Introduction

Strength of fill or natural soils in earth structures can

Applied be improved using techniques such as:

Mechanical processes
Geotechnics Chemical processes
Inserting a strong material into soil (sand

Reinforced Soil compaction piles, bamboo strips, straw)

Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs)
Natural plant roots
A/Prof Hadi Khabbaz As well as
Email: hadi.khabbaz@uts.edu.au Reinforced Earth
Room CB11.11.224 2

Introduction
W L R
B
The concept of
modern reinforced
soil as a construction
material was
introduced by a
French architect,
Henri Vidal, in 1963.

R: Reinforcement W: Wall face

B: Backfill L: Load (bridge deck)
3 4

Development of Reinforced Earth Types of Reinforced Earth

Henri Vidal in 1963 invented the Reinforced Earth
and much of the current development can be
attributed to his pioneering work.
Reinforced Earth is a composite construction
material in which the strength of fill is enhanced by
adding of strong reinforced materials.
The basic mechanism of Reinforced Earth involves
the generation of frictional interaction between soil
and reinforcements.
5 6
Inextensible reinforcement is reinforcement used in
a such a way that the tensile strain in the
reinforcement is significantly less than the
horizontal extension required to develop an active
plastic state in the soil (K0 conditions prevail).
METAL STRIPS
Extensible reinforcement is reinforcement used in a
such a way that the tensile strain in the
reinforcement is equal or larger than the horizontal
extension required developing an active plastic state
in the soil (Ka conditions prevail). GEOSYNTHETICS

1
 Reminder Costs and Benefits
At rest lateral earth pressure coefficient
Main Components of reinforced soil walls are:
K 0 1 sin If 30 K 0 0.5
1. Soil fill
2. Facing elements
3. Reinforcement
Active lateral earth pressure coefficient
Generally, Reinforced Soil Walls are more cost
1 sin 1
Ka If 30 K a effective than Reinforced concrete or masonry
1 sin 3 walls.

7 8

Benefits Material Costs

Economies resulting from the use of reinforced soil 70 Reinforcement

Percentage of total material cost

100 60
Con. Cost = 100 Units
75 R.S. Cost = 80 Units 50
Economy (%)

H=6m
Economy = 25% 40
50
Facing elements
30
25 Con. Cost = 1 Units
R.S. Cost = 62.5 Units
20
0 H = 15 m
Savings (%) 0 5 10 15 20
Economy = 60%
10 Soil fill
Height of structure (m)

0
Conventional cost Reinforced soil cost 0 5 10 15 20
Economy (%) 100
Reinforced soil cost 9 10
Height of structure (m)

Total costs Applications of Reinforced Soil

Costs are associated with :

Main Applications:
1. Materials
2. Plant and operatives (a) Embankment and retaining walls
3. Labour (b) Foundations or sub soil reinforcements
Materials (c) In situ reinforcement (soil nailing) for existing
67% slopes and excavations.

16% More common applications of reinforced soil are in

Equipment
17% the form of retaining walls.
Labour

Approximately for a wall with 10m height 11 12

2
 Applications of Reinforced Soil Advantages of Reinforced Earth Technology

General Applications: Flexibility - Reinforced Earth structures distribute loads over

compressible soils and unstable slopes, reducing the need for
Road Engineering (Urban and Mountainous Highways) deep foundations.
Railway Engineering High load-carrying capability - Applied structural loads are
Foundation Reinforcement distributed through the compacted granular fill and earth pressure
loads are resisted by the gravity mass.
Slopes and slope repairs
Ease and speed of installation - Prefabricated materials and
Storage construction granular soil simplify construction and minimize the impact of bad
Seawalls and Marine Structures weather.
Structures (Industrial, Military, Commercial and Residential) Pleasing appearance - Panels may be given a variety of
Bridge Abutments architectural treatments.
Economy - 15-50% savings over cast-in-place concrete walls,
Cofferdams
depending on wall height and loading conditions.
Other applications
13 14

Facing Elements Facing Elements (contd)

Semi-Cylindrical Unit

15
Hexagonal Units 16

Facing Elements (contd)

Cruciform Panel Dimensions

Cruciform Unit 17 18

3
 Reinforcement Spacing (SV and SH) Cruciform Precast Concrete Facing Panel
19 20

Square Precast Concrete Facing Panel

21 22
http://www.reinforcedearth.com/

Backfill soil Select Backfill Materials

Geotextile sheets
General Performance Requirements for Select Backfill
Materials
Backfill material must be:

well drained (less than 15% fines)

prone to post-construction movement due to creep
durable and not break down or change its properties
during construction

Geotextile sheets
not be aggressive to galvanized steel

23 24

4
 Backfill Requirements QUIZ
Test Method Test Method
Backfill Requirements (AASHTO) (ASTM)
Samples from a soil deposit indicated the following results:
Geotechnical
Particle size 150 mm (6 in) T 27 D 422 Give at least three reasons why this soil deposit is not
Amount passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) T 27 D 422 suitable to be used as a backfill material in reinforced soil
sieve 15%
Plasticity index 6 T 90 D 4318
retaining walls.
Angle of internal friction 34 T 236 D 3080

The material shall be essentially free of None D 2974 d100 = 60 mm (100% of soil particles are smaller than 60 mm)
organic and other deleterious materials
The material shall be essentially free of T 104 none d20 = 0.06 mm (20% of soil particles are smaller than 0.06 mm)
poor durability particles, and the
magnesium sulfate soundness loss shall K = 810-7 m/s (Permeability)
be less than 30% after four cycles
LL = 30% and PL = 17% (on the soil fraction, passing through 0.425 mm sieve)
Electrochemical
pH between 5 and 10 T 289-91 I G51 c = 0 kPa and = 30 (using samples compacted at the optimum water (OWC)
Resistivity (at 100% sat.) 3000 ohm-cm T 288-91 I G57 content with 100% 5% of the maximum dry density (MDD) based on the
Water soluble chloride content 100 ppm T 291-91 I D512 standard Proctor test)
Water soluble sulfate content 200 ppm T 290-91 I D516 25 26

QUIZ - Solution Reinforcement

1. d20 = 0.06 mm (more than 15% fines) 1. Metal Strips

2. PI = 30 - 17 = 13 > 6% (a) Smooth Strips
(b) Ribbed Strips
3. = 30 < 34

d100 = 60 mm (100% of soil particles are smaller than 60 mm)

2. Geosynthetics
d20 = 0.06 mm (20% of soil particles are smaller than 0.06 mm)
(a) Geotextiles (woven)
K = 810-7 m/s (Permeability)
LL = 30% and PL = 17% (on the soil fraction, passing through 0.425 mm sieve)
(b) Geogrids
c = 0 kPa and = 30 (using samples compacted at the optimum water (OWC)
content with 100% 5% of the maximum dry density (MDD) based on the
standard Proctor test) 27 28

Reinforcement (contd) Reinforcement (contd)

Metal Strips
(a) Smooth Strips
(b) Ribbed Strips
Smooth strip 60 3 mm

Three dimensions are required to be

calculated during the detailed design for
Ribbed strip 60 5 mm internal stability.
29 30

5
 Sacrificial Thickness Reinforcement (contd)

Recommended Values: Total Sacrificial Thickness (mm) Geosynthetics

(a) Geotextiles (woven)
Service Life 5 years 30 years 70 years
(b) Geogrids
Site Strip
Plain Galv. Plain Galv. Plain Galv.
Type
Dry Land 0.5 0 1.5 0.5 3 1

Fresh Water 0.5 0 2 1 4 1.5 Woven Geotextiles

Marine 1 0 3 1.5 5 2

Brackish Water 31 32

Geogrids Used as Soil Reinforcement

Uniaxial Geogrid

Biaxial Geogrid

33 http://geogrid.weblog.ro/ http://www.autogrid.hu/english/products/glassfiber.html 34

Construction Equipment Construction Details

Construction of Reinforced Earth Structures requires, in

addition to earthwork equipment, small vibrating
compactor to compact the zone near the facing, lifting
equipment, about 2 tons capacity, for transport of the
panels from the storage area and for their set up.
Typical Elevation of Reinforced Earth Wing Wall Typical Reinforced Earth Facing Panels

Taken From the

Reinforced Earth
35 Company Typical Arrangement of Wing Wall Panels 36
From the Reinforced Earth Company

6
 A Case Study (Geogrid Reinforced Soil)

This reinforced soil wall was constructed

in 1999 using Keystone blocks with
geogrid reinforcement near Sacramento,
California USA.

Position of Panels in a Slope

37 Ref: http://cee.engr.ucdavis.edu/faculty/boulanger/geo_photo_album/GeoPhoto.html 38

Coarse sand is packed in and

around the blocks.

The top surfaces of the

This photo shows a blocks must be swept free of
lower row of Keystone soil before the next level of
blocks, with the blocks can be placed.
geogrid reinforcement
extending to the right Dowels are placed in the
side. small-diameter holes in the
blocks, and connect the
upper blocks to the lower
blocks in an overlapping
sequence.

39 40

The geogrid is
sandwiched between
the facing blocks, and
is hooked over the
dowels that connect
the blocks.

Sheets of geosynthetic "geogrid" are the reinforcement for the soil

backfill. The front-end loader was used to place coarse sand / pea
gravel directly behind the keystone blocks (left side of photo) to act
as a drainage layer. 41 42

7
 The wall is stepped-back at this location. The white PVC pipes are
drain lines that connect to the drainage layer directly behind the
A view of the exposed face of the wall as construction progresses.
43 blocks. 44

Geogrids are being laid out over a completed row of blocks. The two
scrapers are placing fill soils behind the geogrids.
45
The backhoe spreads the fill materials out over the geogrid. Care
must be taken not to damage the geogrids by driving equipment
over the unprotected grids. Wood stakes are used to stretch the
geogrid flat and hold it in place while the soil is placed over it.
46

Detailed DesiGn
Reinforced Soil

Another row of blocks is being placed, with the geogrid sandwiched

between the overlapping blocks. The front-end loader is placing the
drainage layer in the background.
47 48

8
 Stability Stability (contd)

The number, length, thickness and width of the Reinforced Earth structures are evaluated for
reinforcing strips is determined by considering the external stability and internal stability.
combined effects of:
Type of reinforcement STABILITY
Subgrade bearing capacity
The backfill, the foundation and back slope materials
Height of wall
Surcharge loads,
Subsoil drainage and water table level
Service life requirements INTERNAL EXTERNAL
Seismic acceleration (if applicable)
49 50

Stability (contd) Internal Stability

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
Two failure
mechanisms:
1. Adhesion failure 1. Sliding

2. Tension failure 2. Overturning failure Tension Failure Pull-out Failure

3. Bearing failure
Failure by breakage of the reinforcing strips designed for by
4. Slip failure
assuring that reinforcement cross section is adequate.

Failure by pull-out of the reinforcing strips designed for by

Structural Failure? assuring that reinforcement surface area and length are
adequate.
Adhesion Failure Tension Failure 51 52

Internal Stability External Stability

Follow Classical Failure Mechanisms
For internal stability, two failure mechanisms are
considered to determine breadth (B) and thickness (t). EXTERNAL
Sliding
failure
The length (L) is found
1. Sliding failure
based on external failure.
2. Overturning failure
Bearing
failure 3. Bearing failure
4. Slip failure

t
Slip Overturning
failure failure
53 54

9
 Bathurst (2008)

External Failure

Internal Failure

Photo taken from: Guney Olgan (2003)

Facing Failure Separation of the facing panels due to vertical

distortion and spilled backfill material
55 56

Assumptions for Preliminary Design Forces on a Reinforced Wall

Reinforced earth retaining structures normally have

rectangular cross section, i.e., reinforcement strips are of
the same length for the full height of the wall, and the wall
face is vertical. (Except for special cases of walls either founded on slopes
or those having sloped faces, )

H
The preliminary design of a wall of height H requires
determination of the embedment depth D of the structure H/2
(0.1H is usually used), and H/3

cross section ratio L/H where L is the reinforcement length Kaqs KagH
(0.7 is usually used for preliminary design).

57 58

Forces on a Reinforced Wall Forces on a Reinforced Wall

Vertical Forces:
Overturning moment about the base
W = weight of reinforced soil block = gR H L
W s = surcharge force on surface of reinforced soil block = qR L Mo P1H / 3 PsH / 2 K a ( gH 3qs )H2 / 6
V = ground reaction force = total downward force = W + W s = (gR H + qR) L

Position of Ground Reaction

Horizontal Forces:
P1 = active thrust due to weight of unreinforced soil = 0.5 Ka g H2 L Mo
x
Ps = active thrust due to surcharge on unreinforced soil = Ka qs H 2 V
Total Horizontal force = P1 + Ps = 0.5 Ka (g H + 2qs) H

gR = unit weight of reinforced soil

g = unit weight of unreinforced soil
59 60

10
 Sliding Failure Overturning
Assume: d = 0

V 2( g RH qR )L
Fs 2 ( g RH qR )L
1 1 2
VL
gR g PA K a ( gH 2qS )H FOT 2

Mo 1
6 K a ( gH 3qS )H2
gR g

K a ( gH 2qS )H FOT .K a ( gH 3qS )

Lmin Fs Lmin H
2( g RH qR ) 3( g RH qR )

b tan (0.5 b 1)

61 62

Bearing Pressure Slip Failure

V 6Mo
v (max) 2
L L
K ( gH 3qS )H2
( g RH qR ) a AB l
b
L2 Reinforced
W
cos
Soil wall
B
qult
FB (v (max) qa )
v (max) A

K a ( gH 3qS )
Lmin H
qa ( g RH qR ) R cl ( W cos ul) tan '
F
R W sin
qult
qa
Ground bearing pressure at the toe FB 63 64

Slip Failure Design Steps

STEP 1:

b STEP 2:
W AB l
Reinforced
Soil wall
cos
B

F
cl ( W cos ul) tan '
W sin
65 66

11
 Design Steps Design Steps

STEP 3: STEP 4:

67 68

Design Steps Design Steps

STEP 5:

STEP 6:

D60
Cu
D10

NOTE : f b tan coefficien t of friction

1 sin
0 b 1 Ka K 0 1 sin
1 sin
b = bond coefficient depending on type of reinforcement; e.g. for
69 70
smooth strips = 0.5-0.6, for ribbed strips and meshes = 0.6-1.0

Design Steps Design Steps

STEP 8:

STEP 7:
i (Bi t i )( vi qR )fi
2Leff
FS
Ti

i (Bi t i )( vi qR )fi
2Leff
FS
71 Ti 72

12
 Design Steps Design Steps
STEP 9:
STEP 11: Using the equation from STEP 10 and Taking ti = t
calculate, at each reinforcement level I, the factor of
safety against break failure. If calculated correctly, all
STEP 10: factors of safety will at least be equal to the required
value.

Bt i t Break Failure
FS y Ti Area t Bti t STEP 12: Summarise the calculations in a professional format
Ti with appropriate drawings. Provide the related
construction details too.

73 74

Example 1 Example 1
Reinforced soil walls with ribbed galvanised steel strips have been
proposed for construction of a retaining wall as shown in the following
figure. Design the length of reinforced strips (ribbed metal strips) based
on sliding, overturning and bearing capacity stability criteria.
Factors of Safety:
F (overturning) = 2, F (sliding) = 1.5 and F (bearing capacity) = 3,
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of the Wall Foundation:
qult = 1800 kPa
Loads:
Surcharge load = 20 kN/m2
Pavement unit weight (base + asphalt) = 22 kN/m3
Pavement thickness = 0.5 m
Reinforced backfill: Sandy Gravel
g = 20 kN/m3
c = 0 kPa, = 38, Gs = 2.65
Assume the water table is far below the wall base and a proper
Unreinforced backfill: Clayey Sand
drainage system is provided for the wall. You may also assume the
g = 18 kN/m3
length of metal strips is the same in all layers.
c = 0 kPa, = 30, Gs = 2.65

Solution 1 Solution 1

13
 Example 2 Example 2

20m
Reinforced soil walls with ribbed galvanised steel strips have been
proposed for construction of abutments of a bridge as shown in the 0.5m 0.5m
figure.

Design the length of reinforced strips (ribbed metal strips) only based
on sliding and overturning stability criteria. Road pavement Bridge deck

7m
Precast cruciform 18m
panels

Not to Scale

Example 2 Solution 2
Factors of Safety:
Foverturning = 2 & Fsliding = 1.5

Loads:
Live load (due to traffic) = 18 kN/m2 q
Deck unit wt. (concrete) = 25 kN/m3 R
Pavement unit wt. (base + asphalt) = 22 kN/m3

Reinforced backfill: Sandy Gravel

g = 20 kN/m3
c = 0 kPa, = 40, Gs = 2.65 qR q
R
Unreinforced backfill: Clayey Sand
g = 18 kN/m3 qR
c = 0 kPa, = 32, Gs = 2.65

Solution 2 Solution 2

max

14
 ROADS AND MARITIME SERVICES (RMS)

QA SPECIFICATION R57
DESIGN OF REINFORCED
SOIL WALLS
2013

86

87

15
 Minimum Embedment Recommendation

Structure Type Slope in Front of Embedment

Wall (Minimum)*
Walls and false Horizontal H/20 (0.3 m)
Facing units
Abutments (with 3H:1V slope H/12 (0.45 m)
piles) 2H:1V slope H/7 (0.6 m)
True abutments Horizontal H/5 (0.9 m)
(no piles)

91 96

Minimum Required Factors of Safety

Failure Mode Load Combination

Static Only Static + Static +
Seismic Drawdown
Sliding 1.5 1.1 1.2
Overturning 2.0 1.5 1.5

Pile Supported Abutment with reinforcing strips skewed around piles.

97 98

Design Data

Abutment Dimensions: Pavement dimensions:

DesiGn Problem Height = 9 m Thickness = 0.5 m

Width = 11.2 m (excluding wings) Width = 11.2 m

Reinforced Soil Bridge deck dimensions:

Thickness = 0.55 m
Loads:
Live load (due to traffic)= 20 kN/m2
Width = 11 m Deck unit wt. (concrete) = 25 kN/m3
Effective length = 11.25 m Pavement unit wt. (base + asphalt)
(supported by abutment) = 22 kN/m3

NOTE: Load Factors are not required to be considered as

a global Factor of Safety is going to be applied.
99 100

16
 Design Data (Ground Properties)
Top soil: (0-1m)
g = 16.72 kN/m3
c = 30 kPa = 18 Gs = 2.65
All. bearing capacity = 60 kPa
k = 10-7 m/s
Medium dense sand (1-8m)
g = 18.15 kN/m3
c = 0 kPa = 35 Gs = 2.65
All. bearing capacity = 300 kPa
k = 10-4 m/s
Plan View of Bridge Deck at Abutment Location
Abutment and the Reinforced Wall
Other Design Data
Soil Reinforcement:
Reinforced backfill: Sandy gravel
Weathered sandstone (8-13m) Type: ribbed galvanized steel strips
g = 19.5 kN/m3 Cu = 10
g = 22.0 kN/m3 Tensile strength: T = 420 MPa
c = 0 kPa = 40 Gs = 2.65
c = 3000 kPa = 30 Gs=2.69
Facing elements:
Ult. bearing capacity = 4000 kPa
Standard cruciform precast Un-reinforced backfill: clayey Sand
k= 310-6 m/s concrete units (750mm 750mm)
E = 6103 MPa g = 19.1 kN/m3
c = 0 kPa = 32 Gs = 2.65
Factors of Safety:
Assuming that the water table will External stability = 2
remain below the base of the wall
Internal stability = 2
101 102
Section through the Abutment
103 104
THAnk You
&
Good Luck
Hadi khabbaz
105 106
17