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The worldwide problem of food-borne disease is currently unknown but the World Health
Organization (WHO) has answered to this data gap by letting a new initiative launch to give
better estimates(Newell, Koopmans, Verhoef, Duizer, Aidara-Kane, Sprong et al., 2010). A major
public health issue related to the food safety management in a country is the food-borne disease
outbreak (FBDO). Unsafe or contaminated food makes at least two billion people ill globally
each year, or about one-third of the global population (WHO, 2004 as cited in Cheng, Kuo, Chi,
Lin, Lee, Feng et al., 2010). About 1 in 6 Americans (or 48 million people) falls ill, 128,000 are
hospitalized, and 3000 die of food-borne illnesses each year as estimated by the United States
(US) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC) (Cheng, et al., 2010).
It was reported in 2005 that 1.8 million people died from diarrhoeal diseases, largely due to
the exposure to contaminated drinking water and food. This is not just an underdeveloped world
problem. 325,000 hospitalizations and 5000 deaths are due to the 76 million cases of food borne
illnesses, It is estimated to happen yearly in the United States of America (USA) alone (Mead et
al., 1999). There are roughly 200 known microbial, chemical or physical agents that can cause
illness when ingested (Acheson, 1999). At least in the industrialised world, over the last 20 years
or so, food-borne diseases caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses and prions have significantly
generated and moved up the political agenda, on occasionally, media attention. Public health
efforts have been directed mainly towards the well-recognised food-borne diseases and
pathogens in the food chain, in the face of such public concern, In an attempt to lower the disease
problem, the monitoring of food-borne diseases and pathogens in the food chain has been
implemented and a farm-to-fork approach has been adopted encouraging all sectors of the food
production chain to improve hygiene and actively incorporate structured approaches to food
Overall, public food-safety education must be strongly followed and implemented to help
prevent the variety of causes of food borne-illnesses outbreak in the country. Well-educated food-
regulatory personnel are expected to be in a better position to give effective services, while the
recipients of these services who are also well informed are likely to follow appropriately the
Typhoid fever
There are many people believes that typhoid fever is something that only occurred in the
past, but the truth is that typhoid fever is a popular reason of death in the developing world . In
areas where poverty and under development are high, typhoid fever is a dangerous killer . In
some developing and undeveloped countries, where sanitation is wanting, and extreme poverty
subsp. Enteric serovar Typhi and sometimes Salmonella Paratyphi characterized by severe
systemic illness, often presenting with features of fever, constipation, and abdominal pain (Al
Reesi, Stephens & McMullan, 2016). Factors such as hygiene, water quality and food handling
are often involved in the transmission of S. Typhi (Naheed, Ram, Brooks, Hossain, Parsons,
In typhoid fever, thrombocytopenia its course, answer to treatment and need for therapies
like platelet transfusion are not well characterized (Al Reesi, Stephens & McMullan, 2016) .
fever. It poses a challenge for clinicians, specifically when faced with severe thrombocytopenia,
as in this case (Serefhanoglu, Kaya, Sevinc, Aydogdu, Kuku & Ersoy, 2003; Gehlawat, Rizwan
& Silan, 2013 as cited in Al Reesi, Stephens & McMullan, 2016) . Enteric fever is significant
cause of human morbidity and mortality in developing nations like India (Singla, Bansal, Gupta
& Chander, 2013). Though sporadic cases occur throughout the year, small outbreaks are
common whenever there is lapse in sanitary practices. These outbreaks are seen more often in
suburban and slum areas where low socioeconomic conditions, overcrowding and poor sanitary
practices best conspire to foster the emergence and transmission of the bacterium . Humans are
the only natural reservoir and the main source of infection is water and food contaminated with
feces or urine of cases and carriers (Misra, Bawa, Magu, Bhandari, Nagendra & Menon, 2005 as
World Health Organization (WHO) identifies typhoid as a serious public health problem .
Its incidence is highest in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old . Both female
and male have equal chances of acquiring the disease. The greatest risk of having this disease are
the Asians, African and American since geographic location plays a major role .
children. It has been classified as a marker of severity in typhoid fever and indicates a high risk
for development of complications. Its incidence in endemic countries can be as high as 540 cases
per 100,000 populations, making it a public health challenge . Typhoid/paratyphoid fever was
responsible for 14% of the cases, ranking fifth after malaria, acute human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) infection, dengue fever, and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infectious mononucleosis .
The most frequent travel destination in the study was Asia (42%) . Thrombocytopenia is well
reported in patients with typhoid fever (Al Reesi, Stephens & McMullan ., 2016). The World
fever occurring globally per year, with 500 000 to 600 000 deaths and 1.5%-3.8% case fatality
rate (Farooqui, Khan, Kazmi, 2009 as cited in Singla, Bansal, Gupta & Chander, 2013). Typhoid
fever occurred in more than 20 million people in the year 2000 and causes approximately 200
000 deaths annually (Crump, Luby, Mintz, 2004 as cited Naheed, Ram, Brooks, Hossain,
Parsons, Talukder, et al., 2010). More than 90% of typhoid fever cases are estimated to occur in
Asia. The challenges of reliably diagnosing typhoid fever have led to varying estimates of the
disease burden and epidemiology in Asia . In India and Bangladesh, the highest incidence has
been observed among children aged <5 years, while in Vietnam, the peak incidence has been
found to occur in children aged 5-9 years (Sinha, Sazawal, Kumar, Sood, Reddaish, Singh, et al.,
1999; Brooks, Hossain, Goswami, Nahar, Ahmed, et al., 2005; Lin, Vo, Phan, Nguyen, Bryla,
Tran, et al., 2000 as cited in Naheed, Ram, Brooks, Hossain, Parsons, Talukder, et al., 2010 ). To
prevent and control typhoid fever one must drink safe water, improved sanitation and adequate
medical care. Typhoid fever can be controlled by vaccinating and this vaccination is important
especially if youre travelling in areas where the risk of typhoid fever is high.
Listeriosis
infection. Clinical manifestations range from febrile gastroenteritis to more severe invasive
forms including sepsis, meningitis, rhomb encephalitis, perinatal infections, and abortions
(Allerberger & Wagner, 2010). These increases primarily reect a higher rate of bacteraemic
listeriosis in those over 65 years of age, and are not otherwise correlated with geography, gender,
listeriosis rates was due to the contamination of a small number of food products . However, a
restricted range of strains was responsible for most of the additional cases at that time, and no
evidence exists for such a pattern since 2001 . From a clinical perspective, the importance of
isolating the pathogen as a prerequisite for an accurate epidemiological investigation and
Listeriosis is one important bacterial infections worldwide that arises from the consumption of
contaminated food (Acha & Szyfres, 2001; Malik, Barbuddhe & Chaudhari, 2002 as cited in
Reda, Abdel-Moein, Hegazi, Mohamed & Abdel-Razik, 2015). Contaminated food with L.
gastrointestinal tract the pathogen might cause a non-invasively localized infection in the
intestine or an invasive infection, which may be systemic or localized (Cruz et al., 2008; Martins
et al., 2010; Reis et al., 2011 as cited in Rodrigues, Cordeiro de S & Barros de Melo, 2017) .
The likelihood of invasion from the gastrointestinal tract depends on these factors including the
number of ingested bacteria cells, the susceptibility of the host and the virulence of the strain
(HOF & ROCOURT, 1992; WHO/FAO, 2004 as cited in Rodrigues, Cordeiro de S & Barros
de Melo, 2017).
According to the study of Reda, Abdel-Moein, Hegazi, Mohamed & Abdel-Razik, 2015 .
Food borne listeriosis is rare but is a serious disease with high death rates (20%30%) compared
with other food-borne microbial pathogens. Ready-to-eat meat products presents a high risk to
the consumers because they are usually cooked during manufacturing and are consumed without
Melo, 2017, predominantly related to the consumption of ready to eat food , it was estimated that
only in 2010, about 23,150 people were stricken by listeriosis in the world, resulting in 5,463
deaths (Okutani, 2004; WHO/FAO, 2004; Todd & Notermans, 2011; Lambertz, 2012 as cited in
Rodrigues, Cordeiro de S & Barros de Melo, 2017 ). Most reported listeriosis outbreaks
occurred in Europe, Canada, United States and, in lesser extent, in Australia and New Zealand
(Todd & Notermans, 2011 as cited in Rodrigues, Cordeiro de S & Barros de Melo, 2017 ) .
Although L. monocytogenes can be reported in a wide variety of food, outbreaks and sporadic
cases in humans are predominantly related to the consumption of ready to eat food (Okutani,
2004; WHO/FAO, 2004; Todd & Notermans, 2011; Lambertz, 2012 as cited in Rodrigues,
Cordeiro de S & Barros de Melo, 2017 ) . In the United States, in 2008, 959 samples of ready
to eat meat products were examined, and in 5 (0 .52%) were reported L. monocytogenes, of
these, 2 were from frankfurters (Mamber, 2010 as cited in Rodrigues, Cordeiro de S & Barros
contamination rate in 4.7% of sliced RTE meat products, 1.2% in pates and 2.7% in cooked
sausages and frankfurters (Ross, 2009 as cited in Rodrigues, Cordeiro de S & Barros de
Melo., 2017). In Chile, samples examined between 2008 and 2012 detected L. monocytogenes in
5% of sausage and cured meat, 3% in cheese and 3% in seafoods (Saludes, 2015 as cited in
Hepatitis A
The study conducted by Halicioglu, Akman, Tatar, Atesli & Kose in Izmir, Turkey year
2011 stated that Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is spread by contaminated food or water or fecal-oral
contact. Seroprevalence rates are highly connected with people with low socioeconomic
conditions and have no proper sanitation and no access to a clean water source . The risk of HAV
infection increases in developing regions with low-income families that has limited access to a
clean water source. An examination of the relationship of water, sanitation coverage, and age
improved clean water sources increased. The age distribution of HAV seroprevalence also differs
many developed countries with low prevalence of HAV infection, the infection is more likely to
occur during adulthood rather than childhood, though the maximum rates of infection usually
occurs during late childhood to adolescence. HAV seropositivity is much higher in preschool
children in hyperendemic regions than those living in intermediate endemicity areas and
although the infection only leads to mild symptoms in general, adults however develop a much
complicated illness with fatigue, malaise, fever and jaundice . The severity of illness increases
with age, educational level, and socioeconomic status since the results of the study that was
conducted showed that the majority of families that participated in the study were within low
socioeconomic group.
Roughly about 30% of the families had crowded family conditions with small living
areas. Parental education level below 5 years was 74.1% for mothers and 65.6% for fathers. As
the parents educational level increased the risk for HAV infection decreased significantly (p <
0.05). Another study conducted in Israel-which is also an endemic country- with those working
in the sewages also showed results that age and years of education are also a major risk factors in
the prevalence of seropositivity. Though the seropositivity for hepatitis A (IgG) was 82% in
sewage workers, compared to the control group with a 91% (not significantly different) . The
results of the study conducted in Israel between of comparing those who are exposed to sewages
and those who are not the individuals with hepatitis A seropositivity were not significantly
different from those without such seropositivity with respect to frequency of daily exposure,
wounds, use of protective equipment. The years of education reflects the socioeconomic status .
Workers with higher level of education, like individual with a high school degree only had an
increasing prevalence of seropositivity over time as they age 30 years old and above while those
with less than a high school degree has a 100% prevalence of seroposivitivity even at ages
between 20 and 30 years old. As a result the individuals who were seropositive were
significantly older, shorter, and less educated than nonseropositive workers . Higher education
and increased seniority lessens the risk of seropositivity . There was a significant connection
between education and for all 200 workers. Individuals with no high-school degree as stated
above has 100% seropositivity, no matter the age . Workers under the age of 40 years old and had
at least 12 years of proper education had a 65% prevalence of seropositivity, which drastically
increased to 100% in individuals aged 60 or older (Levin, Froom, Askenazi & Lerman, 2000).
Exposure
Modernization and a countrys progress has had its disadvantages and one of the
major aspects of concern is the pollution it causes to earth in land, air and water. In the increase
of global population and the rise of demand for food, there has been a rise in the amount of solid
waste generated by each household. This waster is thrown into the municipal waste centres from
where it is collected by the area municipalities to be thrown into landfills and dumpsites. Human
feces and urine can contain enormous amounts of enteric viruses excreted from infected
individuals (Osuolale & Okoh, 2015). If disposal is improperly done, it can cause serious
impacts on health and problems to the surrounding environment. The group at risk from
improperly disposed solid waste include the population where there is no proper waste disposal
method, especially the pre-school children; waste workers. Other high-risk group includes
population living close to a dump site (Halicioglu, Akman, Tatar, Atesli & Kose, 2011). Poor
food sanitation remains a major threat to human health and food borne disease outbreaks have
occurred worldwide in recent years (Faustini, Rossi & Perucci, 2003; Kuo, Kasper, Jelovcan,
Hoger, Lederer, Konig et al., 2009; Pichler, Much, Kasper, Fretz, Auer, Kathan et al., 2009;
Wadl, Scherer, Nielsen, Diedrich, Ellerbroek, Frank et al., 2010 as cited in Yu, Zhai, Bie, Lu,
Zhang, Tao, et al., 2016). Proper waste disposal have to be undertaken to secure that it does not
affect the environment around the area or cause health hazards to the people living there. At the
household-level proper segregation of waste has to be done and it should be ensured that all
organic matter is kept aside for composting, which is undoubtedly the best method for the correct
disposal of this segment of the waste. In fact, the organic part of the waste that is generated