h e s (for w e found fish-hooks and model b o a ts ), and,
j u d g i n g from f r a g m e n t s of painted t e rr a -c o tta figures of
men and wom en, they seem to have painted or tatooed their
bodies; stone w e ig h ts show ed t h a t the loom w a s known, so
th a t they h a d a d v a n c e d beyond the s ta g e when men wore
only the skins of b e a s ts (thou gh the trad itio n of such sheep
skin g a r m e n ts re m a in e d on into m uch later tim e s ); and for
luxury they h ad b e a d s cut from shell or ru d e ly chipped from
tr a n s p a r e n t white q u a r tz , carn elian , and obsidian.
There w a s n o th in g to show to w h a t race these first in h a b
ita n ts of M eso potam ia belonged, bu t it is n a t u r a l to connect
them with the S em itic-speaking A k k adian s whom later on we
find occupying the no rth ern h alf of the river-valley; in any
case we ca n see them as a primitive, not to say a b a r b a ro u s
people who, while they h ad certain ly m ad e some ad v a n c e on
the ro a d to civilization, were yet very far from being w h a t
we sh ould te rm a civilized com m unity.
At al U b aid the settlem ent seem s to have been c o m p a r a
tively short-lived; a t U r a sim ilar settlem en t b ut on a much
la r g e r scale m u s t have end u red for a very long time; and as
the frail m ud h u ts fell into decay a n d over the ruins of them
new h u ts w ere built, only to collapse and be built over in their
tu rn , the g rou nd-level rose, ju s t a s it does in any m o dern
m u d -b u ilt v illage of the N ear E ast, and w h a t h ad been a low
islan d becam e a hill. Then, at a d a te which w e can n o t fix,
people of a new ra c e m ade their w ay into the valley, com ing
whence we do not know, and settled down side by side with
the old inhabitants. These w ere the Sum erians.

M ODAL VERBS
CAN

99. D eterm ine the m ea n in g of the m ed a l v erb c an ". T r a n s la te th e se n

ten c es in to R ussian.

1. I can see perfectly well w h a t it is all ab out, th an k you.

2. Could you tel! us w h a t took place there? 3. If only I could
have been th ere , she said. 4. I could not check my tears, for
they cam e a g a in s t my will. 5. And to her friends she can be
very c h a rm in g . 6 . It w a s n ea rly six m onths since his book h a d
been published. Who could have been re ad in g it, he w o n
dered? 7. He could w rite rhym ed verses with ex tra o rd in a ry
rapidity. 8 . You c a n n o t postpone y o u r d e p a rtu re until next
week. 9. C ould he have been a t the reception? I d id n t see him.
10. This d re ss c a n t be so shockingly expensive. 11. H a r r i s
c a n t have given th o u g h t to the m atter. 12. Could anyo ne like
tinned fruit better th an fresh fruit? 13. Mr. D rake c a n t have
been w o rk in g a t the b an k for fifteen years. 14. P a u l co u ld n t
have failed to learn French while living in F rance. 15. The
dog c a n t h ave bitten her w ithout a reason. 16. Could the
H o w a rd s still be living in M an c h ester? 17. You c a n take the
tap e recorder. We w o n t need it today. 18. He c o u ld n t b u t
resign from the B oard. 19. And you did approve of the t r e a t
ment th at w as giv en ? he said curtly. I did. I can n o t see
how it could have been bettered." 20. You can lead her, b u t
you c a n t drive her.

100. C h a n g e the follow ing se n te n c e s to e x p ress im possibility u sin g the

m odal verb c a n " a n d the p ro p e r form of the infinitive (c o n su lt 38 ).
C om m ent on the e v e n t d e scrib ed in the sentence u sin g th e e x p ressio n s
in b ra c k e ts. Follow th e exam ple.

Example: I am s u r e it is n t true, (to be too silly)

It c a n t (c o u ld n t) be true. It is too silly.
A. 1. I am su re M a r g a r e t d o esn t believe these lies, (to be
a clever girl) 2. I am su re P ro fe sso r Leigh isnt a t his office
now. (to leave an hour a g o ) 3. I am su re sensible people do
not m ake such prom ises, (to be impossible to keep them )
4 . 1 am su re Michael is n t p layin g chess, (to be busy) 5. I am
sure N ora isn t w o rk in g at her g ra d u a tio n paper, (to tak e her
5* 131
e x a m s now) 6 . I am su re the P a lm e r s a r e n t s ta y in g in tow n,
(to be too hot) 7 . 1 am su re boys d o n t like such stories, (to be
s e n tim en tal) 8 . I am sure M rs. D avis isn t m a k in g a cake
now . (to go to the shop five m inutes ago) 9 . 1 am s u re M onica
a n d her friends a r e n t listen ing to music, (to have an e x a m i
nation to m orro w ) 10. I am su re Mr. C a r t e r d o esn t re
m em b er such trifles, (to be a busy m an)
. 1. I am su re the s tu d e n ts h av e n t been w ritin g the test
for an hour, (to be only nine oclock) 2. I am su re R oger
h a s n t spent so much m oney on clothes, (to like only books)
3. I am su re the Jac k so n s h a v e n t come back from their trip,
(not to a n sw e r the phone) 4. I am su re S ta n d id n t go to the
football m atch yesterday, (to see him a t the Ansleys at the
tim e) 5. I am su re Anne d id n t get m arried last month, (not
to tell anybody abou t it) 6 . I am su re Philip d id n t stay at
hom e last evening, (to try to get in touch w ith him and fail)
7. I am su re B ess h a s n t been w orkin g in the re a d in g -ro o m
m ore than half an hour, (n ot to see her there a n ho ur ag o)
8 . I am su re the B lak es h a v e n t been living in o u r town for
ten years, (to live in B oston five y e a rs ago) 9. I a m su re they
h a v e n t been w a tc h in g television so long, (to be too b o rin g )
1 0 . 1 am su re she w a s not ta lk in g on the telephone with M a r y
when I came, (to be a t ho spital)

101. Refer the fo llow ing se n te n c e s to the p a st. M ake the n e c e ssa ry c h an g e s.

1. You can provide for h er now. 2. It c a n t be true, b e

c a u se it is u n fa ir! exclaim ed David. 3. You can drop me off
at D a rlin g h u rs t, if you d o n t m ind. 4. Algy, can you wait for
me till I am thirty-five? 5. Ashley doesn t m ean an y th in g to
her, except a friend. She c a n t be crazy abo u t him. I t s us
s h e s crazy about. 6 . C a n t you believe me, m o th e r? His
m other shook her head. 7. B ut it c a n t be right for yo ur fa th e r
to p ou r spirits down her th r o a t like that. 8 . C an she faii to
re co v er? th o u g h t B art. 9. H a p p y is a m an who can m ake
a living by his hobby. 10. It c a n t possibly be W alter. He
d o esn t leave the lib rary till five. 11. W hat can they be dis
cussin g? 12. You can spot an Irish m an or 9 Y orkshirem an by
his brogue. I can place a n y m an within six miles. I can place
him within two miles in London. 13. I m gettin g chilled to the
bone. W h a t can F red d y be doing ail this time? H es been go ne
tw enty m inutes. 14. I t s an am a z in g n ig h t, said y o u n g
T a s b u rg h on her o th er side: C o u ld n t we get ou t?" 15. She
cannot deceive me. H er n a m e can n o t be Doolittle.
132
*102. In s e rt c o u ld or its e q u iv a le n ts a c c o rd in g to th e sen se. R em em ber
th a t c o u ld is used for g e n e ra l a b ility . To indicate th e a ch iev em en t of
so m e th in g u se w a s a b le to , m a n a g e d to or succeeded in .

1. She ... sing like an ang e l. 2. She does not smoke an y

longer, becau se I ... p e r s u a d e her to give u p sm oking. 3 In
his childhood he ... climb high trees. 4. Happily John ... sw im
a c ro ss the river, o therw ise he w o uld have drow ned. 5. He
w a s a terrific liar: he ... m ake anybody believe him. 6 . 1 talk ed
for a long time, and in the end I ... m ak e her believe
me. 7. They w ere not busy. They ... repair my ca r, b u t d id n t
do it. 8 . I w a s lucky enough to buy a cheap b u t nice coat.
I ... get 15 /o off the price. 9. After six h o u rs clim bing, they
... reach the top of the m ountain. 10. M y friend ... sp eak ten
la n g u ag e s. 11. M y son w as v ery good a t figures. He ... do
s u m s better th a n anyone.
103. Use the m o d al verb c a n : A. to a s k fo r p e rm issio n a ) to a r ra n g e
th in g s fo r y o u r frie n d s d e p a rtu re ; b ) to b rin g A n n b a c k hom e from
h o sp ital; c ) to see Jo h n a g a in in a w eeks tim e; d ) to ex p erim en t w ith
a new recipe fo r fish soup; e ) to fill in th e form in ink; f ) to m ake a fo r
w a rd p a s s in ru g b y . B. to giv e p erm issio n in a n sw e r to th e above-
m entioned req u ests.

*104. O pen th e b ra c k e ts u sin g the a p p ro p ria te form of th e infinitive. D e

velop th e s itu a tio n s s u g g e ste d by sen ten ces 6, 14, 16.

1. I need not h av e lived so h a rs h ly for an e x tra tw enty

pounds a year. I could (to soften) th in gs for myself. 2. I t s
so aw ful th a t I c a n t (to give) you any th in g in r e tu r n , he
said. Give m e the w a tc h you p aw ned to s ta n d me a s u p p e r .
It w as a little gold w atch th a t could not (to cost) m ore t h a n
10 pounds. 3. J e s s u p looked a t him for a second or two with
n arro w e d eyes. Then it s tru c k him. W ait a m in u te , he shot
out. If th e re s food poisoning on board, it c a n t (to be) only
the pilots w h o ve gone down with it? 4. She saw the sm oke
of the rescue s te a m e rs on the horizon, but w h a t ste a m e r
could (to expect) to come to lonely un inh abited T akokota?
5. I ve got the m ost w on derful n ew s for y o u, she said.
J a n e is g o in g to be m a r r ie d . Nonsense! C an it (to be)
t r u e ? 6 . You co u ld n t (to come) m ore fortunately : we w a n t
you to m eet a friend of o u rs. 7. W h at can he (to do) all this
time? He w e nt out an hour ago. 8 . P a d r a ic knew w here he
w as, because he could (to h ea r) the stead y clocking of an axe
from the direction of the woodheap. 9. The blaze could (to
see) now fa r aw ay. 10. I m et his wife. She v/as a w o m an of
tw enty-eight, I sh o u ld think, though of a type whose a g e is
133
 a lw a y s doubtful; for she c a n n o t (to look) different when she
w a s twenty, and a t forty w o uld look no older. 11. W h at do
you propose to d o ? S tay on h ere. I am afraid its im pos
sible, Fm s h u ttin g up the h o u s e . Nonsense! Therell be
so m e s e r v a n ts here. You c a n n o t (to sack) th e lot. 12. The
old m a n can (to see) on the porch of his house every evening.
13. C ould they still (to play) billiards? 14. H e ca n n o t (to
think) of this himself. Who s u g g e s te d it to him? 15. S he
c o u ld n t (to cook) since lunchtim e. 16. I tried to lift the w in
dow, b ut it w a s jam m ed . It could (not to open) for y ears. 17.
C lo sin g time a rriv ed quickly enough. It could (not to be)
m ore th a n an h our after I took my position on the m a ttre s s e s
before I noticed the blinds of the w indow s bein g d ra w n , and
cu s to m e rs being m arc h ed d o o rw a rd .
105. E x p ress u n c e rta in ty o r im p o ssib ility a b o u t th e follo w in g s ta te m e n ts
u sin g the m o d al v e rb c a n " a n d the a p p ro p ria te fo rm of the infinitive.

Exam ple: He w a s rud e to his sister.

C an (could) he h ave been rude to his sister?
O r: He c a n t ( c o u ld n t) have been rude to his
sister.

!. S am failed the history exam. 2. Bob is playing football

in the y ard. 3. P a m e la is so conceited. 4. The N elsons will a r
rive next week. 5. The m an v/as so eloquent. 6 . The girl knew
ev e rything . 7. They suspected nobody. 8 . The boy believed
every w ord. 9. They will phone Mr. S tephens at once. 10. The
Keiths trea ted the m an badly. 11. She is very un hap py in her
m a rria g e . 12. M a r th a decided not to tell the t ru th to anybody.
13. He will do the w ork in the evening. 14. S ally is s p ea k in g
on the telephone.
108. U se the m o d al verb c a n In the p a s t ten se to m ak e the follow ing
q u e stio n s m ore polite a s show n in the exam ple.

Exam ple: W here is the post-office?

C ould you tell me or show me where the post-
office is?
1. How is it done? 2. W hen does the train from E d in b u rg h
arriv e? 3. Which is the best w ay to Victoria S tation? 4. Is
there a w ay th ro u g h ? 5. W h a t ia n g u a g e s does P rofesso r
Sm ith speak? 6 . W hen is Mr. Taylor expected to come back?
7. W h a t su b je c ts are ta u g h t in this college? 8 . W hat time
does the m atinee s ta rt? 9. When does the ticket w indow
open? 10. Is there a b u s to W indsor? 11. W hy is Michael
displeased?
134

I
*107. Translate the follow in g sentences into English.

1. He ,
. 2. -, -
. 3.
? 4. ?
, . 5.
. ? 6 .
?
, ? 7.
?
, ? 8 .
?
. 9. .
10. ? .
11. ? 12.
? 13. ,
, . 14.

. 15.
? 16. . 17.
, ?
18. , ,
. 19. :
. 20. ? 21.
:
. 22 . ? 23.
. 24.
? . 25. ,
. 26. .
. 27.
, ?

108. R eproduce the fo llo w in g d ia lo g u e s p ay in g p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to the

m odal v erb c a n .

(When M rs. B lake w oke up in the m orning, she had a b a d

pain in her side.)
Mr. B la ke (P h o n es Dr. S m ith ): Nobody answ ers. C a n he
have gone out?
M rs. B lake: Please, keep trying. My side is g ettin g worse.
Could it be appendicitis?
135
Mr. B la k e : D ont worry. I w o n t give up until I can get him.
(S p e a k s into the te le p h o n e ): C an I speak with Dr. Smith?
C ould you ask him to phone Mr. Blake? I t s urgent.
T h a n k you.

John: Could I go with you to the lecture on F rench m usic

to m o rro w night?
M ary: C ertainly, you can.
John: S h all I call for you a t seven-thirty?
M ary: No, I w o n t be home. Anne a n d I are to call on a friend
of o u r s a t six-thirty. C an I meet you som ewhere?
John: Yes, of course. W herever it is convenient to you.
M ary: Do you know w h e re the university lib rary is?
John: Yes. I ll wait for you there.
M ary: C an you m ake it by a q u a r te r to eight?
John: I m s u re I can. W ould Anne join us?
M ary: No, she c a n t. She h as a date.
109. R etell the follo w in g jo k e s u sin g the m o d al v e rb c an .

1. A Good R eason for B orrow ing

W hy on e a rth do you keep b o rro w in g th a t saxophone

from your neighbour? You c a n t play it, can y o u ?
No, of course I c a n t. B ut while I have it, he c a n t play it
either.

2. C hoosing a M usical In s tru m en t

M u s t I learn m u s ic ? sighed Jack.

Yes, a n s w e re d his m o th er, but y o u r father and I have
decided th a t you can choose the in s tru m e n t.
C an I? said J a c k brig h ten in g . Then ca n it be the tape
re c o rd e r?

3. S m a ll T a lk at a P a rty

Is it tru e th a t a w ild b ea st ca n t h u r t you if you c a rry

a to rc h ? a society ho stess asked one of her guests, a fam ous
explorer.
It all d ep e n d s, he a n sw e red , on how fast you can
c a rry it.

136
 4. At the Lecture

P rofessor: You c a n t sleep in my class.

S tu d e n t: If you d id n t ta lk so loud, I could.

5. A Good R eason

J u d g e : How could you sw indle people w ho tru s te d you?

P risoner: B ut sir, people who d o n t t r u s t you cann ot be
sw indled.

At a dinner in H ollyw ood C h arlie C haplin en tertained the

g u e s ts th ro u g h o u t the ev e n in g by im itatin g people they
knew: men, wom en and children, his chauffeur, his se rv a n ts,
his secretaries. F inally he s a n g a t the top of his voice an aria
from a n Italian O p era s a n g it superbly. Why, C harlie,
I never k new you could s in g so bea utifully, someone ex
claim ed.
I c a n t sing a t all, C h aplin rejoined. I w a s only imi
t a t i n g C a r u s o .

Som e of the a d m ire rs of the 18th c e n tu ry G erm an poet

Klopstock m ade a jo u rn e y from G o ttin g e n to H a m b u r g to
ask him to explain a difficult p a s s a g e in his w orks. Klopstock
received them graciously, re ad the p a s s a g e and said:
I c a n n o t recollect w h a t I m e a n t when I w rote it, b u t I re
m em ber it w a s the finest th in g I ever w rote, and you can n o t
do better th a n devote your lives to the discovery of its m e a n
i n g s .

R obert F aiso n Scott, the explorer, applied to Lloyd

G e o rg e for a s sistan ce in the financing of his last, fatal P o la r
expedition. The then C han ce llo r referred him to a certain
w e alth y m an , also of som e prom inence in the political scene.
How did you succeed? a s k e d Lloyd G eorge, when the e x
plo rer ag a in called on him.
He gave me a th o u s a n d p o u n d s , w a s the reply, but he
h a s u n d e r ta k e n to raise 20 t h o u s a n d poun ds if I can p e rs u a d e
137
you to come v/ith me, an d a million if I m a n a g e to leave you
there .

MAY

110. D eterm ine the m ea n in g of th e m oda! v erb m a y . T ra n s la te the se n

ten ces into R ussian.

1. M ay I a s k w h a t you inten d to do? 2. I m ay have one or

tw o people corning in to m o rro w e v e n in g , she said. W hy not
join u s ? 3. F ash io n s ch a n g e so quickly n o w adays: they m ay
have altered by the time you g e t u p sta irs. 4. He looked em
b a r ra s s e d , an d it occurred to me th at he m ight h ave been
listening at the door. 5. You m igh t be m ore con sid erate to
your p a r e n ts who alw a y s think of y o u r well-being. 6 . He
asked if he m ight b rin g his y o u n g er broth er to the party.
7. You might have w a rn e d us t h a t the dog w a s d a n g e ro u s .
8 . I m sure the film v/ill be dull v/e m ight j u s t a s well stay
a t home. 9. W h atever else I m ay be, I am not a fool. 10. I c a n t
say I rem em ber noticing the box but, of course, it m ay
have been there all the time. 11. O k a y , Vivian said,
I m ig h t be a little late b u t not m u c h . 12. You m ay come
to m o rro w a little l a t e r , she said graciously. 13. I am certain
she did n et v /ant to s nu b you; she m ay not have seen you in
the crow d. 14. You m ay not go b oating its too windy.
15. You m ay call m e Dolly if you like, b u t you m u s t n t
call m e child. 16. D ont w orry; the te le g ra m m e m ay
come tom o rro w . 17. C h a rle s m ay have been at the club
all this time. 18. The boys m ay have been play in g tennis
since lunchtime. 19. It o cc u rre d to him th a t his h o s te ss
m ight be e n te rta in in g the g u e s ts in the garden. 20. Let m e
tell you my story, an d by th a t time, you see, you m ay h av e
m a d e up your mind. 21. Fix y o u r m ind not on w h a t you m ay
have done long ag o to h u rt b u t on w ha t you can do now to
help. 22. You m ay be su re Rivarez h as h e a rd no thing of G ra s-
sinys d isap prov al. He m ight have guessed it, thou gh ; hes
sharp enough.

111. C h a n g e the follo w in g se n ten c es to ex p ress u n c e rta in ty u sin g the m o d al

v e rb m a y a n d the proper form of th e infinitive (c o n su lt 38 ). Follow
the exam ple.

Exam ple: P e rh a p s (m aybe) he is (not) h a v in g dinner.

He m ay (m ight) (not) be h av in g dinner.
A. 1. P e rh a p s Bess is m a k in g tea in the kitchen. 2. M aybe
P a u l sees him very often. 3. M aybe they are still h a v in g
i 38
a holiday. 4. P e rh a p s his d a u g h te r is not stu d y in g in a
teac h er tra in in g college. 5. M aybe the doctor is ex a m in in g
the patient now. 6 . P e rh a p s the m a n a g e r is not busy. 7. P e r
hap s they a r e trying to p e rs u a d e Jim to join the expedition.
8 . P e rh a p s S am is telling his friends about his a d v e n tu re s in
the North. 9. M aybe N ancy is w aitin g for you in the hall.
10. P e rh a p s they are not ta k in g p a r t in the a m a t e u r t h e a t
ricals. 11. M aybe Anne likes detective stories. 12. P e rh a p s
the th in g is radio-active. P e rh a p s it is d a n g e r o u s . G e o rg e
w a s breathless.
B. 1. P e rh a p s the film will have a happy end. 2. M aybe he
will not tell you the truth. 3. M ay be J an e will forgive him.
4. P e rh a p s the test will not be so difficult next time. 5. M ayb e
the P a lm e rs will stay a t home on Sunday. 6. M aybe the
w eather will not ch a n g e for the worse. 7. P e rh a p s we sh all
get tickets for the play. 8 . M aybe his p a re n ts will allow him
to keep the dog. 9. We have quite a few n o tew orth y places of
interest a b o u t the to w n th a t p erh ap s will in te re st you.

C. 1. P e rh a p s y our n eig hbo urs have left the tow n.

2. M aybe S am h a s n t m a d e an appointm ent with the dentist.
3. P e rh a p s everybody h a s agreed to the plan. 4. M aybe they
didnt send him a letter. 5. M aybe the situation h as ch ang ed.
6 . P e rh a p s they have b o u g h t a new coat for the boy. 7. P e r
haps the old m an h a s lost his way. 8 . M aybe the text w a s not
difficult. 9. P e rh a p s she w a s rude to him. 10. M aybe the ta p e
recorder w as out of order. 11. M eanw hile he wrote a film-
script for an E nglish com pany; p erhaps it w a s a su itab le
film for Annabel, b u t the com pany put an o th er a c tr e s s
in the part.

D. 1. M aybe the s tu d e n ts have not been stu d y in g French

long. 2. M aybe they h av e been sta y in g a t the hotel for m ore
than a week. 3. P e rh a p s he h a s not been here long. 4. P e rh a p s
Mr. P a rk e r h a s been w o rk in g in the g a rd en since m orning.
5. P e rh a p s Uncle Tom h a s been h a v in g a nap since lu n c h
time. 6 . P e rh a p s he h a s n t seen her since last spring. 7. P e r
haps the child has been listen ing to our talk all the time.
8 . P e rh a p s Ja c k h as been collecting stam ps for several y ears.
9. M aybe the boy h a s been delivering the p a p e rs since five
oclock. 10. P e r h a p s they hav e been w atching television all
evening.
112. M ake th e follo w in g se n te n c e s less c ertain by u sin g m ay o r
m ig h t".

139
Example: They will a rriv e tom orrow .
They m ay arriv e tom orrow .
1. M onica will s tu d y Swedish. 2. They h ad a dictation
yesterday. 3. She will be late. 4. They are e a tin g breakfast.
5. The boy lied to his teacher. 6 . The old w o m an slipped on the
ice. 7. They will go sw im m ing tom orro w . 8 . Mr. B ennet w ent
to the b a n k to deposit som e money. 9. Philip will tell them
ab o u t the accident. 10. S a m decided to take the ex am ination
again. 11. He will finish w ritin g the paper on time. 12. The
p lay in g field will be re ad y by next week.
*113. O pen the b ra c k e ts u s in g th e a p p ro p ria te form of the infinitive.

1. He th o u g h t th a t J a c k m ight still (to be) in his office.

2. B ro w n was not feeling p a rtic u la rly happy th a t m orning,
a n d this m ay (to be) th e re ason th a t he w a s g la d of M a s s
com pany. 3. I d o n t m ind a d m ittin g th at if she gets herself
u n p le a s a n tly talk ed abo ut it m ight (to have) som e effect on
the takings. 4. A rth u r m ay (to ru n a w ay ) from hom e and (to
go) to S o uth Am erica. 5. H ow ever b a d ly he m ay (to behave)
in the past, he is still yo ur brother. 6 . Then you h av e no idea
w hy anyone m ight (to se n d ) this letter? 7. He is one of those
ageless u n c h a n g in g men on the fa rth e r side of fifty, who
m ight (to be).thirty, who m ight (to be) anything. 8 . Mr. Ack-
royd himself m igh t (to ad m it) the s tra n g e r. 9. He m ay (not
to sleep) since 9 oclock. 10. H e w a s of the opinion that the
riv alry of the two ladies m ig h t (to breed) a q u a r re l between
them. 11. She m ay (to know ) H enry since her university
days. 12. You m ig ht (to sp a re ) me th a t scene, she said. 13.
They m ay (to w ait) for you do w nstairs. 14. I t s a lw a y s tricky
to go n o sin g a r o u n d in w a te r s w h e re there m ay (to be) a
nu clea r explosion. Especially s u b m erg e d . You never re ally
know w h a t you m ay (to ru n ) into. You m ay (to ta n g le ) with
a sinken ship you d id n t know w a s there. Youve got to go in
carefu lly an d w atch your step. 15. If you w a n t to know
where Eliza is, she is u p s t a i r s . B ut I think you m ight (to
tell) us this h alf a n h our a g o . 16. W here are the tw o ladies
th a t were here?" They w alked to the bus when the rain
stop ped . They m igh t (to w ait) for me. Left me with a cab
on my h a n d s !
114. A n sw e r the fo llo w in g q u e stio n s u sin g the m o d al v erb m ay ". The
e x p ressio n s in b ra c k e ts m a y pro v id e cues for y our answ ers*

Example: Why does he look so pale? (to be ill)

He m ay (m ig h t) be ill.
140
 I. W hy a re there so m a n y people on the p latfo rm ? (to
w ait for the next tra in ) 2. W hy is J o h n so busy? (to read for
his exam inations) 3. W hy is he so tired? (to w o rk in the
g a r d e n ) 4. Why d o esn t O s c a r w a n t to see the film? (not to
like detective stories) 5. Why doesnt M onica w a n t to eat ice
cream ? (to slim ) 6 . W hy h a s the boy raised his h a n d ? (to
w a n t to a sk a question) 7. Why do you think Anne m ade so
m an y spelling m istak es in the la s t dictation? (to be absent-
m inded) 8 . W hy is the child crying? (to h u rt him self) 9. Why
d o esn t the girl w a n t to bath e in the river? (to feel u nw ell)
10. Why h a v e n t the P a rk e rs arrived yet? (not to find a taxi)
11. W hy h a s n t C h arles phoned us? (not to get our tele
g ra m m e ) 12. W hy has he refused to come to the p arty ? (to be
busy th a t day) 13. Why does M a d g e w a n t to buy a new
w atch? (to lose her old one)
115. E x p ress y o u r irrita tio n u sin g the m o d al verb m ig h t .
Example: W hen did he tell them?
He told them j u s t now.
He might have told them sooner!
1. When did he say he w a s can celling it? He phoned us
a few m inutes a g o . 2. When did he s u g g e s t he w a s h a v in g
second t h o u g h ts ? He m entioned it a m inute or two a g o .
3. W hen did you get to h ea r of it? He b ro u g h t it up at the
m eeting. 4. When did it come to lig h t? He revealed it the
day before y e s te rd a y . 5. W hen did he ev entually a g re e to
it? He g a v e his consent late this a fte rn o o n . 6 . When did
he say he m ig ht hav e to go back on his decision? He in
form ed them a day or two a g o . 7. When did he own up to
ta k in g it? He adm itte d it an hour or so a g o .
116. R e p rim a n d y o u r frien d by u sin g the m o d al v e rb m ig h t : a ) for bein g
fa te fo r the p e rfo rm a n ce ; b ) fo r not p e rse v e rin g in w h a t he w as try in g
to do u n til he succeeded; c) fo r not bein g in a cc o rd an c e w ith his w o rd s;
d ) fo r c o m p la in in g very m uch; e) for not checking up on a ll the d e ta ils
firs t; f) for n o t m a k in g a decision a t once.
*117. In s e rt c a n o r m a y a c c o rd in g to the sense, if both a re possible
s ta te th e d ifference in m ea n in g . Notice th a t m a y is used to d enote
th e p ossibility (c h a n c e ) th a t so m eth in g will happen, or is h a p p en in g
w hile c a n d en o tes a m ore g e n era l o r th e o re tic a l k in d of p o ssi
bility.

1. I ... do these things som etim es in absence of mind, b u

surely I d o n t do them habitually. 2. I will take the fu rn itu re
an d the g h o st at a v aluation . I cam e from a m od ern country,
w here we h ave ev ery th ing th a t money ... buy. 3. M o s t of all
141
I w a n t you to myself. And you ... be m ore alone in New York
th an anyw here on ea rth . 4. I s h o u l d n t mind if it had only
happened to me: an y thing ... h ap p e n to anybody. 5. If we stay
here too lon g we ... not get out. 6 . Jo h n ... g o tra v e llin g in the
U r a l s next sum m er. 7. We ... d iscuss it later. 8 . M a r k
... phone today. If he does, I ll invite him to ou r party.
9. I ... fly to Berlin next week. There will be a n im p o rta n t
conference there.

118. R efer the follo w in g se n te n c e s to th e p a s t. M ake the n e c e ssa ry c h a n g e s.

1. He g az es a t him w ith a chilly loathing which m ay

w oun d a m ore sensitive m an. 2. Why doesnt he send to s a y
he is ill? M artini interru p te d . He m ight gu ess we s h o u ld n t
leave him s t ra n d e d in this fa sh io n . 3. You never think or
ca re w ha t m ay happen to th em or you. 4. W h a t I m ay do,
I m ay get a job on a ra n c h or som ething for a while.
5. I m ight try my luck with w h a t s on my right. No, not a
chance there. 6 . She says her h u s b a n d m ay be p laying chess
at the club. 7. By the way, you m ight use y o u r influence on
y our h u sb an d . 8 . You are not bored, are y o u ? asked Bill.
You m ight w a r n me, a n y h o w . 9. Mr. W a rb u rto n frowned.
You m ay be quick to a r r a n g e ev eryth in g a s it sho uld be. 10.
You m ay say it to me now. 11. I am w o n d e rin g if I m ay have
a piece of b r e a d . Of c o u rs e . 12. Mr. Sm ith m ay be w o rk
ing now. 13. You m ay come a n d see her after seven, if you
wish. 14. It m ay easily be B erils father, he is stay in g a t
W oodstock. 15. M artin m ay be ca llin g up his girl friend. 16.
She m ay be telling R obert a b o u t h er m isfortunes. 17. Roger
m ay not receive a m a s t e r s degree. 18. He is p u ttin g up a t the
inn at W oodstock, an d he a s k s if he m ay call on me this a f te r
noon.
*119. T ra n s la te the follow ing se n ten c es in to E nglish.

1. , , .
2. , . 3. ,
, . 4. ,
. 5. ,
. 6 . ,
. 7. , . 8 .
, ,
. 9. ,
, . 10. ,
. 11 . ,
. 12. ,
142
, . 13. ,
,
. 14. ! , . 15.
. 16.
: . 17.
? 18. ,
, . 19. , ,
, . 20. ,
,
. 21. ,
. 22 . ,
: . 23.
, ,
. 24. , ,
. 25. ,
:
. 26. , ;
.
120. R etell the follow ing jo k e s u sin g the m odal v e rb m a y .

1. In the T ra m

C onductor: M ay I p u t your b a g out of the way, sir? People

com ing in are fa llin g over it.
P assenger: No, you m ay not leave it where it is. If nobod y
falls over it, 1 m ay forget its there.

2. M ark T w a in s A n sw er

When M a rk T w a in edited a n ew sp ap er in M issouri, one of

his sub scribers w rote to him that he h ad found a spider in his
paper an d he wished to know w h eth er it m ight m ean good or
bad luck.
M a rk Twain a n s w e re d : F in ding a spider in y ou r p a p e r is
neither good luck no r bad. The spider w a s looking over the
n ew spap er to see which m erc h an t w a s not adve rtisin g , so
th a t he m ight go to t h a t shop, spin his web ac ro s s the door
a nd live a happy a n d peaceful life!

3. Too Late

H u sb a n d (after a q u a r re l, b i t te r l y ) : I w a s a fool when I m a r

ried you!
143
Wife: Yes, but I t ho ug h t you mi ght improve!

4. A W ay O u t

W om an (rin g in g up her d o c t o r ) : C an you come a t once? My

son has ju s t sw allo w e d a pen!
Doctor: Sorry, I am busy now. You may not see me for th ree
or four hours.
W om an: Three or four hours! W h a t shall I do in the m e a n
time?
D octor: But you m ay use a pencil!

5. How to Keep a Secret

An expert on security m a tte rs com m ented: A secret may

be best kept som etim es by keeping the secret of its being
sec re t.

*121. T ra n s la te the fo llow ing se n ten c es Into E nglish. Use the m odal v e rb s
c a n a n d m a y .

1. ? .
2. , ,
. ! 3.
, :
. 4. ,
. , . 5.
,
. 6 . ? 7. ,
,
. 8 .
? 9. , . 10.
? .
11. , .
. 12. ,
. 13. , -
.
14. , - :
. 15. .
. 16.
. 17.
. 18.
, . 19.
? , .
1 44
*122. O pen the b ra c k e ts u sin g th e a p p ro p ria te fo rm of the infinitive a fte r the
m o d al v e rb s c a n a n d m a y . C om m ent on the m e a n in g s they a re
used in. Speak on th e topic ra ise d in the ex tract.

D ear E d w a rd , I think we were wise to part. We were too

unsuited to one ano ther, a n d our difficulties could only (to
increase). I see th at if we h a d continued to live tog eth er our
q u a rre ls m ight (to increase) perpetually. It is horrible to
back upon those v u l g a r bra w ls. I cann ot (to u n d e r s ta n d )
how you could (to u tter) such things... P e rh a p s it m ight (to
be) different if we h a d had children; they m ight (to form )
between us a tru e r link, an d perhaps in the delight of them
I could (to forget) my im practicable dream s. But fate w a s
a g a in s t us... If you h a d asked me not to go, if you had ever
showed the s m allest sign of re g re ttin g my d ep a rtu re , I think
I m ight (to break d o w n ). Yes, I can (to tell) you now th a t
I could (to give) an y th in g to stay. But now the w o rst is over.
I have taken the step an d sh all ad h e re to w hat I have done.
I think I had better not see you at all events for som e tim e...
(After W. S. M a u g h a m )

M U ST

123. D eterm in e the m ea n in g of the m odal v e rb m u s t . T ra n s la te the se n

ten c es into R u ssian .

1. L ets go s tr a ig h t to the hotel. You m u s t be pretty well

done up an d your a u n t a n d sister are half dead. 2. I tried to
feel my heart. It had stopped beating. It m u st have been there
all the time, a n d m u s t hav e been beating, bu t I c o u ld n t feel
it. 3. You m u s t n t speak to the g en tle m a n like this, g irl,
said M rs. Pierce. 4. The sto ry w a s boring. She m u s t have told
it to him at le a s t six times. 5. T h oug h he m u st h ave been
thirty-four or thirty-five he looked m uch younger. 6. You
m u st see her in th a t play. Absolutely m arvelous! 7. We m u st
tu r n o ut ea rly in the m o rn in g , said E d w a rd . 8. M u s t
I m ake a clean b re a s t of eve ry th in g ? No, I d o n t think
so. With her quick intelligence she will u n d e r s t a n d . 9. He
m u st have failed to m ake good a n d w a s afraid to tell it to her
frankly. 10. You m u s t h ave been m isunderstood. Everybody
knows th at you have gained a g re a t deal of v a lu ab le experi
ence. 11. I t s eleven they m u s t have been in conference for
m ore th an two hours! 12. When we arrived the g u e sts m u s t
have been d iscussin g the la te st sensation. 13. L a d y B rad ly
said her h u s b a n d m u st be w aitin g for me in the c o n servatory .
14. Oh, Jack, you m u s t come a w a y at once, before it is too
145
late. 15. J u d g i n g by his face he m u s t be furious with the old
m an. 16. He m u st have been re a d in g the book w hen my letter
arrived .
124. C h a n g e th e fo llow ing se n ten c es u sin g the m o d al v e rb m u s t to
ex p re ss p ro b a b ility a n d th e a p p ro p ria te fo rm of th e infinitive (c o n su lt
40 ).
Exam ple: E v idently he is a t home.
He m u s t be a t home.

A. 1. E vidently he is ab sen t-m in d e d . 2. S urely he is w o rk

ing at his lecture now. 3. P r o b a b ly the sub ject is too difficult
for him. 4. Evidently he is teac h in g a t th a t college. 5. E vi
dently she is sv/im m ing in the pool. 6. It is p ro b a b le th a t
J ac o b is feeling better. 7. Evidently M r. G ra y is ambitious.
8. S urely the friends a re ta lk in g abo ut som ething interesting.
9. P ro b a b ly N a n cy likes sweets. 10. E vidently he is thinking
abo ut s om eth in g s a d . 11. E vidently the Leighs a re staying at
the motel. 12. P ro b ab ly they a re holding an im p o rtan t con fer
ence. 13. He is likely to be disappointed with his new w ork.
14. No doubt they are try in g to p ers u a d e her. 15. C ertainly
she is en joy ing herself.

B. 1. C ertainly it w a s a funn y experience. 2. Of course you

s a w things m ore objectively th an I did. 3. P ro b a b ly John
called on them la s t week. 4. E vidently they have been p laying
b ridg e all evening. 5. P ro b a b ly he h a s been looking up v/ords
in the d ictionary for the p a s t h alf hour. 6. S urely the Sm iths
have knov/n him for ages. 7. P ro b a b ly he has proposed to
M a r g a re t. 8. E vidently M rs. P a lm e r h a s been shopping all
m orn ing . 9. S u rely D avid h ad his final exam ination s la s t
sprin g. 10. Evidently Ken h a s tak en a vacation. 11. Evidently
M onica show ed them the slides of their trip. 12. Of course,
Mr. H u n te r h a s m ad e good p ro g re s s in French. 13. P ro b a b ly
he h a s been w ork ing at his book for the p a s t three years.

125. M ake up se n te n c e s w ith the m o d al v e rb m u s t to e x p ress oblig atio n or

s tro n g a d v ic e. U se th e e x p ressio n s given in th e list below .

Exam ple: to s t a r t a t once

You (he, M ary, etc.) m u s t s t a r t at once.
to p e r s u a d e smb. to do sm th., to pull oneself together, to
a ppo int a date for sm th., to give smb. a w a r m welcome, to
s t a n d by o n es friend, to book tickets today, to explain ones
behaviour, to h av e a tooth filled, to a s k sm b. for permission,
to see a doctor, to re tu rn a book (a m ag a z in e ) to the library,
146
to discuss the question at once, to w ork h a rd at o nes p r o n u n
ciation, to m ake friends with
J26. M ake up n e g ativ e se n ten c es w ith the m o d al verb m u s t to e x p re ss
prohibition o r stro n g advice. Use the e x p ressio n s given in the lis t b e
low.

Example: to go to bed late

You (he, John, etc.) m u s t not go to bed late.

to neglect on es w ork, to do smb. an injustice, to cry over

spilt milk, to give w ay to despair, to tu rn up ones nose at, to
hurt sm b .s feelings, to confide a sec ret to smb., to s ta re a t
smb., to m ake fun of, to be rude to smb., to read the newspaper
at breakfast, to comb o n es hair in public

127. A nsw er the fo llow ing q u e stio n s in acco rd an c e w ith the exam ple g iven
below .

Example: M u s t I (he, etc.) type the article now?

No, you (he, etc.) nee d n t. You (he, etc.) can type
it to m o rro w (the day after to m o rrow , next week,
etc.).
1. M ust I brin g t h a t question up now? 2. M u st P eter h a n d
in the pap e r today? 3. M u s t he drive to Detroit this week?
4. M u s t we finish the w o rk today? 5. M u s t they leave the
town next week? 6. M u s t M r. D ra k e talk with the m a n a g e r
now? 7. M u s t I phone h er a t once? 8. M u s t G eorge book
accom m odation in the hotel tom orrow ? 9. M u s t we m a k e
inquiries abo ut it this ev en ing? 10. M u s t they pay the rent
beforehand? 11. M u st I re ad the essay now?

128. M ake th e fo llow ing se n te n c e s n e g ativ e by u sin g th e v e rb to f a ll

(c o n su lt 4 0 ). F ollow the exam ple.

Example: R oger m u s t h av e un d ersto o d the truth.

R oger m u s t h av e failed to u n d e r s ta n d the tru th .
1. They m u s t have c a u g h t the l a s t train. 2. He m u st h av e
w ritten the te s t well. 3. They m u s t h ave ordered tickets by
phone. 4. G eo rg e m u st h a v e p e rs u a d e d them to come. 5. Dick
m ust have got there on time. 6. He m u s t have found out the
truth. 7. J a c k m u st h av e unlocked the door with the key.
8. The boy m u s t have delivered the teleg ram m e. 9. She m u s t
have explained her b e h a v io u r convincingly. 10. Robert m u s t
have pulled him self together.
*129. O pen th e b ra c k e ts u s in g th e a p p ro p ria te fo rm of the infinitive.

147
 1. Your whole fu tu re is concerned: you m u s t (to decide)
for yourself. 2. M a ry m u st (to put on) her new dress: I d o n t
see it in the w ard robe. 3. P eter spent his holiday in B righton;
t h a t s w here he m u st (to m eet) B a rb a ra . 4. The four oclock
bus m u s t (to fail to arrive) on time; otherw ise they w ould
a lre a d y be here. 5. They m u s t (to discuss) so m e th in g im p o r
t a n t when I came. 6. He m u s t (to leave) the tow n; I h a v e n t
seen him of late. 7. I have h e a rd you are s ta y in g in this hotel
a n d I said to myself: I m u st (to look) him up. 8. H enry w a s
so gloom y th a t I th o u g h t he m u s t (to fail) his exam . 9. J u d g
ing by his paleness he m u st (to w ork) too h a r d now . 10. We
m ust (to ride) in the bus for m ore than half an hour, an d we
h a v e n t reached even the sub urb s. 11. He m u s t (to live) next
door to us for m ore th an a decade, but we only have a n o d
ding ac q u a in ta n c e with him. 12. People m u s t (to know )
things. I consider it my duty to tell th em , said C aroline. 13.
You m u st (to forget) t h a t she m arried very early. 14. I am
su re you m u st (to know) w hy he did it. Tell me, I w a n t to
know all. 15. S a lly m u st (to talk ) on the telephone with
a friend. Go on in. S h ell be pleased to see you. 16. They m u s t
(to have) a holiday for a v/eek now.
130. A. A n sw e r th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s u sin g the m o d a l v e rb m u s t to
e x p ress p ro b a b ility in th e p a s t The ex p ressio n s in b ra c k e ts m ay p ro
vide cues fo r y o u r a n sw e rs.

Example: W hy d id n t J a n e come to your b irth d a y party ? (to

feel unw ell)
She m u s t have felt unwell.

I. Why d id n t Bess review the first ten lessons? (to have

no time) 2. W hy d id n t D o u g la s shav e today? (to be in a
hurry) 3. Why d id n t P ro fe sso r M orrison take a vacation
last year? (to have m uch w ork) 4. Why d id n t Sue go to
bed e a rly la s t night? (to w a sh her clothes) 5. W h y d id n t
M rs. B lack buy a new hat? (to be sh ort of m oney) 6. W hy
did nt he a s k the questio n? (to feel shy) 7. Why did
Michael buy this m a g az in e? (to find an in te re stin g article in
it) 8. W hy d id n t he see a doctor? (to have a slight cold)
9. Why d id n t the dentist pull out his b a d tooth? (to
stop it) 10. W hy d id n t H e rb ert take a taxi? (to fail to
find one)

B. A nsw er the fo llo w in g q u e stio n s u sin g the m odal v erb m u s t to e x p ress

p ro b a b ility in th e p re se n t, the p a s t a n d the fu tu re . M ake u se of th e tim e
in d ic a to rs given In b ra c k e ts .

148
E xam p le: W hen did he p ain t this picture? (last s u m m er)
He m u s t have painted it la s t sum m er.
1. W hen did she tak e her niece to London? (la s t week)
2. When did Jo a n learn F ren ch ? (in her childhood) 3. Is A unt
A g a tha sta y in g with the B ro w n s? (this week) 4. W hen will
H a rry re tu rn to his stu d ies? (next week) 5. When did S ta n
repair his car? (yesterday) 6. Is he ta k in g psychology? (this
term ) 7. W hen w as he offered a new job? (abo ut a m onth
ago) 8. W hen will Ken visit us? (in w inter) 9. When will he
be given an o pportunity to w o rk there? (next term ) 10. W hen
did S u s a n m ake friends with the S m iths? (la s t s u m m er) 11.
Is Nicholas stu d y in g c h e m istry a t C olum bia University?
(this y ear) 12. When did he teach lite ratu re ? (about ten
years ago ) 13. W hen did he discover the tru th ? (only re
cently) 14. W hen will F r a n k receive a m a s t e r s degree? (in
spring ) 15. When did his w o rk in g day s ta rt? (a t eight
oclock) 16. When will they leave B russels? (in A u g u st)
17. Is M ary h av in g lunch? (now)

*131. T r a n s la te the fo llow ing se n ten c es in to E n g lish .

1. ? ,
. . 2.
- . 3. .
,
- . 4. , , ,
. 5. , , , .
6. , , ,
. 7. ,
. 8. , ,
. 9. , ,
. 10. :
. 11. ,
. 12. , ,
, , . 13. ,
, ,
. 14. , ,
. 15. ,
, . 16.
. 17.
, . 18. ,
: , . 19.
, , . 20.
, . 21. ,
, . . 22. -
149
 . 23.
. 24. ,
. 25. ,
, .
132. Retell the follow ing jo k es u s in g the m odal v e rb m u s t .

1. She C a n t Read

The P o e t: D ash it I c a n t find th a t sonnet anyw here. Anne

m ust have throw n it out.
His Wife: D o n t be a b s u rd , H enry. The child c a n t read.

2. The Im p o rtan c e of Keeping Cool

In a recently published book abo ut w h a t to do in e m e r

gencies we a r e told t h a t if our clothes catch fire, above all
th in g s we m u s t keep cool.

3. How to Pull O u t a Tooth

Excuse m e, said the dentist to his victim, "but before

beg inn ing this w ork I m u s t have my drill.
Good heavens, m a n ! exclaimed the patient nervously.
M u st you have a re h earsa l to pull o ut a to o th ?

4. After a n Accident

Traffic Cop: Now, Miss, w h a t g ea r w ere you in at the time of

the accident?
D em u re M iss: Im afra id I dont rem em ber exactly, b ut
I m u st h ave had on a black beret, tan shoes, and a tweed
s p o rts dress.

133. *A. Open the b ra c k e ts u sin g the a p p ro p ria te form of th e infinitive a fte r
the m odal v e rb s c a n , m a y , m u s t in the fo llo w in g e x tra c ts.

1. He is m a d , said Kemp; inhum an. He is pure selfish

ness. He thinks of n othing but his own a d v a n ta g e , his own
safety. I have listened to such a story this m o rn in g of b ru ta l
self-seeking ... He h as w ounded men. He will kill them unless
we can (to prevent) him. He will create panic. Nothing ca n
(to stop) him. He is g o in g out now fu rio us!
He m u st (to c a tc h ) , said Adye. T h a t is c e rta in .
150
 But h o w ? cried Kemp, an d suddenly becam e full of
ideas. You m u st (to begin) at once; you m ust (to set) every
available m an to work; you m u st (to p reven t) his leav in g
this district. O nce he gets aw a y he may (to go) th ro u g h the
countryside as he w a n ts, killing and m aim ing. He d re a m s of
a rain of terror. A rain of terro r, I tell you. You m u s t (to set)
a watch on tra in s a n d ro a d s a n d shipping. And you m u st (to
prevent) him from ea tin g and sleeping. Food m u s t (to lock
up an d s e c u r e ) , all food, so th a t he will have to b re a k his w ay
to it. The houses everyw h ere m u st (to b a r) a g a in s t him.
Heaven send us cold n ig h ts and rain! U n le s s he is pinned
down and secured, it is aw ful to think of the things th a t m ay
(to h a p p e n ) .
W hat else can we (to d o ) ? said Adye. I m u s t (to go)
down at once and (to begin) organizing. You come to o .
(They went to the ce n tra l police station.) And now, Kemp,
what else? D o g s , said Kemp. Get dogs. They d o n t see
him, but they wind him. Get dogs. And on the ro a d s ... Kemp
hesitated. Y es? said Adye. P o w dered g l a s s , said
Kemp. I t s cruel, I know. But think of w h a t he m ay (to
d o )! ...
2. In the interim the Invisible M an m ust (to learn ) so m e
thing of the rapid use Kemp had m ad e of his confidence.
He m u st (to find) h ou ses locked and secured, he may (to
loiter) about ra ilw a y statio n s (to prow l) a b o u t inns, and no
doubt he read the p ro c la m a tio n s an d realized som eth ing of
the n a tu re of the com plaint a g a in s t him. And as the evening
advanced the fields bec am e dotted here a n d there w ith
groups of three or four m en and noisy with the y elp in g of
dogs. These m e n -h u n te rs had p a rtic u la r in stru ction s as to
the way they should s u p p o rt one another. But he avoided
them all. We m ay (to u n d e r s ta n d ) som ethin g of his e x a s p e r
ation, and it could (to be) none the less because he him self
had supplied the inform ation th a t w a s being used so re m o rs e
lessly a g a in s t him. F or t h a t day at least he lost h eart; for
nearly tw enty-four h o u rs he w as a hunted m an. In the n ig h t
he m ust (to e a t a n d to sleep ), for in the m o rn in g he w a s
himself ag a in , active, pow erful, an g ry and m a lig n a n t, p r e
pared for his la s t g r e a t s tr u g g l e a g a in s t the world.
3. One w o nd e rs v/hat his s ta te of mind m ay (to be) a n d
w hat plan s he devised. No doubt he w a s e x a sp era te d by
Kemps trea ch ery and though we m ay (to be able) to u n
d ersta n d the m otives th a t led to th a t deceit, we m ay still (to
im agine), a n d even (to sym pathize) a little with the fury the
attem pted su rp rise m u st (to o ccasion). P e rh a p s so m e th in g
151
of the stun ned aston ish m ent of his Oxford S treet experience
m a y (to re tu rn ) to him, for evidently he h ad counted on
K em ps co-operation.
By two o clock even, he m ight still (to remove) him self
out of the district by g ettin g ab o a rd a train , b u t after tw o
th a t becam e impossible, every p asse n g er train trav e lle d with
locked doors, and the g oods traffic w a s a lm o st entirely
suspended.
4. Of course, he m u s t (to d ra g ) this rod out of the fenc
ing before he m et his victim he m u st (to c a rry ) it ready in
his hand. We m ay (to im agine) th a t Griffin h ad taken the rod
as a w eapon indeed, b u t w ithout an y deliberate intention of
usin g it to m u rd er. W icksteed may then (to come by and
notice) this rod inexplicably m oving th ro u g h the air. W ithout
any tho ugh t of the Invisible M an, he m ay (to pu rsu e ) it. It is
quite conceivable th a t he m ay (not to hear) of the Invisible
Man. One can, then, (to im agine) the Invisible M an m aking
off quietly in ord e r to avoid discovering his presence, an d
Wicksteed, excited and curious, p u rs u in g this m o vin g rod,
finally s trik in g a t it.
No doubt the Invisible M an could easily (to distance) his
m id dle-aged p u rs u e r u n d e r o rd in ary circ u m sta n ces, b u t
Wicksteed h a d the ill-luck to drive him into a corner... The
rest of the e n c o u n te r will be easy to im agine. (After
H. Wells)
B. R ender the e x tra c ts re ta in in g the m o d al v e rb s used .
C. Pick o u t se n te n c e s 4'ith m a y a n d m u s t e x p re ss in g supp o sitio n .
T ra n s la te them Into R u ssia n a n d s ta te the difference in m ea n in g .
D. M ake a list o f th in g s A dye m u s t do to catch the Invisible M an.
*134. T ra n s la te th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e s into E nglish u sin g the m odal v erbs
c a n , m a y ", m u s t w h e re n ecessary .

1. ! . 2.
! ? 3.
.
. 4. , , ,
. 5. -! , ,
, - . 6.
? 7. , ,
, . 8.
, . 9. , -,
, . 10.
, .
11. , , . 12.
152
; , . 13. ,
, ,
. 14. , , . 15.
, , -
? 16. , -,
. 17. , ,
. 18. , ,
, . 19.
, . 20. ,
? 21.
, . 22.
? , . 23.
. 24. , ?
25. , -, . 26.
. 27.
, .
28. , ,
.

SH O U L D , O U G H T

135. D eterm in e the m ea n in g of the m o d al v e rb s sh o u ld and o u g h t to .

T r a n s la te the sentences in to R u ssian .

1. There is nothing o rg a n ic a lly w ro n g with you, I know

that, and my impression is th a t a few weeks in hospital o u g h t
to cure you. 2. W h a t are you d oing a t this late hour? You
o u g h t to be in bed and sleeping. 3. A very queer thing h a p
pened to him a y ea r or two ago. You o u ght to have him tell
you abo ut it. 4. S h ould we cam p o u t or sleep in in n s ?
I asked. 5. I t s the physician who decided how long a patient
re m a in s in hospital. I think you should have an other ta lk
with your wifes physician. 6. W h a t I need is you. That is
w h a t he o u g h t to have re torted . But he could not say
it. 7. You should not have gone to that s tra n g e house in the
m iddle of the night. 8. M a ry looked at the clock again.
I o u g h t to have gone and packed lo ng a g o . 9. Look into the
library. He should be there. 10. Ask your mother. She o u g h t
to k n o w , he said. 11. He o u g h t not to have tem pted fate this
time. He h ad done it too often before. 12. You should have
had your car overhauled before the holiday. 13. She should
not h ave been so cross w ith the boy. It up set him d readfu lly.
14. You should have told him the truth, even if you w ere
ash a m e d of it. 15. We should be sp en d in g the night at a
153
 1

hotel in M ak d e n h ead in stead of ro ug hin g it h e re , H a rris

grum bled.
136. A nsw er th e fo llow ing q u e stio n s in acco rd an c e w ith the exam ple.

Example: Should I inform him abo u t it?

H a v e n t you yet? You sho uld have inform ed him
abo ut it long ag o (yesterday, etc.).
1. S hould I send him a p o stcard ? 2. S hould I invite him to
lunch? 3. S h ould he buy a pre sen t for Anne? 4. Should she
see a doctor? 5. Should I tell them abo ut th a t s t r a n g e experi
ence? 6. S h o uld she h av e her h a ir cut? 7. Should I explain to
H enry th a t it w a s a m isu n d e rs ta n d in g ? 8. S h ou ld we rent
a co ttag e in the country? 9. S h o uld Michael go in for sports?
10. Should I teach Bob to play chess? 11. S h ou ld P eter w arn
them about it? 12. S hould N ancy a n s w e r his letter? 13.
S h ould I speak with him frankly? 14. Should she s t a r t w r i t
ing m em oirs? 15. Should we see the play?
137. R espond a s in d icated in th e exam p le.

Example: The case is b eing investigated.

It should hav e been investigated a long time ago.

1. The w o rk is being plan n ed now. 2. They are being

removed now. 3. The TV is bein g a d ju ste d now. 4. The p lan
is being discussed now. 5. The bicycle is being assem b led
now. 6. The broken p a r t is b eing replaced now. 7. The a p p a
r a tu s is being d ism an tle d now. 8. The g e n e ra to r is being
installed now.
13& M ake up fo u r sen ten ces te llin g w h a t stu d e n ts sliould do to keep up
th eir h e a lth a n d fo u r sen ten ces tellin g w h at they sh o u ld not do.

139. D isa g ree w ith o r p ro te s t a g a in s t the follow ing re m a rk s u sin g sh o u ld

w ith the a p p ro p ria te fo rm of th e infinitive. Use one of the e x p ressio n s of
d isa g re e m e n t ( Im a fra id I c a n t , j u s t the o th er w ay ro u n d , it is
o u t of the q u e stio n , e tc .).

Exam ple: You shou ld go to bed, you look tired.

I am afraid I c a n t, I should continue w orking,
as I am to m ak e a repo rt tom orrow .
1. You sh ould have ta k e n a bath. 2. B ut he o ug ht to h ave
got us a cab. 3. I think you should not m ake a secret of
it. 4. In my opinion you should keep a diary. 5. He ou ght to be
ash a m e d of himself. 6. He should have rem em bered that.
7. All I propose is th a t we sh ou ld be kind to the girl. 8. D o n t
you think you ou ght to have con tacted her? 9. I still stick to
154
the opinion that you should try once more. 10. You sh o u ld n t
have said that. 11. It is so la te . Why, it is ac tu a lly ten
oclock. You ought to hav e been asleep lo n g a g o . 12.
Mr. H iggins, you are tem p tin g the girl. I t s not right. She
should think of the future. 13. They o u g h t to put some gra v el
on t h a t stretch.
140. C h a n g e the follow ing se n ten c es to e x p ress p ro b ab ility u sin g the m o d al
v e rb s sh o u ld an d o u g h t".

Example: I look all right with my h at on.

I should (or o ught to) look all right with my
h a t on.
1. This is the horse th at will win. 2. My dentist is so busy
he c a n t fit me in the end of the m onth. 3. They prefer him to
do the job. 4. I ts a v a lu a b le property, b ut it h a s suffered
from neglect. 5. They dislike re fe rrin g to th at kind of thing.
6. Their w a y of life is the right one a n d they insist on criti
cizing everybody elses. 7. She enjoys all the atten tio n,
I think she likes being m ade a fuss. 8. He is a w ell-know n
scientist, so his opinion is reliable. 9. They left early, so they
have arrived by now. 10. You are able to learn it in tw o
w e ek s time.
141. Make appropriate questions for these answers.

1. They should not a sk him questions abou t his p riv ate

life. 2 . 1 o u g h t to visit my uncle next S a tu rd a y . 3. He o u g h t to
w ork h a rd to get good grades. 4. You should spend the
s u m m er a t the seaside. 5. They s h o u ld raise the question
tom orrow . 6. R oger o u gh t to sta y v/ith the P a rk e rs . 7. S he
should go shopping on S u n d ay . 8. You should tak e the c h il
dren to the Zoo. 9. They o u g h t to be present a t the m eeting.
10. He should go to the lib rary tom orrow .
*142. O pen the b ra c k e ts u sin g the a p p ro p ria te form of the infinitive.

1. You o ug ht (to put) it out of yo ur mind. It h a s n o th in g

to do with you. 2. Even if you disliked her a t first sight, you
shou ld (to be) polite. 3. I h ate the idea, b u t the p ub lishers
think I o ught (to p h o to g ra p h ) for the new edition. 4. You
should (to buy) the evening n e w sp a p e rs at the station; they
dont sell them here. 5. He should (to get) back by now.
W h atev er can have h appened to him ? 6. The doctor told him
th at he o u g h t (to have) long w a lk s and (to go) to bed early.
7. I d o n t know w h a t he is do ing now. I think he should (to
sleep) as it is alre ad y eleven oclock. 8. J u d g in g by the silence
155
 1

the children o u g h t (to play) some ab s o rb in g gam e. 9. Go to

his office; he o u g h t (to be) here since m orn ing . 10. You
shou ld (to read ) for your ex am in ations now in stead of p la y
ing football. 11. You should not (to try) to influence him; let
him do as he chooses. 12. She ou ght not (to show) h er s u r
prise. It e m b a r ra s s e d them dreadfu lly . 13. The risk w a s very
sm all, b ut w ha te v er it w as I think you should (to tak e) it. 14.
You should (to take) my advice a n d (to go) back home. With
your abilities you will find a better job there. 15. You o ught
(to see) the tie he h ad on.

*143. T ra n s la te the fo llo w in g se n ten c es in to E nglish.

1. .
. 2.
,
. 3. ,
. .
4. . . 5.
.
. 6.
. , . 7.

. . 8.
.
. 9. ,
? 10.
,
. 11. ,
. 12. ,
. 13. ,
. . 14.
. 15.
, , .
16.
. 17.
. 18. , ,
. 19. .
. 20.
; , . 21.
,
, . 22.
,
. 23. , .
24. . , -
156
 . 25. ,
!
*144. M ake the follo w in g sen ten ces e m o tio n al by u sin g the verb sh o u ld " . Be
su re to use the a p p ro p ria te fo rm of th e infinitive.

Example: I t s s t r a n g e he is here.
Its s t r a n g e he should be here.

1. It is curiou s th a t his tone of voice is inimitable. 2. I ts

a s h am e th at his con duct is inexplicable. 3. It is n a t u r a l th a t
overw ork is g e ttin g him dow n. 4. It is very an n o y in g th a t
I am g etting so forgetful. 5. It is u n u s u a l th a t she h as d e t e r
mined to persevere. 6. It is s in g u la r th a t he h as no idea w h a t
h es h in tin g at. 7. It is r ig h t th a t steps w ere tak en to reduce
consum ption. 8. I re g re t t h a t she h a s n t been able to cope.
9. I amf so rry he h a s come to no good. 10. It is aw ful th a t
somebody h a s ta k e n my ski-sticks. 11. It is w on d e rfu l th a t
they soled a n d heeled yo ur w a lk in g shoes y esterday. 12. She
is g la d th a t he is bein g interview ed a t this very m om ent. 13.
It is odd th a t this s u g g estio n w a s taken up. 14. He expressed
his re g re t th a t his suit h ad not been cleaned yet. 15. I w on der
why he is cross with you.
145. R eproduce the follo w in g d ialo g u e p a y in g p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to the
m o d al v e rb s sh o u ld " a n d " o u g h t to .
T o m : I o ugh t to confess I d o n t know m uch a b o u t painting.
W h a t pictures do you think we should see first?
M a r y : Let us see m o d ern p ain tin g f i r s t It o u g h t to be on the
g ro u n d floor.

* * *

T o m : Look a t t h a t picture. Do you like it? The m an in the

picture looks like a pencil! The p ainter should have m a d e
him m ore lifelike.
M a r y : The p ain te r didnt aim at m a k in g the m an lifelike. You
should enjoy the colours. How b rig h t they are! Look at
the effect of the s h ad o w s on the gra ss.
T o m : I still d o n t like th a t m a n he o ugh t to be more real.
M ary. You are hopeless. I think you should have re ad som e
books on m o d ern a r t before com ing here.
T o m : I ll ta k e your advice. B ut now Ive had en oug h of
m o d ern painting.
146. Retell th e fo llo w in g jo k es u sin g the m o d al v e rb s s h o u ld " a n d o u g h t
to ".

157
 1

M o th er (at dinn er): P e g g y , d arlin g , you s h o u ld n t scratch

your nose with yo u r spoon.
P e g g y . Oh, m other, should I have used a fork?

2
Professor: Your paper sho uld have been so w ritten th at even
the m ost ig n o ra n t could u n d e r s ta n d it.
S t u d e n t (p a tie n tly ): Yes, sir. W hat p a r t didnt you get?

Ja m e s , have you w hispered to d ay w ithout p erm issio n?

O nly w u n s t."
Leroy, should J a m e s have said w u n s t ?
Nom he should have said tw ic t.

M istress: C an you explain why it is th a t every time I come

into the kitchen I find you read ing ?
N e w M a id : It o u ght to be those ru bb er heels of y ou rs, m um.

M agistrate: W h a t is the m an c h a rg e d with?

Constable: He is a c a m e ra fiend of the w o rst kind, sir.
M agistrate: B ut he s h o u ld n t have been a rre s te d ju s t b e
c a u se he has a m an ia for tak in g pictures.
Constable: It is n t that, sir he takes cam eras.

I have a h a ir- ra is in g s to ry .
You should tell it to some bald-headed m a n .

P a p a , said the doting mother. R ob erts teacher says he

o u g h t to have an encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia, my eye, g ru m b led the father. Let him w a lk
to school like I did.
158
 8

The p opu lar w rite r E d g a r W a llace w a s once p o rtra y in g

to a friend the fa b u lo u s glories of the film ind ustry. I w rite
a scenario in a couple of days and get a fortune for it. You
o u g h t to try it.
I t s too b affling for m e, his friend said ruefully. I w a s
once asked to sub m it som ethin g to a film com pany. I sen t
them four scen ario s an d g ot back nine.

TO HAVE TO, TO BE TO

147. D eterm ine th e m e a n in g of th e m o d al v e rb s to have to , to be to .

T ra n s la te th e se n ten c es in to R ussian.

1.1 h ad to w a tc h my step. 2. She asked w h a t h er h u s b a n d

said a b o u t those cheeses. I replied th a t he directed they w e re
to be kept in a moist place a n d th a t nobody w a s to touch
them. 3. The ra in w a s so sud den , so everybody h ad to ta k e
a taxi. 4. I w a n t to know on w hat term s the girl is to be
h e re , said M rs. Pierce. Is she to have any w a g e s and w h a t
is to become of h er afte r y o u ve finished your t e a c h in g ?
5. The protocols have to be signed right now. 6. He d id n t
have to h e a r v/hat Tullis w a s t a lk in g about to know t h a t he
w a s ta lk in g a b o u t his play an d the success it was. 7. It ta k e s
us the best p a r t of an hour to get back home a n d Theo h a s to
be up a t the c ra c k of daw n. 8. It w a s foolish of her to m a r r y
a m a n so m uch y ounger. My only hope is th a t she w o n t h ave
to go th ro u g h a s m uch suffe rin g as she deserves. 9. There is
one s o rt of person who aston ishes me. This is the elderly
E nglish w o m an , g e n e ra lly of a d e q u a te m ean s who is to be
found living alone, up a n d down the w orld, in unexpected
places. 10. It w a s an official party. The T rollopes w ere to
have been there, but co u ld n t come because of the s u d d e n
illness of their son Edwin. 11. 1 did not know then th a t he w a s
to become my best friend for m an y years. 12. H a rris and the
pie w ere gone! He could not have tum bled into the river,
because we w ere on the w a te r side of him, and he w ould hav e
had to climb over us to do it.
*
148. M ake the fo llo w in g se n te n c e s a ) in te rro g a tiv e a n d b ) n e g ativ e.

1. We h a d to s ta y in the town for tw o days. 2. They will

have to tak e m uch l u g g a g e with them. 3. They h ave to w o rk
h a r d at their pronunciation. 4. We a re to meet at the e n tra n c e
159
at four. 5. They were to discuss the question with the dean.
6. The boys had to re tu rn home because of the w eather. 7. He
w a s to arrive by the 12.30 train. 8. The Sm iths h a d to spend
the s u m m e r in town. 9. We shall have to ch a n g e tra in s at
E as tb o u rn e . 10. The house is to be painted this sum m er.
149. Add tag-qu estion s to the follow in g statem ents.

Exam ple: They h ad to get up very early.

They h a d to get up very early, d id n t they?
1. He had to prevent their m eeting. 2. I liked him; I h a d to
confess it myself. 3. The t r a d e r s of Europe h ad to find
an o th e r route. 4. H eavens! N e arly half past nine. I ll simply
hav e to go. 5. . K., Jim m y, you d o n t have to try to m a n a g e
an y more. 6. All right. Then I have to go. 7. He has to sign the
proposition for the citation. 8. I sh all have to ask them w h a t
th e n am e of the c o u n try is. 9. I d o n t have to wait to be p ro
moted. 10. I had to promise her not to b urn it. 11. I ve had to
w o rk a t the girl every day for m onths to get her to her p re s
en t pitch. 12. You will have to do w ithout me.
150. Make appropriate questions for these answ ers.

1. Mr. Leigh h ad to stay in the office till five. 2. They h ad

to spend the night in the motel. 3. B ess will have to get up
e a rly tom orrow . 4. The s tu d e n ts are to h a n d in the co m p o
sitions on Friday. 5. They are to take up history next year.
6. We w ere to w ait for their call. 7. John had to swim fa st to
catch up with P eter. 8. He has to w ork a t his g ra d u a tio n
p a p e r till late at night. 9. We have to do all the exercises in
w ritin g. 10. He w a s to phone H e n ry a t eight.
151. Refer the follow in g sentences to the past by using the m odal verb to
have to".

1. We m u s t tell him the truth. 2. He m u st give up sm oking.

3. Ted m u st learn this poem by heart. 4. The s tu d e n ts m u s t
ta k e three exam inations. 5. I m u st fix the typew riter for her.
6. The child m u st e a t this soup. 7. The two projects m u s t be
coordinated. 8. We m u st tak e the first flight available. 9. You
m u s t w a rn him abo u t it. 10. He m u st drink w eaker tea.
152. M ake up five s ta te m e n ts a bout th in g s you had to do before w in n in g the
co m p etitio n .

153. M ake up five s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th in g s you a re to do before you leave for

a trip ,

154. C h a n g e a n d e x p lain the follow ing sen ten ces a s show n In the exam p le.

160
Example: He w as to come in the evening, (not to feel well)
He v/as to have come in the evening, b u t he d id n t
because he didnt feel well.
1. They were to go on a picnic on S a tu rd a y , (to ra in )
2. N ancy w a s to go to the dentist th a t day. (to be detained at
the office) 3. They w ere to ask Roger for dinner, (to leave the
tow n) 4. I w a s to take p a r t in the competition, (to sprain my
ankle) 5. They w ere to go to the c o u n try by car. (to bre ak)
6. They w ere to get to D etroit by the evening, (to have little
petrol left) 7. P rofessor Sim pson w a s to give us a lecture on
F rench lite ratu re y esterd ay, (to be busy at the university)
8. The to u ris ts were to visit the picture g allery last T h u rsd a y ,
(to be closed) 9. We were to spen d the su m m er a t the seaside,
(not to be able to book ac com m odation In a hotel) 10. He w a s
to see me a t six. (to have an im p o rtan t m eeting)

*155. T ra n s la te th e follow ing sen ten ces in to E nglish.

1. ,
. 2.
, -'
. 3. .
. 4.
. 5.
. . 6.
. 7.
.
8.
. 9.
. 10.
:
. 11.
: . 12.
, .
13. ,
. 14.
. 15.
,
. 16. .
:
. 17.
,
. .
18. , ,
6 11 161
 . 19. ,
, , .
20. ,
. 21.
, ,
. - ? 22.
,
.

156. R eproduce th e fo llo w in g d ialo g u e p a y in g p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to the

m o d al v erb to have to .

M rs. Parker: H a rry , look a t the w ay those men a re c a rry in g

th at china cupbo ard . Youll have to tell them to be
careful.
Mr. Parker: P e rh a p s we had better ca rry the b reakab le
th in gs d o w n s ta irs ourselves.
Forem an: You n ee d n t w orry, M am. We alw a ys have to be
careful. We a re used to it. We have to move things in an d
out of h ouses every day of the week. A m an has g ot to
know his job, h a s n t he?
M rs. Parker: How a re they g o in g to get the piano out?
Theyll have to t u r n it on its side. We h ad a lot of tro u b le
g e ttin g it in, d id n t we? Do you rem em ber?
Mr. Parker: I do. The m an who b ro u g h t it h a d to tak e its
legs off.
M rs. Parker: Lets c a rry this lo n g m irro r ourselves.
Mr. Parker: Right. I ll h ave to go d o w n stairs b ac k w a rd s .
M rs. Parker: I t s heavy, is n t it?
Mr. Parker: Oh, look out!
M rs. Parker: Oh, H a rry , my lovely mirror!
Forem an: There now! You d id n t have to s t a r t m oving
th ing s yourselves! You have to be experienced to do a job
like this.
Mr. Parker: Well. W h a t a sham e. The whole move done with
only one th in g broken, and we had to be the ones to break
it!
Forem an: Come on, Jim! We shall have to hurry up with this
piano. We have got to be a w a y by dinner time.
157. R etell th e follow ing jokes u sin g the m ed al verbs to be to an d Jlo
ha v e to .

1
Why do you have to use three pairs of g lasses, pro fes
sor?
162
 One pair for long sight, one p air for sh o rt sight, a n d the
third to look for the other tw o .

2
Mrs. B row n: Am I to w ear this old squirrel coa t all my life?
Mr. B row n: Why not, dea r? S q u irrels do.

My little d a u g h te r h as s w allo w e d a gold piece and h as

to be o p erated on. I w ond er if Dr. Sm ith is to be t r u s t e d ?
W ithout a doubt. He is ab solutely h onest.

D u rin g a n a t u r a l history lesson a t school M a r y w a s

asked to give the n a m e of a n an im al peculiar to Africa.
A p olar b e a r ! replied M a r y instantly .
The teach er frow ned reprovingly. Come, come, M a ry ,
she said. P o la r b e a r s a re n o t to be found in A frica.
I k now , M ary an sw e red , t h a t s w hy it w o uld be pe
c u lia r.

L ast week a g ra in of s a n d got into my wifes eye and she

had to see a doctor. It co st me three do llars."
T h a ts nothing. L ast week a fur coat got into my wifes
eye an d it cost me three h u n d re d .

Give me two or three fish, m ackerel, p e r h a p s ,

Mr. Sm ith said to the fishm onger as he entered the shop w ith
a lot of fishing tackle.
You had better tak e salm on , s ir.
Why? W hat m akes you think s o ?
Oh, nothing, except th a t you r wife said if you dropped
here I v/as to p e rs u a d e you to take salm on as she liked it
b ette r.
6* 163
 7

O nce, while a d d re s s in g an open-air m eeting, an ath eist

asked Bishop C a rp e n te r if he believed th at J o n a h w as s w a l
lowed by the whale.
When I get to heaven I will a s k J o n a h , said his l o r d
ship.
But s u p p o s in g , the o th e r persisted, he is n ot there?"
Then you will have to ask him , v/as the quick retort.

SH A LL, W IL L (W O U L D )

158. D eterm ine the m e a n in g of the m o d al v erbs s h a ll , w ill ( w o u ld ).

T ra n s la te th e se n ten c es in to R u ssian .
1. People will say anything, w o n t they, when they w a n t
to prove they are right? 2. There were a g r e a t m an y m e
teo rites, said M ary to anyone who would listen. The E a r th
m u st j u s t be com ing into the s u m m e r show er of th e m .
3. S hall I tell you w h a t I think of that m a n ? I think he is
s lightly s in iste r, M a d g e said . 4. Now, M r. C leary, w o uld
you sea rch your m em ory a n d begin with the very first thing
th a t h ap pened on the m o rn in g of the day you m et W issey
Jones? 5. All right, B en, said M axim . R o b ert shall tak e
you back home. And no one will p u t you in the asylum , d o n t
be a f ra id . 6. W ould you say you were a fulfilled p e rs o n ?
N o rm a n asked. 7. The English have no respect for their
l a n g u a g e , a n d will not teach their children to speak it,
w rote B. Shaw . 8. W h a t a doctor w a n ts , I said, is p r a c
tice. He shall g et me. He will get m ore practice o u t of me th a n
out of seventeen hu nd re d of o rd in a ry p atien ts w ith only one
or two diseases e a c h . 9. C an I use your pen? Mine w o n t
write. 10. The old m an did his u tm ost to show her the folly of
her course. But she w ould not be p e rs u a d e d . 11. The next
m o rn in g we w o uld re ad th a t it v/as going to be.a w a rm , fine
to s e t fair day; much h e a t , and we w ould d re ss ourselves
in flimsy things, and go out, and, half an h our after we h ad
s ta rte d , it w ould com m ence to rain hard, and a bitterly cold
wind w ould s p rin g up, an d both w ould keep steadily for the
whole day, an d we w o uld come home with colds an d rh e u m a
tism all over us, a n d go to bed. 12. Shall Ivor tak e the c a r ?
she asked. 13. They will sit silently w ithout ex c h a n g in g
a single w ord. 14. Will you do me a fa v o u r ? she ask ed
im ploringly. 15 If you will stay, I ll run up a n d telephone
your son ab ou t it. 16. Julio M oreno w ould sit for h o u rs in
164
silence on the day when the w ind blew contin uo usly from
the sea.
j 59. C h a n g e th e fo llow ing sentences u sin g the m o d al verb s h a ll. Follow
th e exam ple.
Example: Let m e (us) show you the house.
S hall I (we) show you the house?

1. Let me help you with your hom ew ork. 2. Let me drive

the c a r today. 3. L et u s re p a ir the tape recorder. 4. Let me
sh arp en the knife. 4. Let us go to B righton in sum m er. 5. Let
us have a light b re a k fa st today. 6. Let us sta y indoors t o
day. 7. Let us go o u t an d do some shopping. 8. Let me phone
an d tell your sec retary you a re not com ing today. 9. Let me
ch a n g e your books a t the library. 10. Let me post these
letters.
160. C hange the follow in g com m ands Into requests as shown In the ex
am ple.
Exam ple: O pen the door.
W ould you m ind opening the door?
1. P h one Bill a n d tell him th a t he is to stay at the office till
seven. 2. M ake some coffee for M rs. Sleighton. 3. Switch off
the light when you ieave. 4. P la y this record for us. 5. W ait
for Mr. D avis at his office. 6. Type this article for me. 7. Buy
tickets for this concert. 8. Show m e where the knives and forks
are kept. 9. Go o u t a n d buy the e v e n in g paper. 10. Stop for
petrol a t the next village.
161. Make up five se n te n c e s e x p re ss in g polite request in question form.

Example: Will you please keep to the print?

162. Use s h a ll to e x p ress c o m m an d to m ak e y o u r frien d a ) re ad the book
in the o rig in a l; b) com e to c la s s w ell p re p a re d ; e ) have th e c o u rt c le a r
ed; d ) c o n su lt a d o c to r a s soon a s possible; e) le a rn a b o u t e v ery th in g
v ery soon.

Example: You s h all leave the dog alone o r Ill punish you.
163. M ake up five se n te n c e s u sin g w ill (o r w o u ld ) to e x p re ss p e rs is t
ence o r re fu s a l to p erfo rm a n action.

Example: Either the locks w ere too large, or the key w as too
sm all, bu t a t any ra te it w o u ld n t open any of
them.
164. M ake up sh o rt d ialo g u e s u sin g the follow ing p a irs
of infinitives. F ollow th e exam ple.

Exam ple: to s ta y a t home to go to the pictures

165
 I d ra th e r stay a t home. Or would you prefer to
go to the pictures?
Id rather stay at home too. (o r: I d prefer to go
to the pictures.)
!. to spend the s u m m e r in the cou ntry to go to the
seaside. 2. to play a g a m e of chess to w atch television.
3. to sta y indoors to go for a v/alk. 4. to have a light b r e a k
fa s t to have a big b re a k fa st. 5. to have lunch a t home to
go to a cafe. 6. to buy the book to take it from the library.
7. to read for the exam ination at home to w o rk a t th e
library. 8. to have a quiet ev e n in g at home to invite som e
g u ests. 9. to have tea to hav e coffee. 10. to tell him the
s now to postpone it till tom orrow.
C h a n g e the fo llow ing se n te n c e s u sin g w ill in the n e g ativ e form .

mpie: The door d o e s n t open.

The door w o n t open.

I. My b a g doesnt close. 2. She d o esnt ag ree with a n y

body. 3. This child d oesnt d rin k milk. 4. Your pen d o esn t
write. 5. The m an d o e s n t ta lk wiih anybody. 6. The c a r
d o esn t sta rt. 7. The m achine d o esn t work. 8. The boy d o e s n t
do his hom ew ork. 9. The taxi-driver d o e s n t stop. 10. The
traffic lights d o n t change. 11. The old lady d o esn t a n s w e r
my questions.
th e follo w in g se n ten c es u sin g "w o u ld in the n e g ativ e form .

Example: The boy d id n t go to bed.

The boy w o u ld n t go to bed.

1. Tom d id n t eat the to m a to soup. 2. The sta m p d id n t

stick to the paper. 3. The doll didnt close its eyes.
4. C harles d i d n t w rite them a letter. 5. She didnt do
w h a t I asked her. 6. The bell didnt ring. 7. The d ra w e r
did n t open. 8. The girl d id n t tell us why she w a s cry ing.
9. Eliza d id n t say an ything. 10. The radio set d id n t
work.
167. U se w ill to e x p re ss y our in ten tio n a ) to keep to the point; b ) to g e t the
b a th read y ; c ) not to be hom e for su p p er; d ) not to accept m oney from
him ; e ) to b re a k th e e n g a g e m e n t; f) to go out in the afte rn o o n to a
p a rty .

Example: I will sp eak to B unbury, Aunt A u g u s ta .

168. C om plete the se n ten c es below u sin g "w ill or w o u ld in the c o n d i
tio n a l c la u se to e x p ress a polite re q u e st o r a w ish.

166
Example: I ll tell you, if you will only let me get a w o rd in.
1 . 1 shall take a taxi if... 2. It w ould be a better exam p le to
the girl if... 3. You m ay bo rro w my dictionary if... 4. He will
s t a r t again if... 5. I m on the point of giving it all up if...
6. I should invite you for lunch if...

*169.] Fill in the b la n k s w ith the m o d al v e rb s " s h a ll or w ill ( w o u ld ).

4 .V U se the n e g ativ e fo rm w h erev er in dicated.

1 . 1 tried to p ersu ad e him to re tu r n to the villa g e as it w a s

d a n g e ro u s to rem ain in the ju n g le after nightfall, b u t he
... n ot listen to w h a t I said. 2. Every night w hether it w a s
ea rly or late he ... go into his m o th e rs bedroom a n d tell her
a b o u t the in tere stin g th in g s th a t h a d happened to him d u rin g
the day. 3. W hat ... we d o ? she asked. The door ... not
open. It is evidently locked. W here ... we spend the n ig h t?
4. Boys ... be boys, the old lady said with a sigh. 5. The te a
is h o t,a n d strong. O r ... you prefer to have a cup of coffee?
6. .^'^ou w ait in the library, sir? Sir R eginald will be dow n
in a few m in u te s, said the secretary, a y o u n g m a n of a b o u t
twenty-five whose face w a s half-hidden behind h u g e h o r n
rim m ed spectacles. 7. W henever an em ergency aris e s
Dr. Ross ... tak e c h a rg e a n d things ... settle satisfacto ry.
8. ... you m ind my sm o kin g h ere ? the new p a s s e n g e r asked.
B ut nobody ... a n s w e r his polite question. 9. "... you please
step into the room, sir? The m a n a g e r w ould like to h ave
a talk with y o u , the clerk said to A lbert F orem an. 10. You
... not behave like this in the presence of my g u e s ts , his
fa th e r said angrily. You ... stay in your room an d you ... not
come out until all of them hav e left. II. She prom ised him
a do llar for c a rry in g her b a g g a g e and then ... n o t pay. 12.
...we get s ta rte d , g en tlem en? 13. We should be so g ra te fu l to
you, if you ... find us a taxi. 14. Come a t once, he said.
I c a n t explain it on the telephone, but you ... h e a r e v e ry
th in g directly from m e .
170. Use the follo w in g sen ten ces in a situ atio n .

1. Come now; sit down an d rest; you can tell me a b o u t it

tom orro w , or sh all not tell me a t all if it worries you. 2. Si
lence, I will b ea r no m ore of this. 3. All right, you shall have
this one. 4. I ll m a rr y F redd y. I will, as soon as I m able to
s u p p o rt him. 5. If you will allo w me, I ll copy y o u r re m a rk s
into my diary. 6. She knew t h a t som ething w a s w ro n g b u t he
w ou ld not tell her w h a t it was. 7. S hall I put in a call?
8. Will you come into the next room, I w a nt to have a
167
little ta lk with you. 9. Be silent, sir. I will not h ave you
speak to me so.
*171. T ra n s la te the fo llow ing sen ten ces into E nglish.

1. , .
2. ? . 3.
. 4. ,
? . 5. ,
. ,
-? 6.
, . 7.
? , . 8. ?
? . 9.
, . 10.
,
? 11. , ,
. 12. ,
. 13.
, . 14.
, ? 15. ,
. 16.
. 17.
, ,
, . 18. ?
. 19.
?
. 20. ,
, . 21.
, , ,
/ ,
.

172. A nalyse th e m o d al v e rb s s h a ll , w ill , sh o u ld , w o u ld . F ind

w here they a re u se d a s m o d al v e rb s a n d w here a s a u x iliaries. R etell
the e x tra c ts u s in g the m o d al verbs.

!
A n d erso n : He softened to w a r d s his p rodigal son in t h a t
moment. He sen t for him to come to see him.
M rs. D udgeon: S en t for Richard!
A n derso n : Yes, but R ichard would not come. He sent his
fath er a m e s s a g e ; b u t I am sorry to say it w a s a wicked
m essage, a n aw ful m essag e .
M rs. D udgeon : W h a t w a s it?
168
A nderson: That he w ou ld s ta n d by his wicked uncle a n d
s t a n d a g a in s t his good p arents, in this w orld and the
next.
Mrs. D udgeon: He will be punished for it in both w orlds.
And erso n: That is not in o u r h a n d s, Mrs. Dudgeon.
Mrs. D udgeon: Did I say it w as, Mr. A nderson? We are told
th a t the wicked shall be punished. Why should we do o u r
duty and keep G o d s la w if there is to be no difference
m a d e betw een us an d tho se who follow their own likings
an d dislikings?

2
(L a te r law yer H a w k in s re a d s Mr. D u d g e o n s will to his
relatives.)
H a w k in s (r e a d in g ): I give my house with the land b elo n g
ing to it to my eldest son and heir R ichard D udgeon, on
these conditions. First, th a t he shall not let my broth er
P e t e r s n a t u r a l child s ta rv e o r be driven by w a n t to an
evil life. Second, th a t he shall be a good friend to my old
horse Jim ..."
Richard: Jim s h all live in clover.
H aw kin s: ...and keep my deaf fa rm lab o u re r R od ger
F eston in his service.
Richard: R odg er F eston sh all get d ru n k every S a tu rd a y .
H a w k i n s : Third, th a t he sh all m ake C hristy a p resen t on his
m a rr ia g e out of the o r n a m e n ts in the best room. F o urthly
and lastly, t h a t he s h all try to live at peace with his
m other as far as she will consent to it. (After B. S h a w )

17a. Fill In th e b la n k s w ith the m o d al v e rb w ill ( w o u ld ) to e x p ress

re p e a te d a ctio n s. R eproduce th e te x t (c o n su lt 48).

T h ro u g h o u t the trip the dog had m anifested g re a t cu ri

osity co n c ern in g the kettle. He ... sit an d w atch it, as it boiled,
with a puzzled expression, a n d ... try an d rouse it by g r o w l
ing a t it. W hen it b eg a n to s p lu tte r an d steam , he re g a rd e d it
as a challenge, a n d ... w a n t to fight it, only, at t h a t precise
m om ent, someone... a lw a y s dash up a n d bea r it off before he
could g et a t it. T oday he determ ined he w ould be beforehand.
At the first s o u n d the kettle m ade, he rose, grow ling, an d
a d v a n c e d to w a r d s it in a th re a te n in g attitude.
Ah! w ould ye! g ro w le d the dog, show ing his teeth; I ll
teach ye to check a h a rd -w o rk in g , respectable dog; ye m is
erable, long -no sed , d irty -lco kin g scoundrel. Com e o n !
169
 And he ru shed a t th a t poor little kettle. (After Jerom e
K. Jerome)
174. Retell the fo llow ing jo k es u sin g the m odal v e rb s s h a ll ( sh o u ld ) ,
w ill ( w o u ld " ).

D ora, d arlin g, will you m a r r y m e ?

No, but I ll a lw a y s a d m ire y o u r good t a s t e .

Why did you b re ak off y o u r e n g a g e m e n t?

M a r y w o u ld n t have m e.
Did you tell her a b o u t y o u r rich u ncle?
Yes. S h es my a u n t n o w .

A noblem an wished G a rrick , the fam ous actor, to be

a ca n d id a te for the re p re se n ta tio n of a boro ugh in P a r l i a
ment. No, my lo rd , said G a rrick . I w ould ra th e r play the
p a r t of a g r e a t m an on the s ta g e than the p a r t of a fool in
P a r l i a m e n t .

When we a re m a rrie d I m u st have three s e r v a n ts .

You shall hav e tw enty, dear, b u t not all a t once.

Recruit: S hall I m a r k time with m y feet, sir?

L ie u ten a n t (s a rc a s tic a lly ) : H a v e you ever h e a rd of m a rk in g
time with y our h a n d s?
Recruit: Yes, sir! Clocks do it.

N E E D , DARE

i 75. D eterm ine the m e a n in g of the m o d al v erbs n e ed a n d d a r e . T r a n s

la te the se n te n c e s in to R ussian.
1. M rs. Pierce, you n e e d n t order the new clothes for
Eliza. Throw her o u t, said H iggins. 2. I d o n t think we need
170
give her any m ore of o u r attention. 3. I w a s doubtful of my
reception, but I need have had no m isgivings. He cam e fo r
w a rd to m eet me, h and o u ts tretch e d , a su n n y smile lighting
up his face. 4. H aw d a re you come here and attem pt to black
mail m e? H igg ins ask ed Doolittle. 5. You n e e d n t go to
the S ta g , said the lan d lad y . We can put you up for the
night here. 6. Anyone who know s canine n a tu re need h a r d ly
be told th a t by this time all the d o g s in the place w ere fig h t
ing as if their h e a rth s a n d hom es depended on the fray.
7. George says he does not think I need trouble myself on the
subject of food as I ll get m ore than m y due. 8. The m a tte r is
of no im portance, I d a r e s a y , he volunteered. 9. Need we go
into all th a t a g a in ? she a sk e d irritably. 10. You n ee d n t
have b ro u g h t so m a n y clothes. We dont en te rta in m uch
here, said M rs. Finch. 11. I have never dared talk with him
abo ut his late wife. 12. The ro a d s a re so b ad th a t we d o n t
d a re to go out m uch afte r dark. 13. You n ee d n t go so early,
need you? Id like to have a ta lk with you. 14. I need h a rd ly
say th a t your help will be appreciated.

176. Change the following sentences expressing absence of necessity.

Follow the example.

Example: You m u st s ta y h ere till five.

You n e e d n t s ta y here till five.

1. He m u s t be strict w ith the child. 2. J a n e m u s t w e ar her

new dress. 3. The s t u d e n t s m u s t w o rk in the library till six.
4. You m u st tell your b ro th e r all abo ut it. 5. I m u s t go sh o p
ping tom orrow . 6. She m u s t go there on foot. 7. You m u s t
stay with the patient. 8. He m u s t deliver the te le g r a m m e
tonight. 9. You m u st m a k e an ap po intm en t with the doctor
today. 10. They m u s t s ta y w ith their relatives. 11. We m u s t
s t a r t for the station a t once. 1 2 .1 m u s t go to the m a rk e t now.
13. He m u s t tak e the ex am in ation tom orrow .

177. Express the absence of necessity by using the verb need".

Example: They wasted money buying these books.

Someone else h a d alre a d y b o u g h t some.
They n e e d n t hav e b o u g h t them a t all.

I. I w o n d e r why they o rd e red biscuits. They w ere quite

unnecessary. 2. W h a t w a s the point of their h a v in g th em
delivered? There w a s no need for it, w a s there? 3. I could
171
never m ake out why they w e n t in person. They could ju s t as
easily have phoned. 4 . 1 d o n t see why they com m issioned the
books. They could have been b oug ht in the n o rm a l way.
5. Why did you b rin g t h a t subject up? E d u c a te d people
should be ca p ab le of being objective! 6. Why did you tell
them absolutely ev e ry th in g ? P robably because I m not the
secretive ty p e. 7. Why did you h ave to be so a m u s in g at my
ex pen se? C a n t you ta k e a jo k e ? 8. I d o n t see why you
c o u ld n t have kept them in stock. There w a s no point in s e ll
ing them off.
*178. Insert didnt need or neednt have" according to the sense. Re
member that both presuppose absence of necessity to do something,
but neednt have is ased to show that you did it.
1. You ... (to b rin g ) th e book. D id n t you k no w I h a d it?
2 . 1 ... (to b rin g ) the book b ecause we a lw a y s g o t it from the
library. 3. We ... (to exp lain ) it to him. He u n d e rsto o d w h a t
had happened a t once. 4 . You ... (to explain) it to me, b u t
since you did I shall try to c a lm him down. 5 . 1 ... (to h u r r y ) ,
since I had plenty of time before the d ep a rtu re . 6. You ... (to
h u rr y ). Now you will have to sit long w aitin g for the tra in to
come. 7. You ... (to w rite) to M a ry a n d (to su m m o n ) her to
M oscow. Som eone h ad a lre a d y b roken the n ew s to her.
8. You ... (to w rite) to M a r y and (to s u m m o n ) h er to M o s
cow. Now we shall have to re fu n d her expenses. 9. She ... (to
clean) the room an d h a d less w ork th at m orning. 10. We ...
(to be) so rud e to him. I think we h u r t him. 11. As it w a s fine
when I woke up I ... (to ta k e ) m y u m b rella to work.
*179. Fill In the blanks using the modal verbs need, to have to,
should or dare. Use the negative form where Indicated.

1. You ... not clean the a p a rtm e n t. I ll do it myself.

2. R oger ... not go to college on Friday: he w o rks in the li
b ra ry on t h a t day. 3. The boy ... not go to bed so late; he feels
sleepy in the m orn in g . 4 . 1 ... not a s k him a b o u t it. He m ay get
offended. 5. You ... not h a v e tak en a w a rm coat with you. I m
su re itll be w a rm . 6. They ... not have allow ed the child to see
such a s a d film. Look, he is crying. 7 . 1 ... not go to the m a rk e t
y esterd ay as we h a d e n o u g h food a t home. 8. How ... you ta lk
with me like that! I m twice a s old as you. 9. They ... h av e
come earlier. Now they w o n t u n d e r s ta n d w h a t the play is
about. 10. We ... not s ta y with A unt Ada. We m a n a g e d to get
a room a t the hotel. 11. You ... phone her an d invite her to the
p a rty yourself as she is g o in g to be your guest. 12. ... I send
him a p o stcard or is it b e tte r to w rite a letter? 13. H e n ry
... not have tak en the textbook from the library; S could hav e
given him my ow n textbook. 14. You ... not re tu r n the m a g a
zine to the library tom orro w . They have m any other copies.
15. You ... not m ake tea now. You can do it when you finish
this work. 16. He ... have p re p a re d for the test more t h o r
oughly. His g ra d e s w o u ld n t be so poor then. 17. I d o n t
think you ... inform him a b o u t it. I am su re he a lre a d y know s
it. 18. He ... not ap p e ar here. He know s I am an g ry with him.
19. Anne ... not type letters. It is the s e c re ta ry s job.
180. Respond to the following statements using dare.
Exam ple: This coal-m iner tried to smoke in a mine.
How d a re he do it!
1. Nick w a s ru de to his father. 2. P eter h a s a weak s to m
ach and he e a ts fried m eat. 3. H e w a n ts to m ou nt th a t wild
horse. 4. I shall dive from th e b rid g e into the river. 5. He
looks very ill but d o esn t call the doctor. 6. A night n u rse
slept on duty. 7. We s h a ll not declare c ig arettes when
p a s s in g th ro u g h the C ustom s. 8. It is no use ad visin g him; he
is too pig-headed. 9. M o th er d o e s n t w a n t to vaccinate her
child. 10. The driver continued on his journ ey though the
m o to r-car h a d not been repaired.
*181* Translate the following sentences into English using the modal verbs
/ need, to have to, should, dare.
1.
: . 2.
, . 3.
,
. 4.
,
. 5. ,
. 6. :
, . 7.
,
. 8. ,
. 9.
,
. 10. , ?
11. , . 12.
, .
13. , ,
. 14.
: . 15.
, ,
. 16.
 . 17.
, . 18.
, . 19.
. 20.
,
. 21. ,
. 22. ,
.
182. Retell the following jokes using the modal verb need".

S tu d e n t: I am indebted to you for all I know.

Professor: Oh, you n e e d n t.

2
Father: I am obliged to punish you and it will pain me.
Johnny: But, father, if you h a v e done nothing w rong, w hy
need you pain yourself?

First Doctor: You nee d n t have ask e d your p atient w h a t he

h a d for dinner.
S e c o n d Doctor: i t s a m o s t im p o rta n t question, for a c c o rd
ing to my p a tien ts m e n u s I m ake o u t my bill.

First Doctor: You n ee d n t w o rry you cured your patient.

Y o u n g Doctor: But I d ont know which of the medicines
cured him!

REVISION

183. Determine the meaning an d form of the modal verbs in the text below.
State where should, would are auxiliaries, not modal verbs, and
w h at analytical forms they help to build up. Retell the text using the
modal verbs.

(This is a speech a w o m a n m inister m akes a g a in s t the

c om pany B rea k ag es, L im ited which h a s monopolized no*
only th e whole economic power, b ut also the v/hole political
pow er of the country.)
174
 I have to o rg an ize and adm iniste r all the m otor power in
the cou n try for the good of the country. I h ave to h a r n e s s the
winds and the tides, the oils a n d the coa! slam s. I do it; but it
costs twice a s much as it should. Why? B ecause every new
invention is b o u ght up an d sup pre sse d by B re a k a g e s, Lim
ited. But for them we sh ou ld have u n b re a k a b le steel, u n
b reak ab le g lass, im perishable m a te ria ls of all sorts. B ut for
them ou r good tra in s could be s ta rte d and stopped w ithout
b a tte r in g the w a g o n s a n d sen d in g them to the repair shops of
the com pany. ! could n am e you a dozen inventions within my
own term of office which w o uld h ave effected e n o rm o u s
economies in b re a k a g e s a n d break d o w n s; b ut these people
can afford to pay inventor m ore for his invention than he
could hope to m ake by a legitim ate use of it; and v/hen they
have b o u ght it they sm o ther it. It is h ea rtb rea k in g . I love my
d ep artm en t. I would give my right han d to see these people
in the b an k ru p tc y court. B ut w hat ca n I do?
If I said one w ord of this in public, not a week w ould p a s s
in the next tw o y e a rs w ithout an article on the inefficiency
an d co rrup tion of all G o v e rn m en t d e p a rtm e n ts , especially
d e p a rtm e n ts m a n a g e d , like mine, by females. They w ould dig
up the very m achines they have buried, an d m ak e o u t th a t it
is my fault th a t they have never been bro u g h t into use. They
w ould set their p rivate police to w atch me day a n d night...
One of their directors told me to my face th a t by lifting up his
finger he could get my w in dow s broken by the mob; and th a t
B rea k ag es, Limited w ould g et the job of p u ttin g in n ew
g lass. And it is true. It is infam ous, it is o u tra g e o u s ; b u t if
I a ttem p t to fight them I s h all be hounded out of public life.
(After B. S h a w )
*184. Insert modal verbs in the extract below. Comment on the statement of
the last sentence.

1. M artin Eden w re stle d with the problem of how he

... conduct him self to w a r d s th e M orses. He w a s n t for their
tribe, and he ... not ta lk their lingo, w a s the v/ay he put it to
himself. He ... not fake bein g their kind. The m a s q u e ra d e
would fail, an d besides, m a s q u e r a d e w as foreign to his n a
ture. W hatever happened, he ... be real. He ... not ta lk their
talk ju s t yet, tho ugh in time he would. U pon th a t he w a s
resolved. B ut in the m eantim e, talk he ..., and i t ... be his own
talk, toned down, of co urse, so as to be com prehensible to
them and so as not to shock them too m uch. And fu rth erm ore,
he w o u ld n t claim to be fam iliar with any th in g th at w a s
unfam iliar. (After /. L ond on)
175
*185. In s e rt m o d al v e r b s R etell th e e x tra c t u sin g the m o d al v erb s.

C om ing hom e ra th e r late one S a tu rd a y n ig h t Clyde found

his m other a n d father w orried ab out the w h e reab o u ts of
E sta. (L a te r a note w a s found telling them t h a t E s ta h a d left
the family.) The m o th e r said, I thought she was happy with
us, b ut a p p a re n tly she w a s n t. She ... see so m e th in g of the
w orld for herself, I suppose. But we ... not h a r b o u r h a r d
thought. T h a t ... not do us any good now only tho ugh t of
love and kindness. We ... hope only that she ... come back
soon. S h e s too y o u n g a n d sh es m ad e a m istake. B u t we
... forgive her. We ... forgive her. O u r h e a r ts ... be kept open,
soft a n d tender. W e ... n ot s a y or do an y th in g t h a t ... injure
her. (After Th. Dreiser)
*186. Insert modal verbs. Reproduce the text using the modal verbs. Com
ment on the problems raised in the extract.

In the c e n tre of the room stood the fu ll-len gth p o rtra it of

a y o u n g m an of e x t r a o r d i n a r y personal beauty.
It is your b est w o rk, B asil, said L ord H enry. You
... certain ly sen d it next y e a r to the G ro s v e n o r.
I d o n t think I s h a ll s e n d it any w h ere, a n s w e re d the
painter. No, I ... not send it a n y w h ere.
Lord H enry elev a ted his eyebrow s and looked at him in
am azem ent. A p o rtra it like t h a t ... set you fa r above all the
y o u n g m en in E n g la n d a n d m ak e the old m en quite je a lo u s .
I know you ... lau g h at m e, Basil replied, b u t I really
... not exhibit it. I have p u t too much of m yself into it.
Every p o rtra it t h a t is painted with feeling is a p o rtra it of
the artist, not of the sitter. The sitter is m erely the accident,
the occasion. It is not he who is revealed by the painter, it is
ra th e r the p ain ter, who on the coloured c a n v a s , re v eals
himself. The re aso n I ... not exhibit this picture is th a t I am
afraid th a t I h a v e sho w n in it the secret of my soul. He (D o
rian) k now s n o th in g a b o u t it. He ... never know anyth in g
ab out it. But the w o rld ... g u e ss it; and I ... not b are my soul
to their shallow , p ry in g eyes. My h e a r t ... never be p u t u n d e r
their m icroscope.
Poets are not so s c r u p u lo u s as you a re , re tu rn e d Lord
Henry. They know how useful passion is for publication.
N o w a d a y s a b ro ke n h e a rt ... ru n too m an y e d itio n s.
1 hate them for it, cried H a llw a rd . An a r t i s t ... create
beautiful things, b ut ... p u t no thing of his life into them. We
live in an ag e w hen m en t r e a t a rt as if it w ere m e a n t to be
a form of au to b io g ra p h y . We have lost the a b s t r a c t sense of
176
beauty. Some d ay I ... show the w orld w h a t it is; for th a t
reason the v/orld ... never see my p o rtra it of D orian G r a y .
{After O. Wilde)
*187. Translate the following sentences into English using modal verbs.

1. , , , . 2.
? 3..
, . 4. ,
. 5.
? 6. , , ,
. 7. ,
. 8.
. 9.
, . 10.
? 11. ,
. ,
. 12. , , - . 13.
, - ? 14.

. 15. , , 16.
,
, , ,
. 17. ,
, ? ,
, . ,
. 18.
, . 19. -
? 20. , .
, . 21.
. 22.
.
*188. Translate the following sentences into English using modal verbs.

I. . .
2.
? 3. .
4. , . 5.
. ,
, . , .
. 7. ,
. 8. -
,
, ? , .
9. , ? ,
.
177
, . 10. ,
. ,
- . 11.
. , , , -
. 12. , ,
, ,
? 13. ,
. . , ,
, . 14.
. , .
. . 15.
,
. 16. ,
? 17. .
. 18. ,
, . ?
, () - .
19. ? 20.

. 21. , , ,
.
*l&9. Translate the following sentences into English using modal verbs
where necessary.

1. , -, . 2. , -
, . 3. , -,
. 4. , -,
. 5. , -, . 6. ,
-, . 7. , ,
. 8. , ,
. 9. , ,
. 10.
, , ,
.
*180. Think of Russian equivalents for the following English proverbs and
explain their meanings. Account for the use of the modal verbs.
1. A bird m ay be known by its song. 2. A m an can die but
once. 3. As you sow you shall mow. 4. The mill can not g rind
with the w a te r t h a t is past. 5. H e th a t w ould e a t the fruii
m u st climb the tree.
 K E Y TO E X E R C IS E S

Ex. 3. 1. will. 2. shall. 3. shall (will, 11). 4. shall not (s h a n t will not,
wont). 5. will. 6. will, will (shall). 7. shall (v/ill, 11), will. 8. will, will.
9. shall. 10. shall (will, 41).
^Ex. 14. 1. When the w ater boils, take off the kettle and make the tea.
2. Will the cat run away if we let it out? 3. If you write the ?ddress on the
envelope, Ill pest the Setter. 4. We shall go to Zagorsk on Sunday only on
condition that the weather is good. 5. I shall never believe it unless I see her
for myself. 6. We shall s ta rt learning French only when we are in the second
year. 7. As soon as the visitors leave, I shall resume my work and shall work
till about three in the morning. 8. He will not go out before the doctors allow
him to take Walks. 9. I w a n t to do all the exercises before you take away the
textbook. 10. Ann will do the room while Mary cooks dinner. 11. If you get
tickets for the first night, you will let me know, wont you? 12. H arry v/ill
take the magazines to the library as soon as he looks them through. 1 3.
Dont wait for me if I am late. Before I go to the meeting of the group I shall
go to the deans office and take all the necessary papers. 14. John will not
s ta rt writing a new article before he finishes the first one and shows it to his
scientific adviser. 15. We wont discuss the film at our English lesson before
all the students see it (have seen it ) . 16. Switch off the wireless and the light
before you leave the house. 17. The secretary will type the letters after the
m anag er approves them. 18. We shall work in the reading-room until it
closes down. 19. He wont make the report unless he receives all the data at
least a week before. 20. If you w ant to have a good laugh, go and see this
film. 21. No m atter when he comes home ask him to ring me up. 22. If you
dont water the flowers regularly, they will wither. 23. If you dont forget,
buy me a couple of envelopes at the post-office, will you? 24. What shall 1 tell
him if he comes while you are away?
Ex. 15. 1. Do you know when the term will be over and the examinations
will begin? 2. As soon as the examinations are over, the students v/iil leave
for their homes. 3 . 1 doubt if we shall manage to get everything ready for the
party in time. 4. I wonder when Helen will come. Ask her to send us a tele
gram me when she knows the exact date of her arrival and we shall meet her
at the station. 5. Whenever (no matter when) Mary comes even if she
comes after twelve wake me up and I shall tell her everything myself.
6. I want to introduce her to the girl who will sing at our concert for the first
time. 7 . 1 dont know whether John will go to the cinema after he comes home
from his office. 8. I wonder how many students will take part in the compe
tition if it takes place in July. I am afraid that many students will leave for
home. 9. Do you know when the last train leaves? 1 think that we shall miss
it if it leaves at eleven thirty. 10.1 am sure tha t Anne will be late or will come
at the very last moment. Anyway, we shall not go before she comes. 11.
(Will you) tell me when there will be a lecture on Somerset M augham .
I shall certainly go if I am free. 12. I am afraid Ill have no time to call on
you on Sunday. If you happen to be in this district drop in to take the book.
13. I am anxious to know when the rehearsal will take place and whether
there wiil be any rehearsal at all. I am afraid not all the participants will be
ready if you fix it on S aturday . 14. Ask your brother if he will go on a hike
with us and when it will be convenient for him. He is an experienced hiker
and we shall be very glad if he joins us. We are even willing to postpone our
trip until he is free to go. 15. It is possible that we shall take an exam in

179
g ra m m a r during the spring session. It will be difficult to prepare for the
exam if we have only three days. I think we shall ask for five days at least.
Ex. 17. 1. are taking. 2. are getting on, are beginning. 3. am trying. 4. is
answering. 5. is playing, is crying. 6. is learning. 7. will be receiving. 8. was
driving. 9. is arg uing, protesting. 10. was lying. 11. are cancelling. 12. am
seeing. 13. is dying.
Ex. 20. 1. drinks, is drinking. 2. is making, makes. 3. boils, is boiling.
4. are enjoying. 5. wear, am wearing. 6. are having, wonder, are talking.
7. dont recognize, think, dont remember. 8. understand, is saying, dont
understand, am listening. 9. do ... hear, is saying/says, am not listening.
10. is ... promising, does. 11. differs. 12. starts. 13. buy/am buying, win, am
not buying. 14. are having.
Ex. 21. 1. was leaving. 2. reached, went away. 3. was getting, started,
fell. 4. got, started. 5. heard, went, opened, didnt recognize, w as not w ear
ing. 6. realized, w as travelling. 7. was ... buying. 8. did ... interrupt, was
having. 9. came, was painting, did ... like, was starting, saw. 10. were walk
ing, heard, turned, held up, stopped. 11. arrived, were clapping.
Ex. 28. 1. W hat is the m atter? Why is the baby crying?" He always
cries when he is hungry. I usually give him some milk at this time, but Im
being late (am late) now as I am talking with you. 2. The telephone is
ringing. Take up the receiver. I think my sister is phoning (it is my sister
phoning). She gets home after eleven and phones me when I am going to
bed. 3. Boys, why are you always a rgu in g and quarrelling over rifles?
I know you are great friends. 4. When are you leaving? I am leaving
tomorrow, and M ary is leaving on Saturday. If you are free, come to see
her off. She has very much luggage. 5. "I dont u n d ers ta n d w hat the
teacher is explaining. But you are not attending (listening). As for me
Im listening to him attentively and I understand everything. 6. Are you
staying at the hostel now? No. For the time being I am staying at my
friends. He is on leave and is spending his leave in the South. 7. You are
always grumbling! If you dont stop grum bling and giving instructions to
everyone, you will quarrel with all your friends. 8. He usually spends the
summer in the country, but this summer he is staying in town and is not
going anywhere as he is getting ready for the entrance examinations.
9. Are you still reading? It is very late. Switch off the light. I am so tired
that I am falling asleep over my book.
Ex. 29. 1. We spent a whole day in the forest. We picked flowers, lay in
the g ra s s and rested. Only when it grew dark, we returned home. 2. While
I was looking through the weeks newspapers I came across an interesting
article about teaching foreign languages at school. 3. What were you doing
when I rang you up? 4. When 1 called on John so as to go to the railway
station, he was still having breakfast. I waited for him about ten minutes
and we rushed to the station; the train was leaving in fifteen minutes.
5. Why are you standing in the corridor? The bell is ringing and it is time to
go to the classroom. 6. Yesterday from two till three Susan w as playing
(played) tennis. That is why I could not speak to her. She plays tennis at this
time twice a week. 7. Tomorrow at this time we shall be landing in Odessa.
The flight takes only two hours but if the weather is bad, it will last longer.'
8. I dont remember precisely w hat I did (was doing) on Sunday. It seems
that from ten till about twelve I w as at home working in the garden. After
lunch I spoke on the phone for a long time. Then a friend of mine came to see
me. At first we sat in the garden talking not less than an hour then we
went to the river. It was too cold to bathe, so we ju st sat on the river bank for
a long time. Why do you want to know it? 1 did not go to town and didnt see

180
what happened at the station. 9. While the children were sleeping (slept) the
grandmother was cooking (cooked) the dinner. 10. It is cold today and it is
raining. I t often rains here at this time of the year.
Ex. 30. 1. a) had found, had founded; b) found out. 2. a) lay; b) laid
(had laid); c) laid; d) had laid; e) had been lying; f) had lain (had been
lying). 3. a) raised; b) had raised; c) had risen; d) rose.
Ex. 32. 1. have disobeyed. 2. had lost. 3. will have left. 4. was punished,
had broken. 5. has borrowed. 6. had entered. 7. have had. 8. has bought.
9. has missed. 10. have received.
Ex. 38. 1. Have you bought the note-books?" Yes. After classes I went
to a shop and bought some note-books. 2. How many times have you been
to the theatre this year?" Only twice. 3 . 1 dont feel well, as I have slept the
night badly. 4. We were glad to see your sister; we have (had) not seen her
since last summer. She has changed greatly. 5. The boys have not yet re
turned from school. Yesterday they also came back very late. They have had
additional classes all the week. 6. We could not enter the house, because
Father had locked the door and we had no keys. 7. Have you already
written your test in g ra m m a r ? Yes. We wrote it yesterday." 8. I have
already learned the poem and am only repeating it. 9. How long have you
known John? Not very long. I have known him only half a year. 10. We
have sent him a letter, but we have not received any answer yet. 11. By six
they had returned from the cinema. 12. When did you last go to the Cri
mea? I have never been there at a li. 13. The rain had stopped and the sun
was shining again. 14. Yesterday I met a friend of mine, who had ju s t re
turned from a polar expedition. 15. He phoned me as soon as I came home.
16. You speak English quite welt. Is it true that you have known English
since childhood? 17. He came to our town three years ago after he gradu ated
(had grad uated ) from the institute. It is three years since he has been w ork
ing as a teacher (he has been a teacher for three years now). 18. We have
invited two friends of ours to dinner, but have not cooked the dinner yet. 19.
I have not heard of you for a long time. Where have you been all this time?
20. Ann has been ill for three days. She caught cold on Sunday, when we
went to the country and got wet through in the rain.
Ex. 42. 1. We have ju s t been speaking about your latest article. (We
were ju s t speaking about your latest article.) It is lucky that you have come.
2. 1 have been waiting for you for over fifteen minutes. H avent we agreed
(Didnt we agree) to meet a t five? 3. It is four months already since my
mother has been ill. Al! this time I have been looking (have looked) after
her, have been doing the rooms, cooking dinner. It is good that my brother
has been helping (helps) me with the shopping. I am very tired and am
lagging behind in my studies. 4. It is four years since I left my native
town. Probably there have been many changes there. Recently I have re
ceived a letter from a schoolmate. He writes that there are many new build
ings in the town, th at most of our friends have gone to other cities either to
study or work. He is already working a teacher in the school where we
studied. By May next he will haye been working at school for three years (he
will have had three years experience...). 5. This week I have gone to the
concert of this outstand ing pianist. I have been attending (bave attended)
all his concerts the last two years and I believe th a t he has made great prog
ress. He is truly one of the greatest musicians of our time. 6. It has been
continually raining the last few days. It has grown very cold. I am afraid
that the summer is over (has ended) and that autum n has set in. There has
never been such a cold A ugust in these parts. 7. It was very slippery on the

181
road, as it had rained a short time before. We stopped for the night earlier
than we had planned and made a fire.
Ex. 44. a) 1. He reads new spapers every morning. 2. He is reading the
morning newspaper now. Dont disturb him. 3. He has been reading the
paper for half an hour already. 4. He reads newspapers for two hours every
day. 5. He reads (is reading) newspapers from 9 till 10 every day. 6. He has
been reading the paper since seven oclock and is still reading it. b) I. She
will prepare her lessons in the evening. 2. She will be preparing her lessons
when you come. 3. Will you come in the evening, when she is preparing her
lessons? 4. She will be preparing her lessons a t five oclock. 5. She will do
her homework from five till seven and then she will go to the cinema. 6. She
said she would do her homework in the evening. 7. She will have done her
homework by the time you come. 8. She will have been doing her homework
for two hours already by the time you come, c) 1. I have translated the a r
ticle. It is ready. 2 . 1 have been tran slatin g the article for three hours. Here it
is. 3. I have tr anslated the article this week. It is ready. 4. I translated the
article yesterday. It is ready. 5. I w as translating (translated) the article
yesterday. You c a n t take it, I h aven t finished yet. 6. I was translating the
article at five o clock yesterday. 7. I was tra n slatin g (translated) this a r
ticle from two till five yesterday. 8. I translated this article for two hours. (It
took me two hours to tran slate the article.) 9. I was still translating the
article-when he came. 10. I had been translating this article for two hours
when he came. 11. I had not yet tr anslated the article when he came. 12.
I had translated the article by five oclock. Why didnt you come to take it?

Ex. 45.
1
A. Hello! I havent seen you for ages. Where have you been all this time?
B. In A ug ust I went to Leningrad for a sports competition. I have ju st re
turned.
A. It is lucky I have not gone aw ay and you have found me in. Why didnt
you ring me up?
B. I have lost your telephone number.
A. We have not met since August. I want to tell you about everything that
has happened since then. Can you imagine, I broke my leg (have broken
my leg) and had to give up football. So I dont play football (am not
playing) at present. Instead I am playing chess (play chess) again,
more than before. I even received a prize at the chess championship at
our institute.
B. I am glad you took part (have taken part) in the institute championships.
Congratulations! Why didnt you answ er my letters? I sent you two
letters from Leningrad.
A. But I never received any letters! (I have not received your letters.) I have
not heard from you since you left.
B. Well, I must be off now. Will you come with me? We shall talk while we
are going to the underground.

Mother. Have you been home long, Nick? When did you return from school?
Why dont you answer?
Nick. I came home about two hours ago. I am reading a very interesting
book.
M . What are you reading? Show me the book. Oh, I see. Do you like it?

182
N Yes, I like it very much. C a n't tear myself away from it. Have you read
it?
Af. Yes, of course. I read it when I was twelve but I still remember it quite
well. Are you hungry? Have you eaten anything?
N. I have had a g la ss of milk and some bread and butter.
Af. Will you go for a walk while I make the dinner. I shall call you when the
dinner is ready.
N. No, I wont. I shall go on reading while you cock. Do let me stay at home
please. You said yourself that you liked the book.
Ex. 4S. 1. Last year I went to Moscow to take my entrance examinations
to the institute. I was very busy but on the very first free day I went to the
Tretyakov Gallery. I had never been there before and enjoyed it greatly.
I saw many pictures which I had only seen as reproductions on postcards.
Have you ever been to the Tretyakov Gallery? Tell me about your first visit
there... 2. Last summer we spent our vacations in a village not far from
Yalta. Every day we went to the sea shore to lie in the sun and bathe. We had
hardly arrived when we made friends with a group of very pleasant people.
When we were leaving the place we agreed that we would meet again in
Moscow. Almost three months have passed since we returned and we
havent even rung them up... Nevertheless, if we see them again, I am sure
we shall have a lot of interesting m atters to discuss... 3. Yesterday I met a
schoolmate of mine in the library. He said he was a correspondence student
at the Polytechnical institute. He is taking his examinations now and is
staying at his friends. He told me about our schoolmates and about his life
in Moscow... 4. In April a friend of mine, Olga, fell ill and missed several
lessons in English and in French. We called on her in turn, helped her with
her studies, and told her about what had happened at the institute since she
fell ill... She spoke about her illness and about the books she was reading
now that she had more spare time.
Ex. 54. 1. are, am not. 2. am, is, know, feel (are feeling), are. 3. wash,
does not. 4. does ... do, plays, plays, think. 5. is marrying, thinks, will keep
on. 6. do not know, is, am sure, will suit. 7. have promised, pass, have failed,
have been doing, have been learning. 8. are, have started, are doing, am
living, am growing. 9. is, is crying, have eaten, hav; not given, is finished,
cried, was eating. 10. are doing (are going to do), had, do not know, am
going. 11. have told, are talking, wait, stop, have tried. 12. are teaching, was
telling.
Ex. 56. 1. You said that you had wound the clock, but it has stopped.
2. Yesterday you asked me if I had a spare note-book. I have brought you
two. Here they are. 3. I have always thought that by the time I am twenty
I shall feel quite grown-up. Now 1 see that I have been mistaken. 4. Did you
hear what he said?" He said that the next lecture would take place in two
days. Everybody was welcome to attend without special invitations. 5. The
realization that she was alone in the house and that none v/ould come til!
morning worried her. 6 . 1 did not know that Anne was leaving the very next
day. I thought th a t we would have the time to discuss the matter in detail
before she left. 7. In his lecture the professor stated that there is no life on
this planet. I have heard different views. Some astronomers believe that the
planet is inhabited. 8. I like reading fairy-tales. When I was a child, my
grandm other used to tell us tales in the evening. I believed that anim als and
even plants could (can) speak their own language the same as people.
9. When I met him last, I asked him when he would return me my books. He
promised he would return them two days later but I have not seen him
since. Perhaps you can say what has happened. 10. We never thought that

183
this work will take us so long. When we started it seemed that we would finish
in two weeks, but now it is quite clear that we shall not be through before the
end of the month. M. In his letter Uncle Robert asked how you felt (were
feeling) and whether you would come to see him in summer. He has been ill
for a long time and has ju s t returned from a hospital (He had been ill ... and
had ju s t returned...).
Ex. 65. 1. This rule was explained to us at the lesson yesterday. 2. It was
announced that we m ust get together at the institute at nine oclock in the
morning. 3. He was elected chairman of the meeting. 4. We were given seats
in the gallery from where we could see only p a rt of the stage. 5. The museum
is being repaired now. It will be opened for visitors only in September.
6. Why has the meeting been cancelled? It hasnt been cancelled; it has
been postponed to Thursday. 7. A new building for a picture gallery is
being constructed in the town now. When the building has been constructed,
all the pictures that the museum possesses will be displayed in it. 8. The
players of the football team were gathered after the match, and all their
mistakes were explained to them. 9. He is laughed at because he is a snob.
10. He has been given no choice: he will have to go on that business trip. 11.
The new novel is dedicated to the w riters sister. 12. It is said that he is a
very experienced physician. 13. Tom and Huck were looked for everywhere,
but nobody suspected where they really were. 14. Eliza was taught to pro
nounce correctly, but she was allowed to speak only about the weather. 15.
The bridge had been built by the time we moved to the town. 16. The child got
frightened at the sight of the dog. 17. I was told about the incident by a
friend of mine. 18. He was (got) fined because he crossed the street when the
red light was on. i9.1 am afraid you wont be praised for such a conduct. 20.
They were served coffee and fried eggs with bacon. 21. It is believed that he
will take part in the competition. 22. He was seen to enter the bookshop. 23.
This writers novels have been translated into many lang uag es and have
been published in many countries. 24. The tests have been corrected and the
results are quite satisfactory, even good. 25. Has the house been built?
No, it is still being built. When will it be built? It will have been built
by October. 26. Dont worry, your mother will be take l care of. 27. Has the
dinner been cooked (m ade)? 28. It is rumoured that yau are going to move
to the country. 29. He has been advised to see the doctor.
Ex. 68. Weariness was heard in his voice. Why is one alw ays forced into
publicity? Not a single word of yours will be published. The interview w on t
be published? It wont be published without your consent. It is rumoured...
Can it be done? All the actors before me have been entirely mistaken in their
presentation of Hamlet. He w as presented in black velvet. In S hakespeares
times black velvet was not worn. We were intrigued. The psychology of
Hamlet will be presented by me differently. His will is paralysed. He is
hurled in another. But how will it be interpreted? Not a word in my interpre
tation is actually spoken. All is done in absolute, unbroken silence, solely
with my 1. They will be left out. It will be done again and again. I am
cramped by Shakespeare.

Ex. 74. 1. In her place I would never have agreed to this offer. 2. Lets
wait. He might come yet. 3. Why did you not ask me? Im sure I could have
helped. 4. It is a pity we did not know he was in Moscow. We would have
been glad to see him. 5. I should like to join you but unfortunately I c a n t.
6. It would be unpleasant to upset her on this day. 7. I didnt get a ticket to
the first night. Otherwise I should have certainly come. 8. I did not know the
hometask or I should have done it. 9. But for the doctors help the patient
would still be in a most critical state. 10. Let him do whatever he likes.
1 8 4
I dont care. 11. The dem onstrators shouted: Long live peace in our con
tinent and all over the world!
Ex. 75 . I. were (had been), would feel (would have felt). 2. had,
would want. 3. have seen, were, would not count. 4. would have, came out
(were to come out, should come out). 5. had stayed, would have. 6. would be
(would have been), had not made. 7. did (has done), would have under
stood. 8. am (would, should be), do (did) not work. 9. were to see (saw ),
would have stopped. 10. had, would laugh (would have laughed). 11. had
not heard.
Ex. 78 A. 1. You would not have these frequent headaches if you spent
more time in the open air. 2. We would certainly go for a walk if it were not
raining. 3. 1 think that if I were in your place, I would try to avoid arguing.
4. I could not do anything even if I wanted to interfere. But I dont. 5. If you
could send us a telegram, we might meet you, though I cant promise any
thing. 6. If anyone should ring me up, tell him that 1 shall be back after ten.
7. If I were to make the acquaintance of this o utstanding person, I would
consider myself very lucky. 8. You would feel better if you followed (would
follow) the doctors advice. 9. If you could stay in the town longer, you
might visit the local museum.
B. 1. Even if we had come half an hour earlier, we would have
missed the train ju s t the same. 2. She would not have missed so many
lessons ii she had not been so frequently ill. 3. If he had not fallen ill last
week, he would have taken part in the competition. 4. Last Sunday we could
have gone to the forest with you, if the car had not broken. 5. I dont know
anything about the matter. Even if my sister had heard anything, she would
not have told me. 6. Even if you had given him all the necessary instructions,
he would not (could not) have done it better than you. 7. He would not have
broken his arm if he had not been in such a hurry. 8. If you had called me
yesterday, I should have put the book in my bag at once. 9. If we had known
beforehand that you v/ould come, we would have left you the key.
C. I. If he were not so absent-minded, he would not have left her a d
dress at home. 2. She would not have fallen down if she had walked more
carefully. 3. If she had not been taking music lessons since childhood she
would not play the piano so well. 4. If the boy were not so stubborn, he would
have put on his w arm clothes and would not have c aught cold. 5. If we had
warned him in time, he would be here now. 6. If I had told them the truth
there and then I should not feel so nervous now. 7. If she had worked prop
erly last year, she would know the subject better and would have received
a good mark.
Ex. 81 . 1. did not jum p (would not jum p). 2. could. 3. would (could)
remember (rem em bered). 4. were. 5. would say, would not say. 6. had. 7. did
not call. 8. knew. 9. could have gone.
Ex. 82. 1. Tom and Huck wished they were pirates or at least might
become pirates when they grew up. 2. There came a day when Eliza wished
she had never met Professor Higgins. 3. Aunt Polly wished that she had not
punished Tom so often, now that she believed that he was dead. 4. Professor
Higgins wished that Eliza would stay at his house. 5. Tom wished he could
let Aunt Polly know that he was not drowned. 6. Becky wished that Tom
would see her home. 7. Tom wished that Becky would never speak to any
other boys. 8. The boys wished they would some day find a treasure. 9. I wish
you would come v/ith us. 10. I wish I had seen you yesterday. You would
have told me the hometask. 11. George wishes that you would give him the
agenda of our next meeting. 12. I wish you had wiped your muddy shoes
before entering the room or taken them off.
 Ex. 83 . 1. called (were calling). 2. were thinking (thought). 3.
should see. 4. should sit (sit). 5. should say. 6. should go around.

Ex. 84. I . I suggest that we all get (should get) together and discuss the
matter calmly. 2. Do you insist that we should all hand in our course papers
before the final test? 3. It is important that all the students should partici
pate in the work. 4. The chief of the expedition ordered that everything
should be ready for the sta rt at 6 a. m. 5. It is necessary that all the equip
ment should be packed beforehand. 6. The chairman recommended that all
the am endments to the resolution should be made in written form. 7. His
proposal was that we should all state our views before taking a decision.
8. He made no suggestion that we keep silent. 9. Have you ever suggested
that he should make this experiment? As far as I remember the order was
that you should conduct it alone. 10. The library requires that all the books
should be returned (be returned) before the end of the term. 11. It is de
sirable that the ward should be aired (be aired) every other hour. 12. He
knew the subject well and was not afraid that he might be asked (lest he
should be asked) difficult questions. 13. The gardener feared that the early
frosts might damage the young apple-trees. 14. It was ordered that all
should stand (s tand) in a line (line up) in front of the tribune.

' ' 4 ^
88 . 1. could not see. 2. v/ould not have. 3. might spill. 4. can be
X-rayra. 5. should (might) not seem. 6. could hear. 7. may (will) gather.
8. would come. 9. might (would) take. 10. should flow.

Ex. 88. 1. He decided to leave the house ahead of time so that we could
meet at the station. 2. We hurried to the office so that the m anager might
still be in (lest the m anager should leave). 3. Speak louder and more dis
tinctly so that everyone may (can) hear you in the back row. 4. She told us
all her impressions so that we might u nderstand what she felt (how' she was
feeling). 5. The lecturer spoke slowly in order that w'e might (could) put
down the main ideas. 6. The teacher will give you consultations so that you
can (may, will) revise all the material before the examination. 7. I men
tioned all the details so that you could understand me better (lest you
misunderstand me, le styo u should misunderstand m e ) . 8. Turn on the light,
so we can all see the photos.

Ex. 89 . 1. were about. 2. had not seen. 3. were re-learning. 4. ispt (were
not). 5. were (w as). 6. were (w as). 7. interested. 8. were being drained.
9. had gone off.

Ex. 90. 1 . 1 feel as if I had not slept the night. 2. He did not pay attention
to the noise and continued to speak as if there was nobody in the room (as if
there were...). 3. She sings as though she were a professional singer. 4. The
boy kept silent as if he were afraid to speak. 5. You are treating me as if
I were a child. 6. The girl was amazed as if she had never seen anything
of the kind. 7. You are breathing heavily as if you had been running all the
way. 8. He knows our town as if he had been living (had lived) here for
a long time. 9. You look as if you had lost something. Can I help you? 10.
I remember the incident as if it had happened quite recently.

Ex. 91. 1. Fetch me some w a rm water so that I can wash the child. 2. If
I had known your address, I should have written to you long ago. 3. I wish
you could have taken part in our performance. You act as if you were a real
actor. 4. I suggest that our group should see the new comedy and discuss it
at the English lesson. 5. Were I in.her place (If I were in her place), I would

186
not rely (would not have relied) upon anybodys help and would do eve
rything myself. 6 . 1 would accept the invitation only on condition that you go
(would go) there too. 7. It is desirable that all the papers should be (be)
ready by Monday. Otherwise we shall not send them to the congress in time.
8. You had better keep silent and not tell stran gers about your affairs. They
may misunderstand you. 9 . 1 should be glad to make your brothers acquaint
ance. But for tomorrows test, 1 would go with you. I really wish I could.
Ex. 97. W as looking, turned, was addressed, had. Knew, was, had
received, left, had come, burnt, had (has h a d ), was devoted, was, knew,
had been, had gone, made, v/as afraid, would return and take. Did not put,
might see, came, got in, w as getting out, was seen, did not want, was, lost,
discovered, could not, did not trust, became. Was surprised, had not
changed. Said, was delighted. Have missed, added. Has died (died), ex
plained, inherited (has inherited), turned, said. Said, left, wished, got
answered, wrote, changed, left, didnt you answer. Looked, came, took,
said. Realized, knew.
Ex. ! 02. 1. could. 2. managed to. 3. could. 4. was able to. 5. could. 6. m an
aged to. 7. could. 8. succeeded in. 9. were able to. 10. could. 11. could.

Ex. 104. 1. have softened. 2. give, have cost. 3. be. 4. be expected.

5. be. 6. have come. 7. have been doing. 8. hear. 9. be seen. 10. have looked.
11. sack. 12. be seen. 13. be playing. 14. have thought. 15. have been cooking.
16. not have been opened. 17. not have been.
Ex. 107. 1. He cant have forgotten about your birthday. 2. She can
speak neither G erman nor French. 3. Could you help me to translate the
text? 4. C ant you find a taxi? You ca n t (couldnt) have tried very hard.
5. You cant cross the street now. Dont you see the red light? 6. How can you
be so self-confident? Do you think that you can get the main part in this
film? 7. Who could it have been in the house at half past nine in the morning?
If it h a d n t been Nora, who else could it have been? 8. Why c a n t you leave
me alone? she asked with irritation. 9. You (one) could seethe river and the
mountains in the distance out of the window. 10. Can 1 h an d in the compo
sition tomorrow? asked Tom. 11. Can she have failed to send the letter? 12.
Can he have been writing the report for a week now? 13. She can t have been
eavesdropping at the door when you were talking. 14. We could discuss our
plans for the sum mer next week. 15. Can (could) he have failed to book
a room in the hotel? 16. This book can be bought at any shop. 17. Can you
understand why he is so silent today? 18. He cant be still working: it is
midnight. 1 9 .1 could have failed to recognize him: we h a d n t seen each other
for many years. 20. Could you explain the rule once more? 21. She c a n t
(couldnt) have typed the article during an hour: the article is very long. 22.
Where could we have dinner? 23. I could lend you my textbook till Saturday.
24. What I do for you? he asked. 25. You can come tomorrow, if you
like. 26. You can t smoke here, there is a smoking-room on the second floor.
27. Could you explain to me what happened there?
Ex. 113. 1. be. 2. have been. 3. have. 4. have run, have gone. 5. have
behaved. 6. have sent. 7. be, be. 8. have admitted. 9. not have been sleeping.
10. breed. 11. have known. 12. have spared. 13. be waiting. 14. be, run, t a n
gle. 15. have told. 16. be waiting.
Ex. 117. 1. may. 2. can. 3. can. 4. might. 5. may. 6. may. 7. can (m ay).
8. may. 9. may.
Ex. 119. 1. Michael may (might) not have understood that she was
offended. 2. He may (might) not leave tomorrow. 3. She may (might) not

187
know how much he is working. 4. He may (might) have had dinner and is
waiting for you. 5. Peter may (might) have gone to another town for quite
a different reason. 6. He may (might) have been waiting for you for a long
time. 7. She may (might) have understood all long ago. 8. They may
(might) have stopped at a hotel and will phone you as soon as they are free.
9. He may (might) not have got ready for the examination as he was ill. 10.
M artha m ay (might) have been learning to play the piano for a long time.
11. She m ay (might) be typing and therefore she does not hear the bell. 12.
George may (might) have got tired and he therefore did not want to go
anywhere. 13. Ann may be Tree tomorrow evening, then invite her to our
party. 14. Quiet! The children may be sleeping. 15. You could be more a tten
tive at the lessons. 16. He could give you a lift in his car: it is not far. 17.
Could I phone you tomorrow evening? 18. They may (m ight) not have de
cided where to go in summer. 19. In the morning he had a bad toothache, and
he may (might) have gone to the dentist. 20. Tom m ay (might) have made
a bad impression on you, as he didnt feel well that evening. 21. He may
(might) take you to the station in his car. 22. He may (might) not keep his
promise: he Is a light-minded man. 23. He may (might) not have accepted
your invitation as they have some other plans. 24. She m ay (might) explain
to you why she changed her decision. 25. They may (m ight) not know your
telephone number: it was changed last year. 26. She may (might) have seen
the film: you had better invite her to the theatre.
Ex. 121. 1. Can (could) it be raining? I havent taken my umbrella with
me. 2. He may (might) not get angry with you for not keeping your promise
(because you havent kept your promise). He is a kind man! 3. John c a n t
(couldnt) have made so many mistakes in the dictation: his spelling is
good. 4. He may (might) not have got tickets for a plane. He may (might)
come tomorrow by irain. 5. They c ant (couldnt) have liked such a primitive
film. 6. Can (could) she still be cooking dinner? 7. They may (might) have
been speaking in such low voices because they did not w ant to wake up the
child. 8. C an (could) they have refused your offer? 9. They may (m ight)
spend the whole sum mer in the mountains. 10. Can (could) they have failed
to wait for you? We didnt expect them to do such a thing. 11. Douglas may
(might) have come from his work. Let us ring him up. 12. The students c a n t
(couldnt) have failed to do the exercise correctly. 13. He may (might) have
some business in our town, and he has come here for several days. 14.
Mr. Blake may (might) not be sleeping: it is only ten oclock. 15. You could
have looked up the new words in the dictionary. You had a lot of time. 16.
Books cannot be taken out of the library. 17. Visitors cannot feed anim als in
the Zoo. 18. You may ask me as many questions as you like: 1 shall answ er
all of them. 19. May we come an hour la ter? Unfortunately you c a n t."
Ex. 122. have increased, have increased, understand, have uttered,
have been, have formed, have forgotten, have broken down, tell, have given.
Ex. 129. 1. decide. 2. have put on. 3. have met. 4. have failed io arrive.
5. have been discussing. 6. have left. 7. look. 8. have failed. 9. be working.
10. have been riding. 11. have been living. 12. know. 13. have forgotten.
14. know. 15. be talking. 16. have been having.
Ex. 131. 1. M ust we hand in the composition today? "No, you neednt.
You may hand it in tomorrow. 2. I must have my hair cut and buy some
thing for supper. 3. Dont go away. I m ust treat you to my apple pie, said
Mrs. Smith. 4. He m ust have failed to hear that somebody ra n g at the door.
5. You must have been sleeping when this happened. 6. She m ust have dozed
off and she did not see him enter the house. 7. Henry m ust be getting ready
for the entrance examinations to the university. 8. The boys m ust have been

188
playing football since morning. 9. He must have been surprised when he saw
her at the P a rk e r s. 10. Today I m ust go to the dentist: I m u st have a tooth
filled. 11. They m ust be waiting for you at the entrance. 12. Evidently the
performance will be cancelled as the actress playing the leading p a rt has
fallen ill. 13. He must have doubted the truthfulness of her words as he
began to ask her questions. 14. She m u s t have failed to see him in the crowd
and therefore did not answ er his greeting. 15. He m ust be displeased with
the results of the experiment. 16. We must appoint the day and the time for
the meeting. 17. Evidently the question will be settled tomorrow. 18. He
m ust be ill: look how pale he is. 19. The accident m ust have happened at
about nine oclock in the evening. 20. You m ust have been misunderstood.
21. The expression m ust be unknown to her. Give her a dictionary. 22. Ask
Sam, he m u st know all. 23. You m u s t pull yourself together and answer the
question. 24. They m ust have failed to get tickets for a plane and will go by
train. 25. He m ust have disagreed with George and they therefore quarreled.
Ex. 133 A. 1. prevent, stop, be caught, begin, set, prevent, go, set,
prevent, be locked up and secured, be barred, happen, do, go, begin,
do. 2. have learnt, have found, have loitered and prowled, understand, have
been, have eaten and slept. 3. have been, be able, imagine, sympathize, have
occasioned, have returned, have removed. 4. have dragged, have been c a r
rying, imagine, have come by and noticed, have pursued, not have heard,
imagine, have distanced.
Ex. 134. 1. Speak up! Nothing can be heard. 2. What a wonderful night!
Could we have a short walk? 3. This is your best work. You must certainly
send it to the exhibition. 4. He m u s t have been nineteen when he left home.
5. At last! I began to think that something m u st have happened to you.
6. Could you ring me up next Wednesday? 7. I think I must have slept for
seven or eight hours. 8. He might have guessed that we wouldnt leave him
in trouble. 9. He must have guessed that we dont want him (to be present)
here. 10. She could have helped them but she did not know about their diffi
culties. 11. She m ust have been helping them. 12. She might have helped
them; she saw th at they needed help. 13. He could have sent the letter by air
mail, but Anne talked him out of it. 14. We must have tired you. 15. C an t you
see that 1 give you the money to buy something with it? 16. She must dislike
music. 17. You must underestimate the importance of this report. 18. He
might have forgotten about his promise to come, but the visiting card re
minded him of it. 19. She cannot (could not) have gone away. 20. Can
(could) you have heard me reading the letter out loud? 21. If you could wait,
I wouldnt ask you for anything else. 22. May 1 visit you tomorrow? No,
you m u s tn t. 23. You might have come in without knocking. 24. C ant you
see that she is ill? 25. Evidently it isnt raining there now. 26. In his youth he
was strong and could lift heavy weights. 27. She was able to lift the trunk,
but put it down at once. 28. You can dismiss me, if 1 dont do as you like.
Ex. 142. 1. to put. 2. be. 3. to be photographed. 4. have bought.
5. have got. 6. to have, to go. 7. be sleeping. 8. to be playing. 9. to have been.
10. be reading. 11. try. 12. to have shown. 13. have taken. 14. take,
go. 15. to have seen.
Ex. . 1. You should have gone out at the previous stop. Now you
must go back. 2. You should not pay attention to what she says: she is tired
and therefore in a bad mood. 3. He m ust be sitting on the bench in the g a r
den. He is always there in the evening. 4. Ask Nora about it. She ought to
know. 5. You dont look well. You ought not to have worked at your report
till late at night. 6. You should not have refused the offer to go there in s u m
mer. I know it would be interesting to you. 7. You should have tried your

189
best to catch the 12 o'clock train. The next train is only in three hours.
8. I should have gone to the exhibition with you on Friday. There are always
many people there now. 9. Do you think we should go to the station or wait
for him here? 10. You ought not to have gone out in such cold weather, you
are not quite well yet. 11. Knock at the door: he ought to be in his office. 12.
You should have had breakfast: there is plenty of time. 13 . 1 think he ought to
agree to the plan. It is the best w ay out. 14. You (one) ought not to try to
solve all the problems at once. >1 should not have argued with him, but
I did not know that he was so touchy. 16. He ought to stay in bed and to take
the medicines prescribed by the doctor. 17. She should have puiled herself
together and explained everything. 18. It is late now; everybody m ust be
sleeping. 19. He should take some w arm clothes with him. The summer may
be cold. 20. The telegram should have been sent in the morning; I am afraid
she w ont get it. 21. You should have done your homework first and then
gone to play football," the mother said to the boy. 22. She should not have
taken to heart her friends jokes; they did not w ant to hurt her. 2 3 . 1 think he
should have it out with her. 24. You shouldnt have worried. I was sure that
everything would end well. 25. You should have encouraged her. She was
not to blame.
Ex. 144. I. should be. 2. should be. 3. should be getting down.
4. should be getting. 5. should have persevered. 6. should have. 7. should
have been taken. 8. shouldnt have been able. 9. should have come.
10. should have taken. 11. should have soled an d heeled. 12. should be
being interviewed. 13. should have been taken up. 14. should not have been
cleaned. 15. should be.
Ex. I55t I. They had to leave the concert as they were afraid to miss the
last train. 2. We were to have met at the entrance to the cinema, but she did
not come for some reason. 3. You will have to wait a little. The dean is busy
now. 4. In accordance with the plan you are to write a course paper in the
fourth year. 5 . 1 didnt have to exp lain anything. She already knew all. 6. The
house is to be built by September. 7. You are to meet the tourists at the air
port and take them to the hotel. 8. I dont have to spend much time to get to
the institute: I live near it. 9. They were to meet only in twenty years. 10. He
is to be seen at the stadium every evening: he plays tennis and volleyball
regularly. 11. We did not have to queue for the tickets: we had booked them
by phone. 12. The tourists arc having a rest now, and at five oclock they are
to g o on an excursion. 13. Tomorrow Ill have to see the dentist I c an t put it
off again. 14. You are to inform us of your decision not later than the twenti
eth. 15. 1 have to go to bed late now as I m ust prepare a report for Friday. 16.
Everything is ready for the reception. Now well only have to wait for the
guests: they are to arrive at seven. 17. As you will be the last to leave, youll
have to switch off the light and lock the door. You are to leave the key under
the m at at the door. 18. We had to sleep in the boat as it was w arm er in it
than on the bank. 19. Although we did not like the breakfast cooked by
George we had to eat it. 20. You will have to explain to her why you do not
w ant to come to the party. 21. The concert was to have begun at seven, and
now it is a quarter p ast seven and it does not begin. Has anything happened?
22. He has to spend a lot of time getting ready for the lessons, as he was ill
and missed m any lessons.
Ex. 169. 1. would not. 2. would. 3. shall, will, shall. 4. will. 5. will.
6. will. 7. will, will. 8. would, would. 9. will. 10. shall not, will, will not.
11. would not. 12. shall. 13. would. 14. shall.
Ex. 171. I. You shall answ er for it, he said with a threat in his voice.
2. Shall I open the window? It is very stuffy here. 3. You will go and tell her

190
the truth. 4. Would you mind sitting in the garden? It is cooler there. 5. Let
us listen to music. I have many fine recordings. Or would you rather go out?
6. She will sit for hours and watch the w a ves run on to the beach. 7. Shall
we dance? he said coming up to her. 8. What shall we do? Where shall we
go? It is very late. 9. If you will come to our party, we shall be very glad to
seeyou.10. Will you tell her that I called on her and I m ust have a talk with
h e r ? u l y T h e door wont open; the lock must be out of order. 12. The dog
woulchvt let us stroke it, though we had given it food for several days. 13.
We all try to help her, but she wont listen to anybody. 14. V/ill you do what
I ask you? 15. We had been waiting for more than an hour, but the th u n
derstorm wouldnt stop. 16. In the evening he would tell us interesting
stories about voyages and pirates. 17. You knew I didnt like it that you
visited those people, but you would go there. 18. Shall we go to the cinema?
I w ant to see the new comedy. 19. Would you like to watch television?
I would play chess with you. 20. We were wraiting for my cousin and her
husband to sit down at the table, but they w ouldnt come. 21. You know
that I am against your coming home late, and still you will come not earlier
than twelve oclock, the mother said to her son.

Ex. 178. 1. neednt have brought. 2. didnt need to bring. 3. didnt need
to explain. 4. neednt have explained. 5. didnt need to hurry. 6. neednt
have hurried. 7. didnt need to write and to summon. 8. neednt have
written and summoned. 9. didnt need to clean. 10. neednt have been.
11, didnt need to take.

Ex. 179. 1. need not. 2. does not have to. 3. should not. 4. dare not.
5. need not. 6. should not. 7. did not have to. 8. dare. 9. should. 10. do not
have to. 11. should. 12. should. 13. need not. 14. do not have to. 15. need not.
16. should. 17. need. 18. dare not. 19. does not have to.

Ex. 181. 1. We did not have to queue for tickets before the show: we had
bought tickets beforehand. 2. You neednt wash the windows now. Let us do
it together tomorrow. 3. An underground station has been built near our
house, and we dont have to go to work by bus. 4. The text was so easy that
we didnt have to use the dictionary. 5. You shouldnt have bought so much
bread; we have some bread. 6. You should not have reminded her about the
incident: she was upset, and the evening was spoilt. 7. You should have
asked him when it is convenient for him to give us a lecture. 8. He did not
have to tell anything about himself: everybody knew him well. 9. You need
not have taken so many w arm clothes v/ith you; it is always warm here at
this time of the year. 10. Do you think we should let him know about it? 11.
The doctor said (hat he would have to give up smoking. 12. You should have
seen the doctor long ago; you dont look well. 13. You neednt have taken
your umbrella; 1 am sure it wont rain. 14. Yesterday I did not have to do
any written exercises: we were asked to do only oral ones. 15. She should
have rung up home; her mother will worry that she is out so long. 16. You
neednt leave a note for him; Ill give him your message. 17. We didnt have
to send him a telegram ; he unexpectedly came himself. 18. You neednt have
explained the rule to the students; they know it. 19. You should not have
told her about the accident. 20. You neednt have called the doctor; the child
is quite well. 21. You neednt have asked them so many questions; the pic
ture (everything) is clear. 22. You should not have scolded the boy; he is not
to blame.
Ex. 184. should, could, could, must, could, must, must.
Ex. 185. must, must, can, can, may, can, must, must, must, may.
 Ex. 186. must, will, could, may, can, will, shall, might, will, shall, may,
should, should, will, shall.
Ex. 187. 1. He must have cut himself when shaving. 2. C a n t I finish my
breakfast first? 3. Again and again she told herself that she m ustn t blame
him. 4. But I think you might have told us this half an hour ago. 5. May I sit
with you? 6. She m ust have come early to have got a place like that. 7. I can
make Ann work and Im going to do it. 8. You may also ad d ress me as Aunt
Polly for the future. 9. You can take that hat if you like it. 10. Can she really
be so ill? 11. She cannot deceive me. Her name cannot be Doolittle. 12. She
m ust have seen him somewhere. 13. Do you suppose he could be hiding now?
14. You ought not to have driven the car with the brakes out of order. 15.
This is the one thing that m ust be avoided. 16. Suddenly there appeared a
girl carrying in her arm s a huge bunch of forgetmenot3 which she m ust have
been gathering from where they grew in thick profusion at the far side of the
lawn. 17. Does it occur to you, Higgins, that Eliza has some feelings? Oh,
no. I dont think so. Not any feelings that we need bother about." 18. In the
morning Ill call on Mrs. Higgins and ask her what I ought to do. 19. Need
we tell her anything? 20. Im sure you neednt be nervous. And you know Ill
stand by you. 21. Her father w ouldnt agree to her marriage. 22. You will
have to have a special permit for your yacht.
Ex. 188. 1. Ive got a lot of time. I neednt go home. 2. How dare you
come here and attempt to blackmail me? 3. You ought not to have been so
rash. 4. I am afraid that all this will have to be called off. 5. Im not asking
you to believe me any more. I c a n t help rt, if you wont. 6. I m ust speak and
you must listen. You shall listen. 7. I shall have to ask them what the name
of this young man is. 8. Can you remember any great error tha t you com
mitted in your early days, Ja n e ? he asked looking at her acro ss the table.
9. But do you approve of it, H a rry ? asked the painter walking up and
down the room and biting his lips. You c a n t approve of it." 10. Imogene,
you m ust find ways of avoiding this. If not, I m not going to have anything to
do with you. 11. You never dine with me now. I thought you m ust have some
curious romance on hand. 12. And now, my dear friend, may I ask if you
really meant ail that you said to us at lunch? 13. I dont think Ill be able to
handle your case. Im very busy. Oh, but vou m u s t.. You will ju s t have to,
t h a t s all. 14. I beseech you to let me bring him here. Perhaps we can save
him. He shall be no trouble to you. I will do everything. 15. Bill arrived at
Woodstock and he asks if he may call on Mrs. Wickham. 16. Shall I tell
M am m a that youll come to dinner? 17. Let me put you into a taxi. The tram s
will have stopped running. 18. You have a scar on your neck, Mr. Eden,
the girl was saying. How did it happen? 1 am sure it must have been some
ad venture. 19. How dare you show me your temper? 20. After her illness
she had to make up for lost time. 21. Harris said there m ust have been
twenty people following him.
Ex. 189. 1. It m u s t be snowing now there. 2. It must have been snowing
since morning. 3. Probably it is not snowing there now. 4. You must have
failed to appreciate the importance of this information. 5. She must be fond of
opera. 6. Her brother is not fond of opera, probably. 7. She may be neg
lecting her insulin treatment. 8. She may have neglected her insulin tr e a t
ment. 9. She may have been neglecting her insulin treatm ent for a long time.
10. When she addressed me, 1 m ay have been reading an announcement and
missed her words.
Ex. 190. 1. . 2. ,
. 3. , . 4. , , 5.
, .