Semiconductors

The importance of the band theory is that is provides us with a clear means
of understanding how solids may be insulators, semiconductors or metals.

Full/empty bands give no conduction

At 0 K, if the filled bands are separated from empty bands, we have

insulating properties. If the separation is > 5 eV the substance remains an
insulator above 0 K, whereas semiconducting properties arise if the filled
and empty levels lie within 0 - 2 eV of one another.
In semiconductor physics we use a distinct terminology. The filled energy
band is called the valence band (V.B.) and the empty band immediately
above it the conduction band (C.B.). The zero energy level is taken as the
top of the valence band. The energy gap separating the two bands is denoted
by Eg. Any process that excites an electron from the valence to the
conduction band produces two charge carriers, electron in the conduction
band and the positive hole left in the valence band for conduction. (Thermal
and optical excitation processes are two important ways of inducing
semiconductor behaviour, which will normally involve both electrons and
holes).

E
Metal Semiconductor Insulator

C.B

EF

V.B.

At 300 K
Si: Eg = 1.17 eV, Ge: Eg = 0.75 eV
Charge carriers in semiconductors

e
= e nn + p p =
m*

n = # electrons/volume
p = # holes/volume

Both electrons and holes give conduction in the same direction

Metals not strongly dependent on T (just through ), N(EF) constant.

Semiconductors strongly dependent on T because n, p are strong
functions of T.

Intrinsic semiconductors

Semiconductors with free electrons/holes created by electronic excitations

from V.B. C.B.

Occupation obeys Fermi statistics.

Let's call the thermal equilibrium concentration for an intrinsic

semiconductor no and po.
A schematic of the density of states. For an intrinsic semiconductor the
Fermi energy is in the middle of the band gap and n0=p0

Thus n0 = Dc ( E ) f ( E , T )dE and
Ec
Ev

p0 = D ( E )[1 f ( E, T )]dE

v where Dc(E) and Dv(E) are the density of
states in the conduction band and the valence band respectively.
3
(2mn* ) 2 1
Dc ( E ) = ( E E ) 2
E > Ec
2 2 h3
c

3
(2m*p ) 2
1
Dv ( E ) = ( Ev E ) 2
Ev > E
2 h 2 3

3
(2mn* ) 2 1 1
Thus n0 =
2 2 h3 (E E )
Ec
c
2
e ( E EF ) / k B T
+1
dE

1
Since E-EF>>kBT, ( E EF ) / k B T
e ( E EF ) / k B T
e +1
3
* 2
(2m ) 1
n0 = e EF / kBT ( E Ec ) 2 e E / kBT dE
n

2 h 2 3
Ec
3
(2mn* ) 2 ( Ec EF ) / kBT 1
n0 =
2 h
2 3
e
Ec
( E Ec ) 2 e ( E Ec ) / kBT dE

( E Ec )
Let x =
k BT

3
(2mn* ) 2 3 1
Therefore n0 =
2 h
2 3
( k BT ) e2 ( Ec EF ) / k BT

0
x 2 e x dx

3
2 mn* k BT 2 ( Ec EF ) / kBT
n0 = 2 2 e
h

Similarly
 3
2 m*p k BT 2 ( EF Ev ) / kBT
p0 = 2 e
h2

The parameters n0 and p0 are normally referred to as intrinsic electron and

hole concentrations respectively (ni and pi)
3
2 mn* k BT 2 ( Ec EF ) / kBT
n0 = ni = 2 e
h2
3
2 m*p k BT 2 ( EF Ev ) / kBT
p0 = pi = ni = 2 e
h2

3
2 k BT
3

( )
2

n0 p0 = n = 4
2
i 2 m* *
n m p e ( Ec Ev ) / kBT
h

3
2 k BT
3

( )
2
( E ) / k T
n0 p0 = n = 4
2
i 2 m* *
m
n p e g B - Law of Mass Action
h

Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductors

For intrinsic semiconductors n0 = p0 implies

3 3
2 mn* k BT 2 ( Ec EF ) / kBT 2 m*p k BT 2 ( E E ) / k T
2 e = 2 e F v B
h2 h2

3
m*p 2 ( E E ) / k T
e ( Ec EF )/ kBT = * e F v B
mn

Ec + Ev 3 m*p
EF = + k BT ln *
2 4 mn

We normally denote EF by EFi for an intrinsic s.c.

3 m*p
EF = EFi = Emidgap + k BT ln *
4 mn

For mp* = mn*, EFi is right in the middle of the gap.

If mp* > mn* , EFi > Emid gap that is slightly above the centre

If mp* < mn*, EFi < Emid gap that is slightly below the centre

Effective masses and intrinsic carrier concentrations for some commonly

used semiconductors (at 300K)

mn*/mo mp*/mo ni(cm-3)

Silicon 0.58 0.56 1.5 x 1010

Germanium 0.55 0.37 2.4 x 1013
Gallium
Arsenide 0.07 0.48 1.8 x 106

These carrier concentrations are not enough to carry reasonable current for
devices. By adding dopants, semiconductors can be given extra carriers.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The properties of semiconductors are strongly affected by the presence of
impurities, defects or departures from exact stoichiometry. The influence of
added impurities or defects gives rise to extrinsic properties. Electrically
active impurities (donors or acceptors) give rise to free electrons or holes.

Donors: Group V elements (P, As, Sb)

Acceptors: Group III elements (B, Al, Ga, In)

Impurity dopants substitutionals

Energy required for donor electrons to be excited to conduction band is

small compared to thermal electrons. Can be estimated using Bohr model of
Hydrogen atom.

The binding energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is given by

m0e4
E = = 13.6eV
8 02h2
 For the loosely bound electron in the semiconductor m0 me* and 0
r0 where r is the dielectric constant in the semiconductor.

4
E = m2e e2 2
8 r 0 h

If for silicon me*= .025 m0 and r 12

Binding energy of the loosely bound electron is given by

E = (13.6 eV ) 1.082 = .026 eV

(12)

The energy states of these electrons lie very close to the bottom of the
conduction band.

[Note that the thermal energy kBT at room temperature (300 K) is 0.025
eV.]

At fairly moderate temperatures, all the donor atoms are ionized giving
electrons to conduction band. Similar situation occurs when dopant atoms
are acceptors which will be ionized creating extra holes in the valence band.
 n-type p-type

Carrier densities in doped semiconductors

Law of mass action still applies

3
2 k T
3

( )
2
( E g ) / k BT
i.e. n0 p0 = 4 2B mn* m*p e
h

3
2 mn* k BT 2 ( Ec EF ) / kBT
n0 = 2 2 e = N c e ( Ec EF ) / kBT
h
where
3
2 mn* kBT 2
Nc = 2
h2

3
2 m*p k BT 2 ( E E ) / k T
p0 = 2 e F v B = N v e ( EF Ev ) / kBT
h2

and where
3
2 m*p k BT 2
Nv = 2
h2

The difference is that the Fermi Energy may vary through the band gap,
which will then change the values of the no and po.
Thus n0 and p0 can be written as
3 3
2 mn* k BT 2 ( Ec + EFi EFi EF ) / kBT 2 mn* k BT 2 ( Ec EFi ) / kBT ( EFi EF ) / kBT
n0 = 2 e = 2 e e
h2 h2

3 3
2 m*p k BT 2 ( EF + EFi EFi Ev ) / kBT 2 m*p k BT 2 ( EFi Ev ) / kBT ( EF EFi ) / kBT
p0 = 2 e = 2 e e
h2 h2

( EF EF )/ kBT
n0 = ni e i

( EF EF )/ kBT
p0 = ni e i

and n0 p0 = ni2
When EF > EFi, n0 > ni and po < ni an n-type conductor

Similarly, when EF < EFi, po > ni and no < ni, a p-type conductor

Compensated semiconductors
Semiconductor that contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in the
same region
- can be formed by diffusing acceptor impurities into an n-type
material or by diffusing donor impurities into a p-type material

Nd donor impurity concentration

Na acceptor impurity concentration

When Nd > Na n-type compensated semiconductor

Na > Nd p-type compensated semiconductor

Na = Nd semiconductor shows intrinsic characteristics

Equilibrium electron and hole concentrations in a compensated

semiconductor
 n o - t o t a l e le c t r o n c o n c e n t r a t io n

therm al d o n o r e le c t r o n s
e le c t r o n s

EC

Ed
+ + + +
total N d

io n iz e d N d +

io n iz e d N a -
to tal N a

Ea

EV
+ + + + + + +

therm al a c c e p t o r h o le s

p o t o t a l h o le c o n c e n t r a t io n

no = thermal + donor electrons

po = thermal + acceptor holes

Total no. of negative charges = no + Na-

where Na- = negatively charged acceptor states

Total no. of positive charges = po + Nd+

where Nd+ = positively charged donor states

If nd and pa are the electron and hole concentrations of donor and acceptor
states (we have to consider uncharged states)

then Nd+ = Nd nd

Na- = Na pa

Therefore no + Na - pa = po + Nd - nd
If the material is completely ionized nd = pa = 0

and thus no + Na = po + Nd

combined with n0 p0 = ni2

2
( Nd Na ) N Na
n0 = + d + ni2 - for an n-type semiconductor
2 2

2
( Na Nd ) N Nd
p0 = + a + ni - for a p-type semiconductor
2

2 2

- ni is a very strong function of temperature. So as the temperature is raised,

additional electron-hole pairs will be generated so that the ni2 term in the
equation may begin to dominate. The semiconductor will eventually loose
its extrinsic characteristics. As a function of temperature, the electron
concentration in the semiconductor shows the following variation.
n0

intrinsic
extrinsic

partial ionization

100 200 300 400 500 T(K)

Position of the Fermi level

We can then determine the position of the Fermi level as a function of
doping concentration.
 n0 = N c e ( Ec EF ) / kBT

and p0 = N v e ( EF Ev ) / kBT

n-type semiconductor for which Nd >> ni and Na = 0

no Nd

Therefore Ec - EF = kBT ln ( N c / N d )
As we increase Nd, EF moves closer to Ec

p-type semiconductor for which Na >> ni and Nd = 0

po Na

Therefore, EF - EV = k BT ln ( NV / N a )
As we increase Na, EF moves closer to Ev
Variation of EF with impurity concentration

Ec

n-type
EF

p-type

Ev
1012 Na(Nd) 1018
The Semiconductor Diode

Semiconductor diode is made by joining a p-type semiconductor

and an n-type semiconductor metallurgically. As a result diffusion
of majority carriers takes place across the metallurgical junction.

n p

E - field

Depletion layer

Diffusion of majority carriers creates a depletion layer around the

junction where an electric field exists resulting a potential barrier
across the junction.
Diffusion of majority carriers will be balanced by the opposing
electric field at some point so that the depletion layer will attain a
certain width.
The potential barrier is known as the built-in potential barrier.
 E - field

Ep= 0

Ep= -eVbi

Ep= eVbi

Ep= 0

The built-in electric field and the

uuuv
potential can be found using one
of the Maxwells equations ( .D = ).
 E - field

p n

x = xp 0 x = xn

If the impurity concentrations in the p and n sides are Na and Nd

respectively the charge densities in the depletion region can be
written as

( x) = eN d ; 0 x xn

( x) = eN a ; x p x 0

If the dielectric constant

ur
ofur the material is s, electric field E and D
are related through D = s 0 E

uuv
.E =
.
s 0

In one dimension, dE ( x)
=
( x)
dx s 0
Electric field in the n-side of the depletion region

For 0 x xn ; ( x) = eN d

dE ( x) eN d
=
dx s 0

eN d
dE = s 0
dx

eN d
E ( x) = x + C1
s 0

Applying the boundary condition E ( x) = 0 at x = xn

eN
wehave, C1 = d xn
s0

eNd
E(x) = (x xn)
s0

Electric field in the p-side of the depletion region

In a similar manner we can show that

eN
E(x) = a (x+ xp) for xp x 0
s0

Thus the variation of electric field in the depletion region shows

the following behaviour.
 E(x)

x
x = xp x=0 x = xn

Emax

Knowing the expression for the electric field E(x), the electric
potential (x) can also be found.
It can be shown that

eN a
( x) = ( x + x p )2 xp x 0
s

eN d x2
and ( x) = ( xn x ) 0 x xn
s 2

In order to obtain these expressions we use the boundary

conditions (i) (x) = 0 at x = -xp and
(ii) (x) is continuous at x = 0.

Using the expression for electric potential in the n-side of the

depletion region we can express the built-in potential as follows.

The built-in potential Vbi = |(x)| at x= xn, ie; |(xn)|

e
Vbi = ( xn ) = ( N d xn2 + N a x 2p )
2 s
Depletion layer width

e
Vbi = ( xn ) = ( N d xn2 + N a x 2p )
2 s

Also the electric field of the depletion region is continuous at the

metallurgical junction (at x = 0)

N d xn = N a x p

Combining the two equations we have

1
2 V N 1 2

xn = s bi a
e N d N a + N d

1
2 V Nd 2
1
x p = s bi
e Na Na + Nd

So the width of the depletion layer can be expressed as

W = xn + x p

1
2 V N + N d 2

W = s bi a
e N a N d

Action of a biased p-n junction

As we discussed earlier, the potential barrier across the p-n

junction at equilibrium can be sketched as below.
 (x)

Vbi

x = -xp 0 x = xn

When the junction is forward biased, there will be an electric field

that is in the direction opposite to that of the built-in electric field.
This will lower the potential across the junction.

(x)

V0

Vbi
Vbi-V0

x = -xp 0 x = xn
Junction is forward biased with an externally applied voltage V0

When the potential difference across the junction is reduced, more

of the conduction electrons on the n-side can diffuse across the
junction. Since there is a plentiful supply of conduction electrons
on the n-side, the diffusion current persists and will become large
with the applied voltage. In fact the diffusion current increases
exponentially with the applied voltage.

When the junction is reverse biased, the opposite will happen and
the potential across the junction will be raised.

(x)

V0

Vbi+V0
iB

x = -xp 0 x = xn

Junction is reverse biased with an externally applied voltage V0

Raising/lowering of the potential barrier across the junction

depending on the bias, makes the diode a non-linear device (The
resistance of the diode is much larger for the reverse bias.). As has
been discussed in second year electronics course, the I-V
characteristics of a diode takes the form as shown in the figure.
I

V
Semiconductor heterostructures
A heterojunction is an interface between two different types of
semiconductor.

EcP

Ecn
EFn

Evn EFP

EvP

en EcP
esn

Ec

Ecn

Evn EvP
Ev

An example is GaAs/AlGaAs heterojunction in which

Eg (AlGaAs) = Eg (GaAs) + Ev + Ec
Ev and Ec are known as the band offsets. When the smaller
band gap lies entirely within the larger band gap it is known as a
type I alignment.
When it is not, the corresponding band alignment is known as
a type II alignment
 EcP

Ec

EFn
Ecn
EFP
EvP
Evn Ev
Double Heterostructures

P-AlGaAs n-GaAs N-AlGaAs

N-AlGaAs p-GaAs P-AlGaAs