JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 99, NO.

B10, PAGES 20,161-20,179, OCTOBER 10, 1994

Evolution of the Santa Cruz Mountains, California,

through tectonicgrowth and geomorphicdecay
Robert S. Anderson
Departmentof EarthSciencesandInstitutefor Tectonics,Universityof California, SantaCruz

Abstract. I describea strategyfor modelinga specificlargescaletopographicfeaturethat

recognizesthe discrepancy betweentectonicandgeomorphicscalesand allowsfor important
feedbacksbetweentheseprocesses.In the geomorphicmodel,the largestchannelin each4x4 km
cell is explicitly treated,the channelincisionbeingdrivenby a streampowerrule. Hillslopes
internalto eachcell respondrapidlyto incisionof the localchannel,promptingtheir treatmentin
themodelas steadystateforms. I presentanalyticexpressions for the local relief, which is
controlledby the local channelincisionrate,andrate constantsassociatedwith the dominanthills-
lopeprocess,eitherdiffusiveor landsliding.Initial conditionsincludeany preexisting
topography, anda lightlyetcheda channelnetwork. The modelis illustratedusingthe SantaCruz
Mountains,California. I showthatan earlierhypothesis (thatthe SantaCruz Mountainsaredue
to advectionof topography pastan uplift sourcerelatedto a restraining bendin the SanAndreas
Fau10remainsviablewhenmorespecificgeomorphic processes areconsidered.The local
tectonicsare represented by crustalthickeningnecessitated by conservation of massin the bend,
right-lateraltranslationof crustwith respectto thebend,andflexuralresponse to the distributed
load. The modelproduces reasonable geographic andstatisticaldistributions of topographyusing
ratesof tectonicandgeomorphicprocesses that are within therangeof thosemeasuredlocally.
This arguesthatthisrestrainingbendis a long-livedfeatureof the SanAndreasFault. The
slightlyhighercrestandshorterlengthof thesouthernSantaCruzMountainsmay potentiallybe
explainedby slightlyfasterslipof the crustwestof the fault with respectto thebendthanof that
to theeast. Deflectionis minimalbeneaththeserelativelysmallmountains,disallowingthe
interestingfeedbackof erosionallydrivenuplift. The predictedpatternof exhumationcouldbe
usedto guidethe searchfor fissiontrack sitesthatcouldaid in the testingof themodel.

Introduction Molnar and England [ 1990] highlightthe needfor modelsin

whichge. omorphologyandtectonicsareappropriatelytakeninto
Modeling of large scale landscape evolution requires account.They emphasizedthat enhancedrelief causedby rapid
incorporation
of realistictectonicandgeomorphic
processes.The incision of valleys during climate degradation and alpine
modelsshouldbe capableof simulatingchangesin relief, which glaciationleads to flexural uplift of rock in major mountain
requiresthat both channeland hillslopeerosionprocesses be ranges. The possibilitythat the maximumelevationsin a range
included.The modeledlithosphere mustrespondthroughflexure can therefore increase while the mean elevation decreases has
to all reaxangements
to surfaceloads,includingeither tectonic important implications on both local and regional scales.
thickening or thinning of the crust, and to geomorphic Precipitation from air masses forced over the maximum
rearrangements of mass. The modelsshouldbe testablethrough elevationsof a range can set up an orographicfeedback on
measurement of geophysical, geologic and geomorphic geomorphicprocesses,furtherenhancingthe relief. In addition,
information. The most difficult problem presented by a the mountainrangeposesa barrier to flow that alterscirculation
combinedtectonicandgeomorphic landscapeevolutionmodelis patternson a regionalscale[Raymoet al., 1988; Ruddimanand
the discrepancyin temporalandspatialscalesoverwhichthese Kutzbach,1989]. Models capableof addressing thesefeedbacks
processesoperate. must thereforesimulate both the productionof relief within a
While geologists andgeomorphologists alike havelongbeen range, and the flexural responseto the distributedload; both
interestedin the evolutionof mountainranges,thesedifferences geomorphology andgeophysics areneeded.
in scalehaveled to compromises in characterization
of eitherthe Geomorphicmodelingin the 1980s, following the pioneering
tectonicor the geomorphicprocesses.Geomorphologists too work of Culling [1960, 1965] andAhnert [1970], wasdominated
often simplifytectonicsto spatiallyuniform high uplift rates by attemptsto understandsmaller-scalelandformevolution. In
followedby stasisor to low and steadyuplift rates,to drive particular,severalteamsaddressedthe diffusionalrelaxationof
erosionprocesses in a landscape.Thefirstcoupledmodelsdevel- scarps,marine terraces, and beach ridges [e.g., Nash, 1980;
opedby geophysicists, while usingeleganttectonicalgorithms, Hanks et al., 1984; Andrews and Hanks, 1985; Pierce and
tendedto reducegeomorphology to a buzz sawor to someother Colman, 1986; Andrewsand Buckham,1987]. Models of fluvial
simplifiedsetof rules. systemsfocusedon the detailsof individualmeandersor on the
sponse of alluvial systemsto changes in base level [e.g.,
Copyright1994bytheAmerican Geophysical Union.
Chappell,1974;Begin, 1988]. While muchprogresshas been
Papernumber94JB00713. made, the small scales addressed in these models render them
0148-0227/94/94JB-00713 $05.00 incapable of incorporating tectonics at the crustal scale.

20,161
2o,162 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA
Tectonicsis relegatedto only the crudestof roles, e.g., in
determining
thebaselevelof thestreamor hillslopesystem.
Stein et al., [1988] and King et al. [1988] beenrecently
proposedthatmountainscaletopography couldbe producedby
the repetitionof crustaldislocationson faults. They couple
elasticdeformationassociated with coseismicandpostseismic
slip, geomorphic bevelingof topographic highs,andlong-term
isostaticadjustmentto the evolving load to producemountain
rangesin a variety of tectonicsettings. While their tectonic
model showed considerable sophistication, and could be
constrainedby a varietyof geodetictechniques,
theirtreatmentof
geomorphic processes wascrude. Masswasmovedfrom high
placesand placedin adjacentlows. Becausethe modelswere
two-dimensional(2-D), in order to accommodate depositional
systemsrunningalongthe rangefront, depositionalmasswas at
timesmuchgreaterthanerosionalmass.
Working instead on a 2-D planform grid, Koons [1989]
coupleda realistic specifieduplift pattern with a set of rules
describingthe geomorphicsystemthat includedboth diffusive
processesand channel incision to produce a model of New
Zealand's southernAlps. He succeededin reproducingthe
essenceof the ridge patterndominatingthe shapeof the range.
Yet the rules usedto representgeomorphicprocesseswere not
physicallybased. The channelswere simply drapedinto the
topographywith longitudinalprofiles scaledby the elevation
differencebetweenthe ridgecrestsandthe sea. The grid using
lxl km ellswas then diffused. Other geomorphicprocesses
suchas landsliding,and all activity associatedwith smallerorder
drainages, weresubsumed in thetopographicdiffusivity.In order
to attainrealisticridgeline heights,diffusivitiesmanyordersof
magnitudehigherthan thosemeasuredin any landscapeto date
were demandedby the model.
More recently,a numberof researchers have advancedmodels
addressing landscapeevolutionat moderateto large scales[e.g.,
Willgooseet al., 1991; Chase,1992; Beaumontet al., 1992; Kooi
and Beaurnont,1994; Tucker and Sligerland, 1994]. All such
modelsoperateupona griddedlandscapeusinga setof rulesthat
attempt to capture the essence of the various geomorphic
processesacting. They differ significantlyin strategy,Chase
[1992] using the collective action of a set of events
("precipitons"),othersusingfinite differenceapproximations to
differential equations meant to mimic long-term average
processes. A principal distinctionbetween thesemodelsand
thoseaddressing smallerscalesis that at smallscalesthe diffusion
model describes well the processes operating locally on
hillslopes,wherethe relevantparameterssuchas soil production
ratesand diffusioncoefficientscan be measuredin the field [e.g.,
Monaghanet al., 1992; McKean et al., 1993]. At largescales,
however,the processesare not necessarilydiffusive. The cell
sizes in the large landscapeevolution models are commonly
many times the length of individual hillslopes in the real
landscapethey are meantto simulate. The effectivediffusivities
necessaryto ensurethat the resulting model elevationsremain
reasonable arecommonlymanytimesthosemeasuredin the field.
One purposeof this paperis to presenta model strategythat
divergesfrom othermodelsprincipallyin how it dealswith the
scalemismatch.I presenta simple,computationally compact2-D
planform model that containsthe essenceof the tectonicand
geomorphicprocesses operatingat the mountainrangescale. I
try to remain faithful to the scalesat which theseprocesses act
and proposea potentialbut certainlynonuniquesolutionto the
severe mismatch in scales at which the tectonic and the
geomorphicprocessesact. The model also permitsa flexural
responseof the crust.
I illustrate the model by applying it to the Santa Cruz
Mountainsin Califomia'scoastranges(Figure 1). I build upon
the hypothesisput forth in earlier work [Anderson,1990] that the
SantaCruzMountainsareproducedby advectionof crustpastan
uplift source associatedwith a restraining bend in the San
AndreasFault. On eithersideof thefault,crusttranslatingtoward
the bendthickensdue to contractilearealstrain,a portionof this
thickeningresultingin rockuplift. The rockmassis attackedby
geomorphicprocesses thatboth createrelief andreducethe mean
surfaceuplift rate to below that of the rock uplift rate. Once
beyonda positionat whichthe tectonicallydrivenrockuplift rate
falls below the geomorphicloweringrate, the mean surfaceel-
evation declines as the crust translates further.
The secondpurposeof this paperis thereforeto demonstrate
that this hypothesis,which was supportedearlier principallyby
scaling arguments,remains viable even when more detailed
tectonicand geomorphicprocesses are embeddedin a numerical
model of the topographicevolution.Since the earlier work, the
medium term uplift rateshave beenbetter constrained[Anderson
andMenking, 1994; Valensiseand Ward, 1991], ashavethe ge-
omorphicprocessesand rates within the terracedfringe of the
topography[Rosenbloom andAnderson,1994].
The model space is gridded into 4x4 km pixels, a scale
sufficientlysmall to allow resolutionof the tectonicforcingand
significantlylarger than first-orderdrainages. The long-term
SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS
'i::.).ilii:_"{
Francisco
N
BLM
Monterey
Bay Sa.
contourinterval Andreas
200rn Fault
Figure 1. SantaCruz regiontopography,shownfrom the 5 arc
secdigital elevationmodel(0.925 km spacing). Also shownis
the San Andreas Fault with its associated bend within the Santa
Cruz Mountains,breakingthe mountainsinto a northernrange
(NSC) to the westof the fault and southernrange(SSC) to the
east. Maximum elevationsare roughly 1 km in both ranges,
Loma Prieta (1100 m) on the southerncrestand Mount Bielawski
(900 m) on the northern crest. Also labeled is Ben Lomond
Mountain (BLM), a gently slopingmassifseparatedfrom the
remainderof the NSC rangeby prominentdrainages(seeFigure
4). Together, these ranges comprise the spine of the San
Franciscopeninsula and separateMonterey Bay from San
FranciscoBay.
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,163

uplift rate pattern is determined by the pattern of crustal 5OO 15000

deformationassociated with a restrainingbend. Slip of bothsides cumulative
of theSanAndreasFaultwith respectto thebendis imposed.An 400
initial channel network is assumedto etch, without planview
deformation,into theupliftingrock mass. Only the largestof the
14000
channelsin each cell is treated explicitly. The hillslopes and 300 3000
smaller-ordertributariesare not explicitly calculated.Instead, SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS
HYPSOMETRY
hillslopesare parameterizedusing subsidiarycalculationsthat
connectthe local relief (ridge crestminus channelelevation) and
200
12000
averageelevationof a hillslopeto channelincisionrate. Both 100
landslidingand diffusivehillslopeprocesses are allowed and are <z>=243m
11000
tied to a threshold channel incision rate.
The propertiesof the systemreportedby the model include
geophysical fieldsthatcanbeusedto testthisandothermodels.I
00 200 400 600 800
have tried to maintainconnectionto measurablepropertiesof the Altitude (m)
system,boththroughusinggeomorphicratesthat are measurable
in thefield andthroughpredictingfromthemodelsuchquantities Figure 2. Santa Cruz Mountainshypsometry,showinga
asthe spatialdistributionof the exhumationfield at anytime and characteristic
declinein areawith increasing
elevation.The mean
theexhumation historiesof pointswithintherange. elevationof the rangeis only 240 m, ignoringthe areabelow
I firstoutlinethetopographic of theSanta roughly10m thatdominates
andtectonicsettings thefringeof theSanFrancisco
Bay
CruzMountains.
I thendevelop
mathematical of the area. Also shownis the cumulativehypsometriccurve (area
descriptions
tectonicandgeomorphicprocesses thatarecoupledto becomethe below a specifiedelevation),whichdoesincludethis area.
topographicevolution model. A simple subgridcalculationis
performed,from whichI calculatethe inherenttimescalesin the
geomorphicsystem,whichin turnjustify theparameterization of Thebulkof therangeconsists
of highrelieftopographywith
thesmallerscaleprocesses. The resultsof thefull modeltakethe largeslopeangles.Representativeslopeprofilesare shownin
form of maps of a variety of fields, all presentedon a 4x4 km Figure3 sampledfrom nearthe crestof the southernSantaCruz
mesh,includingrockuplift,meantopography, exhumation,relief, Mountains. Notetheconsistentapproach
to a straight
longsteep
and flexural deflection. I also presenthistoriesof elevation, slope, a typical averagegradientbeing roughly 1:2 (26).
relief, exhumation,and flexural deflectionfollowing a parcelof Landslides anddebrisflowsin themountains arecommon [e.g.,
crust. Griggseta/., 1990]. Thedrainagepatternof therangeis shown
in Figure4. The largeststreams
drainingto thewestcoastarethe
The Topographic Setting San Lorenzoand PescaderoRivers,which wrap behindBen
LomondMountainto drainbothitsbacksideandthewestslope
Large Scale of the northern crest.

The Santa Cruz Mountains straddle the San Andreas Fault

(Figure1), the northernhalf of therangebeinglargelywestof the .0 ! ! i
SanAndreas,the southern half to theeast. The rangeis roughly
100 km long alongthe strikeof the fault and 40 km wide normal
to the strikeof the fault. Maximum altitudesof bothrangesare
roughlycomparable:the ridge Loma Prieta crownsin the south-
ern rangereaches1130 m, while Mount Bielawski in the northern
rangeis 985 m tall. The hypsometryof therangeshownin Figure
2 may be used to calculate a mean elevation of about 240 m,
ignoringthe broad alluvial apronof the southernSan Francisco
Bay areabelow 20-m elevations. 0.7
While the southernrangeis onecontiguousmasswith width of
about15 km, the northernrangeis considerably wider. Much of
0.6
the enhanced width comes from the isolation of a second, more
western crest in Ben Lomond Mountain (Figure 1), a gently verticalexaggeration:2x
seawardslopingramp separatedfrom the range crest by the ! I i I
headwatersof the San Lorenzo and Pescaderodrainages. The 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
meanwidth of thenorthernrangeis roughly30 km.
Horizontal Distance(km)
Small scale
Figure 3. Hillslopeprofrieswithin the crestregionof the Santa
The rangesareborderedon the westby coastalterracesandon Cruz Mountains,digitizedfrom U.S. GeologicalSurvey(USGS)
the eastby a alepositional
environmentcharacterizedby alluvial quadrangles at 20 foot (ChittendenQuadrangle)and40 foot (LOs
fan complexes.Sedimentis rapidly transportedaway from the GatosQuadrangle)verticalspacings.Note therelativelystraight
mountainrange on the west, as southeasterlylongshoredrift long slopesandthe convextopsto someof theridges. Many of
efficiently transportssedimentto the throat of the Monterey the ridgesshowlittle roundingat all at thismap scale,implying
Canyon.In contrast,sedimentis trappedin thetopographicbasin the diffusiveprocesses are overwhelmedby landsliding.While
in the southernSan FranciscoBay andis keptrelativelycloseto thereareclearlyanomalously high slopesin places(in partdueto
the sourceregion. The resulting alluvial fans and bay muds digitizingresolution),themeanslopeanglesappearto be roughly
togethercomprisea low relief surfacewith 0-2 gradients. 1:2, or 26 .
 20,164 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS,CALIFORNIA

SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS

DRAINAGE PATTERN

SAN
FRANCISCC
BAY

Pescadero

San
Lorenzo

MONTEREY BAY Pajaro

Figure4. Drainage
network
in theSanta
CruzMountains,
derived
from1'100,000
map.Thetwomostsignificant
drainagestowardthe west are the San LorenzoRiver and Pescadero
Creek, which drain the back side of Ben
LomondMountain,theprominent
subsidiary
western
massifshownin Figure1.

Climate where[kl}t represents

changes
in elevationwithina fixed
Thegeomorphic processes varywithinthe reference
andtheirintensities frame,
Dz/Dt,thetotalderivative,
representschanges
in
elevationfollowinga materialpoint,andU is the horizontal
regionduetoboththeposition of a particular
parceloflandscape
within the uplift patternand to microclimaticvariations. The velocityin thex-direction.Gradients in topographyin the
direction
of themotion,
az0x,result
in changesin elevation
ata
presentclimateis Mediterranean, with the majorityof the
fixed pointwithinthe fixed referenceframe;i.e., the second
precipitation
arrivingbetweenOctoberand April in storm advectivetermplaysa role.
systems
with westerlytrajectories.Annualrainfallvariesfrom70
to 200 cm andis highlymodifiedby orographic effects[Rantz, Followingaparcel ofcrustasit movesalongthefaul.t,
changes
1971]. Rainfallvariesroughlylinearlywithelevation fromthe in elevation
willresultfrom local thickening
or thinningof the
coast to the crest of Ben Lomond Mountain. The crest of the crustduetotectonicandgeomorphic processesandfromisostatic
central Santa Cruz Mountains lies in the rain shadowof Ben adjustment to the alteredregional distribution
of surfaceand
Lomond Mountain andtherefore displaysa smallerprecipitationsubsurface loads.It is through thelargelengthscaleassociated
withtheflexuraladjustments thatlocalgeneration
of reliefcan
maximum.Theresulting vegetation isdominated by grasslands
at low elevationsand redwood forestsabove about200 m. driveregional uplift.Thetectonic description
ofthesystem must
therefore include thesliprates, anupliftpattern
representingthe
tectonic thickening of thecrust,andtheflexuralresponse to
Tectonicand GeophysicalProcesses distributed surface and subsurfaceloads.

Formulationof the tectonicallyproducedverticalstrain SHpRates

associated
withadvection pasta stationary
upliftsource
requires
specification
of theupliftpattern,
andof thevelocityof a parcel The slip rates on the San AndreasFault in the Peninsula
of crustwithrespect tothesource(seeFigure5), Theelevation z segmentnorthof theregionof thebendareestimated
to be 19:L-4
at a point(x,y), x takenparallelto the fault in the directionof mm/yr [e.g., WorkingGroupon CaliforniaEarthquake
motionof thecrust,maybewritten Probabilities(WGCEF),1990;Bilhamand Bodin,1992].
Geologicconstraints
baseduponoffsetmarineembayments and
z Dz z
distinctive
clasts
displaced
fromtheirsourceterrain
place2-4Ma
=-U (1) averagedslipratesbetween10 and20 mm/yr[Brown,1990].
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,165

cumulative
rock
uplift
.........
ro.,io.f'-
exhumatin
i?..:'..:.:11i?i?i?}i!!...".i}!!!?_.;...;i?l!!!!!:;7:..
......... ridgeelevations
.............................................................................................................................................
channel elevations

in the absence of exhumation

Figure $. Schematic2-D evolutionof a parcelof crustasit translates througha stationaryregionof uplift, here
stippled.Cumulativethickeningrepresents theintegralof theverticalstrainexperienced at anypoint;someof the
thickeningresultsin rockuplift;somerestfitsin isostaticgrowthof a root. Geomorphicattackof the topography
resultsin a toughenedsurfacewith relief corresponding to the differencebetweenmaximum(ridge crest)and
minimum(channel)elevations. The meanelevationat anypointwill be intermediatebetweenthe maximumand
minimumand will be dependentuponthe shapesof the hillslopes. Exhumationmeasuresthe differencebetween
thelocaltopographic surfaceandthecumulativerockuplift surfacethatwouldhavedefinedthetopography in the
absenceof geomorphicattack.

Holoceneslip rateson the Peninsulasegmentare unexpectedly regionnearbythefault,large correspondingto a broadregion

low, at 12 mm/yr [Hall, 1984], although these figures are of deformation.Undertheassumptionof constantcrustaldensity,
currentlybeingre-evaluated. theareally
averagedthickeningratemustthenbeI1/pA, or
Uplift Rates and Patterns {-I)=Ure
1 sin( 0)/(2 0+2H)). o)
I first argue that conservationof massin a fault bend setsa
constrainton the integralof the uplift rate. Then I assessthe roles The calculatedmean thickeningrate for the SantaCruz bend
of individual structuresin accomplishingthe vertical strain. In on the San AndreasFault (SAF) is thereforeroughly0.7 mm/yr,
this strike-slip setting, over the timescalesconsideredin this givenUre1= 20 km/m.y.,0=8,)=50kin, H=25 kin, andtaking
model, thesestructuresmigrateout of the bend,andI rely instead [=1. Notethatthisis themeanthickeningrateovertheareaA
upona generalizedverticalstrainpatternassociated with thelarge and that the maximum thickeningrates shouldbe significantly
scaleSanAndreasFault geometry. higher than this.

Long-Term: Conservation of Mass In a Strike-Slip Fault

Bend

Considera slightbendin a right-lateralstrike-slipfault across

which the relative velocitiesare Ure 1 (Figure 6). We wish to
determinethe expectedmean rate of thickeningin the region
surrounding
the bend. The bendhaslengthI, anda divergence
anglefrom the adjacentstraightreachesof the fault, 0. We
assme that mass must be conserved above a basal detachment
layer in eitherthe lower crustor uppermantle,a depthH below
the surface.The rate of massarrivalin the bendregionfrom both
sides of the fault is

I1= pH)sin(O){(Urel-U)
+U} =p H )Urelsin(0)(2)

wherep is the mean crustaldensity.

For the scaleof bendanddivergenceangleconsidered
here,we
expectthat the massis accommodatedthroughthickeningin an
areaA, ratherthanthrougheithersignificantchangesin density,
or to detachmentof lithosphericmantleat depth. The dimensions Figure 6. Schematicgeometryfor calculationof thickening
of thisaccommodation areawill be scaledby the bendlengthI, within a bend in a right lateral strike slip fault. The bend is
and the crustal thicknessH. For simplicity, we take the fault- characterized
by anopeningangle0 anda length,).Depthof the
parallellengthscaleto beI,+2H, where is a parameter
of order master fault is H. Relative slip acrossthe fault, Ure1, is
1 and the factor 2 comesfrom tip regionson either side of the partitionedinto slipU of the westsideof thefatfitwith respectto
bend. Similarly,thefatfit-normal lengthscalewill be 211H.The the bend,andU rel-U of the east side with respectto the bend.
parameter[l will be dependent uponthe strengthof the crustal The thickeningis takenup over a regionA, whichwill be scaled
materials, small corresponding to weakmaterials in whichthe by the wavelengthof the bendandby somelengthnormalto the
deformation associated with the bend is accommodated in a slim faultthatwill scalewithH, here[H.
20,166 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF TtiE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

Note thatin addressing the evolutionof themountainsadjacent uplift due to repeatedLoma Prieta events. This is sufficientto
to sucha bend, it is insufficient to specify the relative motions accomplish the vertical strain on the west side of the SAF,
acrossthe fault. The importantparameteris therelativevelocity implyingthat the Loma Prieta structureis the principalactorat
of a particularparcelof crustwith respectto thebend(or uplift present.
source).If onesideof thefault is muchmorerigid thantheother, However, as has been noted [ Schwartzet al., 1990; Anderson
the bendmay be consideredpart of the rigid side, and all the et al., 1990], repetitionof Loma Prietaeventswouldleadto the
deformationwill be takenup by the weakcruston theotherplate. long-term lowering of the crest of the southern Santa Cruz
Studiesof offset featuresacrossthe fault yield only relativedis- Mountains,to the eastof the SAF. The operationof other uplift
placements acrossthefault, notdisplacements with respectto the mechanismsis thereforeimplied, the mostlikely candidatesbeing
bend. The topographyplus exhumation,representingthe total west dippingfrontal thrustswith tracesto the eastof the crest.
verticalstrainof a parcelof crust,shouldon theotherhandreflect No seismic events have been documented that have resulted in a
the relative displacementwith respect to the uplift source positivechangein elevationon LomaPrieta. Yet thesteepterrain
associated with the bend.
and the visibility of the fault traces of the Sargent, Shannon,
Berrocal and other faults argue for recent activity on these
Uplift Mechanisms structures.The relative timing of suchfaulting is not resolved.
We do not know whether the Loma Prieta and eastern frontal
Uplift along a strike-slip fault is causedby areal strain
associatedwith gradientsin slip and with geometriccomplexity systemsare operating simultaneously,trading off events or
along the fault. Consideringa crustalslab of thicknessH and whetherthe Loma Prieta structureoperatesfor tensof thousands
assumingthe problemto be one of plane stress,the thickening of years before switchingback to the easternfrontal system.
There are no convenientnatural long-term benchmarks on the
maybecalculated
through
AH=HI-v/l-v](u-yy),
where
v is eastsideof themountainsto recordthishistory.
Poisson's ratio and the strains are the horizontal linear strains
[Bilham and King, 1989]. The thickeningwill be scaledby the Giventhata parcelof crustwill spendof theorderof 4-5 m.y.
divergenceangle of the fault bend, the crustalthickness,and in the bend, it is likely that particular compression-
Poisson'sratio. For an 8 fault bend the maximum thickening accommodatingstructureslike the Loma Prieta fault will grow
strain,z--AH/His of the orderof 0.0?5 for a fault anddie as they move into and out of the re gion of greateststrain
displacementof 10% of the bend length, conservingmassby andastheyrotatewithin the strainfield. We cannotdocumentall
usingv-0.5 [Bilham and King, 1989]. Convertingthis to the faults that might have beenactive in the courseof the 8-10
thickeningratesrequiresknowingthe totalthickening,ezzH,and m.y. sincethetriplejunctionpassedthislatitude[Irwin, 1990]. In
thetimeelapsed
in accomplishing
the10%slip,'C--0.1
?0Ure
1. In summary,the short-termuplift patternwill be dictatedby the
the Santa Cruz bend case, this corresponds to maximum uplift associatedwith thesespecificstructures,the long-term
thickeningratesof about0.?5 mm/yr, usinga sliprateUre1of 20 patternmusttakeinto accountall structures operatingthroughthe
km/m.y., plate thicknessof 25 kin, and bendlengthof 50 kin. lifetime of the bend. We may constrainthe integralof the uplift
This value is in rough accord with the calculation above by appealto conservation of masswithinthebendregion.
consideringconservationof mass. The detailsof the patternof
Generalized Strain Associated with the Bend In the San
uplift are, however, determinedby the specificstructuresac-
Andreas Fault
commodating the arealstrain.
I have therefore opted to use a simple uplift pattern that
Role of Fault Structures
roughly mimics the expectedlong-term vertical strain field. I
The specificstructureswithin the crustallowing the vertical have chosenthe relevantbend to be the 40-50 km long Santa
strainassociatedwith a fault bendwill vary throughtime. The Cruz bend with which the Loma Prieta structureis currently
materialbeingstrainedis nota perfectlyelasticmedium.Ratherit associated. This bend has the largest divergenceangle in the
is cut by discretefaultsacrosswhichdisplacement is permanently region, and thereforeought to resultin the largestuplift rates. I
accommo dated. The short-termuplift patternshouldthereforebe approximate theuplift asshownin Figure7 with a Gaussiandome
dictatedby thesefaults. In the SantaCruz Mountains,the San of magnitude1 mm/yr, horizontalscalelengthparallelto the fault
AndreasFault (SAF) accomplishes the majority of right-lateral of 15 kin, and scalelengthnormalto the fault of 15-20 km. The
translation.Otheractivefault structuresappearto includetheeast latter roughly fits the crosssectionof patternsgeneratedusinga
dippingLomaPrietastructureanda complexof frontalthruststo 3-D boundaryelementcode[GombergandEllis, thisissue].The
the east of the southern Santa Cruz Mountains crest [see scale for the uplift rate, which is adjustablein the model, is
Burgmannet al., thisissue;McLaughlinet al., 1988]. Repeated constrained by arguments made above concerning (1)
events on the Loma Prieta structure can well explain the conservationof massin a bend; (2) uplift rates associatedwith
elevationsof the marine terracesalongthe coastof the northern repeatedLoma Prieta events; and (3) vertical strain associated
MontereyBay [Anderson,1990;AndersonandMenking,1994]. with arealcontractionin a fault bendas reportedby Bilham and
The Loma Prieta uplift patterncan explain much of the recent King [1989].
(order100-500kyr) uplift to thewestof theSAF. Anderson
and
Menking [ 1994] calculatelong-termaveragerecurrence
timesof
roughly300-550 yearsfor Loma Prieta events,baseduponthe Deflection
inferred number of coseismic events, the ages of the marine
terraces, and the Loma Prieta coseismic slip parameters The evolving region of uplifted topographyconstitutesa
determinedby geodetictechniques [Lisowskiet al., 1990]of 1.7 distributedload on the lithosphere,which thereforedeformsat
m dip slip and 2.2 m right lateralslip on a 75 dippingrupture long wavelengths. It is this flexure, which acts to hide someof
plane. Given the maximumcoseismicuplift of approximately the thickeningof the crust due to tectonicprocessesor actsto
550 mm [L/sowsk/eta/., 1990; Marshall eta/., 1991; Williamset produceuplift due to relief-creatinggeomorphicprocesses, that
a/., 1993], this recurrenceinterval translatesinto 1.0-1.8 mm/yr mustbe incorporatedto allow for Molnar and England's [ 1990]
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF TIiE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,167

EH3
D= (5)
12(1-v2)
The flexural parameterD scalesthe radiuswithin which a point
load will causean appreciabledeflection.
While formulationsfor the deflectiondue to a specifiedline
load are simplycast[Turcotteand Schubert,1982], and such
solutionsmay be linearly superimposedto reflect simple 2-D
loads,the topographicloadingassociatedwith realisticmountains
is a complicated2-D pattern, primarily due to the large scale
channelsdraining a mountainrange. It is importantto incorpo-
rate the effect of channel-incisedrelief in order to trigger the
feedbackdescribedby Molnar and England [1990]. I therefore
use a deflection model obtained by summing deflections
associated with point loadsat eachgrid node. Lambeck [1988]
shows the deflection w at a nondimensional distance r/o due to a
point load at radial distancer--0 to be:

v)=2cpago
q 2 Ke) (6)

where q is the point load, and Kei is the Kelvin function,which

behavesas a highly damped sinusoid. Deflection at any point
Figure 7. A sampleof the uplift patternusedin the topographic within a gridded model domain is therefore calculated by
calculations,here as in all subsequentplots of model output summing contributions to flexure from all cells within the
shownagainsta backdropof the actualtopographyaveragedin calculationspace. The loadsq are sumsof surfaceandsubsurface
4x4 km gridboxes. The modelspaceis shownshiftedNE from loads. The surfaceload associatedwith subaerialtopography,
the topographyit is meantto depict,shownin the dashedwhite taken positivedownward, is zg(@c-Pa)dxdy,while the
box. The uplift patternis depictedwith a 0.1 mm/yr contourin- subsurface load associated with a low-density root is
terval,herewith maximumuplift rateof 1 mm/yr. The patternis Azag(Pc-Pa)dx
dy , whereg is theacceleration
dueto gravity,z
a Gaussiandome, with width normal to and parallel to SAF is the altitudeof the grid node, Aza is the amplitudeof the
prescribed in the model(hereshownequal). The centerof the deflectionof the subsurfacedensity-contrastinterface,dx and dy
uplift pattern is placed at (0,0) in the model space and are the horizontal dimensions of the model grid cells, and
corresponds to the centerof the SantaCruz bend,or roughlythe Pa'Pc'andPa arethedensities
of air,elasticcrust,andductile
epicenterof the LomaPrietaearthquake. lower crust,respectively.Contributionsto deflectionsfrom loads
outsidethe calculationspaceare ig nored.

proposedfeedback. The topographicload is supportedby a
combinationof buoyancy,andfiber stresses setup within the bent
elasticportion of the lithosphere[e.g., Turcotteand Schubert,
1982]. The buoyancyforces are proportionalto the density
difference between the materials in the subsurface and to the
amplitude of the deflection of the interface between such
materials. This acts as a restoringforce to any attemptedde-
flection of the interface. Flexure of the elastic portion of the
lithosphereis otherwise controlledby the elastic propertiesof
Young'smodulus E and Poisson'sratio v and by the effective
elasticthickness of theplate,H. Thislatterverticallengthscaleis
the most difficult to constrain. It is arguablycontrolledby the
thermalstateof the uppercrust [e.g., McNutt, 1990]. Several
workersin the westernUnitedStates[e.g., Steinet al., 1988]have
used widths of geological structuresto constrainthe effective
elastic thickness to be of the order of 5-10 km. The relevant
horizontallengthscalein the problemis the flexuralparametero:
D/TM (4)
wherePd is the densityof the ductilematerial,andD is the
flexuralrigidity:
GeomorphicProcesses
I combine crude models of stream incision and hillslope
processesin an algorithmfor the geomorphicattackof the rising
mountainranges. One shouldnot expectto be able to model the
evolutionof the topographyof a mountainrange with diffusive
processes alone. As Koons [1989] demonstrated convincingly,
the incisionof channelsinto the bedrockof the rising mountain
rangeis essentialin settingthe boundaryconditionsfor the sur-
roundinghillslopes. One must thereforeposit a rule set for the
channels,and a rule set that efficiently describesthe responseof
the adjacenthillslopes.
The geomorphicsystemis characterizedby severaldifferent
timescales. In order of increasing responsetime, these are
associatedwith (1) hillslope profiles, (2) channellongitudinal
profiles, and (3) the planview pattern of the drainagesystem.
Once set into the landscape through a complicated and
historicallyuniquesetof initial conditions,we expectthechannel
planviewpatternto remain essentiallyconstant,i.e., the channel
network will advectalong with the parcelof crust. This initial
pattern could have been established by a combination of
deterministicsubmarineprocesses[see Orange et al., 1994] and
random perturbationsthat togetherestablish an initial surface
acrosswhich the terrestrialstreamsfirst flow and by lithologic
contrasts(e.g., the contactbetweenBen Lomondgraniteandsur-
 20,168 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTACRUZ MOUNTAINS,CALIFORNIA

rounding Tertiary sediments)toward which the initial stream intensity of the process,and can be due to either discrete
patternrapidlyslips. In the modeldescribed here,thepresent processessuch as tree throw and rodent burrowing, or to
streampatternis assumedto recordfaithfullythe initial channel continuous processessuchassoilcreep.
pattern,which is "lightly etched"intothe uplifted massas it The geometryof the hillslopewill be determined by this
emergesfromthe sea. I thenposephysicallybasedmodelsfor diffusivityandby the incisionratesof the adjacentstreamsthat
theresponseof thischannel systemandtheadjoining hillslopes
to constitutethelowerboundary conditionsfor theslopes.In the
tectonicallydrivenuplift. simplestcaseof a steadystateridgebounded by incising
streams,
theresultinghillslopeprofileis parabolic:
Hillslopes
Muchof therangecoreis presently
dominated
by landsliding (if- x2)
z=
21 ' 00)
on the hillslopesand associated
debrisflows in the channels,in
contrastto thediffusion-dominated
slopesandincisedchannels in
themaxineterracedfringeof the SantaCruzMountainsdiscussed whereL is thehorizontal
lengthof thehillslope,x=0 def'mesthe
by Rosenbloom andAnderson[1994]. The landscape evolves hillcrest, and!istheerosion rateofthebounding streams. The
undertheinfluenceof thesediscretegeomorphic
eventsdrivenin local relief, the maximum elevation difference between stream
turn by weatherevents[e.g., Dunrue,1991]. The problemis andhillslope,is then
stochastic
in bothtimeandspace,reflectingboththestatistics
of
weatherandthe spatialvariationof boththe microclimateandthe
R= 2---' (11)
geologicresistanceto landslidingthat togethermake the
landscape to failureduringa particular In ram,themaximum
more,or less,susceptible slopeanglewillbeimmediately
adjacent
to
storm. the stream, at x=L:
I adopta strategy
thatrecognizes
thegrossspatialvariation,
yet time averagesthe effectsof discreteeventsin accordwith the /}z
I =-E-'
L 02)
longtimescales
involvedin mountain
evolution.Below,I argue
that the hillslopeprocessescan be treatedas diffusive in low- The approachto this steadystateunderconstantincisionof
lying terrainin which the erosionratesof channelsis low and as channels
oneithersideof theemergingridgeis analogous
to the
by high transient
beingdrivenby landslidingin terraincharacterized thermal
problem involvingdeclining
temperatures
onthe
streamincisionrams. I alsoshowboththatonemay scalethe edgesof a slabwithinitiallyuniformtemperature
[seeCarslaw
steadystate local relief in the landscapeif the local channel and Jaeger,1986]. Figure8 showstheir solution,convertedto
incisionramsareknownandthatthehillsloperesponse timesare the evolution of a ridge line under the above conditions.
everywheremuch shorterthan the channelresponsetimes, Importantly, thetimescalefortheapproach to steadystatein this
validatingthe assumptionof steadystatelocal relief. This diffusive problem iswellapproximated
byx= L2/}c.
promptsa modelstrategyin whichthe field of channelelevations
is explicitlycalculatedat eachtimestep,fromwhichthefield of Landsliding
localreliefis easilyderived.Hillslopesareneitherresolvedin the We cannottreattheentirelandscapeasbeingdiffusive
in this
landscape nor is anytransience in thehillslopesystemallowed. simplesense.Fixst,asargued by Andersonand Humphrey
The sum of the channel elevation and the local relief is then the [1989] and Rosenbloom and Anderson[1994],thedetailsof
maximumelevationof thegridelement. hillslope
profilesetchedintoinitiallybedrockterrainrequires
incorporationof weathering processesto produce
transportable
Diffusion particles.Second,landslides will occurwhena portionof the
landscapereaches somefailurecriteriondependent
strongly
upon
Diffusionof the landscaperesultsfrom conservation of mass
slopeangleandimportantly uponthe localgroundwater head
anda transportlaw thatlinearlyrelatesmassflux to localslope. gradientson theslope[e.g.,IversonandMajor, 1986;Reidand
Conservation
of massresultsin theerosionequation
Iverson,1992;IversonandReid,1992]. Weathering ramslimit
/)z 1 therateat whicha hillslopewill be lowered;if thesearesmaller
.... VQ (7)
t p, thanthelocalincisionrateof thestream,
nosteady statehillslope
canbe attainedwithdiffusion alone. Rather,thehillslopewill
where Q is the "specificmassdischarge"of sedimenton the continueto steepen,
becoming increasingly
susceptibleto failure
hillslope,or dischargeof massper unit widthof slope [=] M/LT, by masswasting.In thecenterof therangewhereincisionrams
and Ob is the bulk densityof the mobile regolith. When this
of streams
areexpectedto begreatest,
wemustthereforeaccount
discharge is proportional
to thelocalslope,i.e., when forthedominanceof landsliding
in setting
theshapesandscales
of thehillslopes.
Q = - k Vz (8) Landslides
maymoststraightforwardly
be incorporated
in
largelandscape
evolutionmodelsbymodifying thefluxlawQ(S)
to accommodatea threshold
process.The argument is similarto
with k a transportcoefficientreflecting the efficiency of the
onemadeearlierto accountfor theangleof reposein hillslope
geomorphicprocess,the erosionequationbecomesthe diffusion
evolutionmodels[Anderson andHumphrey, 1989]. Hillslopes
equation
Oz arecharacteristically
verystraight
in themountains,
withslight
convexitynearthebasein places(Figure3). Thisreflectsthe
a=,tV2z, (9) operation
of discrete
failuresoverlongtimesthatefficiently
transport
massto thebedrockchannel,
whichthentransports the
where c=lC/Pbis the diffusioncoefficient. The transport debris
fromthesystem.Theefficiency
of thishillslope
process
is
coefficient and hence the diffusivity will dependupon the determinedby the typical size andrecurrencetimesof failures.
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,169

intensityof groundshakingassociatedwith seismicevents. I

expectthatthescaleof S. will determine
howcloselythesteady
statehillslopewill approach
thethreshold
slope(Figure9).
20D I i I I I I The maximumpossiblehillslope relief in this landsliding-
30
(a) dominatedlandscapeis R=L tan(Se). Actual values will be

!!f!!.:!::
!:::.... .....
it!! '".:::'!
i6..... ?!ltl
":.[It 5O 60

45 (a) 40
-10 .... 20. ..
40
-20
-'" .... 35
20 o

= 30 0 '
-30 '".." "'.."
' =-lmyr; =50m=/ky " 25
-40 b)
35ky
Im
5k
inte.s
20
-20
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-40
15
Hofizontfl Distce (m)
10: 60
Figure8. Evolutionof an interfiuveunderthe influenceof 1 0 20 40 60 80 100
mm/yr incisingchannelsat 40 m from the ridge crest, and
diffusive
Milslope
processes
withdiffusivity
c= 50m2/yr.In the Horizontal Distance (rn)
lowerhalf of the diagramthehillslopeprofileis shownat 5-kyr
intervals(labelsevery10 kyr), beginning with an originallyflat
surface.Theprofileappears to haveattaineda steadystateform 0.06
by the endof the calculation.The topportionof the diagram
showsthismoreclearly. Here the profilesare shownwith re- (b) s.=0
spectto theinstantaneouselevation of thechannelandtherefore >,0.05
allowmoreexactingcomparison of form. The steadystateform 0.04 g? 6
hasindeedbeenattainedby roughly30 kyr (labelscorrespond o

againto timesin thousands of years).The steadystatereliefis O 3

approximately 15m, in accord
diffusivesystems
withtheexpectedreliefin purely
drivenby incisionat theboundaries
(seetext) o.o, / /
andisattainedin a timescale
of roughlyL2/m

Given that these failures can involve the entire soil column and
>0.01
0
[- .' ' , 00
I T=17
m2
sometimessubstantialquantitiesof bedrock, the efficiency of 0 10 20 30 40 50
landslidingcanbe very muchhigherthanthe diffusiveprocesses Slope(degrees)
that operatenecessarilyonly on surficialmaterial. An effective
diffusivitymay be constructed from the typicalpath lengthsfor Fure 9. Hslo evolutiondue a 1 fi law modffi
thelandslides L andtherecurrence timesx throughL2/x. The high slos to aount for more efficientmsrt by lmdsng.
probabilityof a failureincreases with the approachof somelocal (a) Crosssectionof e graphy cculated om initial
partof the slopetowarda criticalangle. Thesestatements may conditionof sght slos, d bound conditions supp by
be castformally as a modificationto the purediffusiontransport equ channel incisionrates at e two sides of e cculafion
rule such that space. so shown e e slo gles, e derivative of e
tography, wi coesnding symbols. e flux laws us to
Q=-kaS -kx,S , exp s,-
s)]
(- S, ' ive sedent downslo e shown Fige9b, e ee
(13) ces correspondingto the tee flux laws, with matching
symbols. (b) Trmsrt law in which le wid volume flux
whereS is the localslope,Se-is thecriticalslope, S. is a slope exnenfily incres above due dffsive esses (K 1)
scaledetermininghow closethe slopemust be to the threshold a eshold slo Sc (here50)is apoach, e chacristic
slopebeforethe probabilityof failureis greatlyincreased,Kd is slo sere for e exnenfial approachbeing S. (here 3% 6,
the normal diffusivity, and Kls is the maximum effective d 10). e resultingsteadyste formshavenely unifo
diffusivity resulting from landslides. Note that at S=Sc, saight slos ne e base,d convexcres ne which e
Q = (ka+ ku)S, . A relativeenhancement process low gle slos 1ow diffusivepresses to dominate. (For
of thetransport
by landsliding,7= k,/ka , maybe definedsuchthatwhen),=1, comprison, note at palic pely diffusive profiles (see
landslidinganddiffusioncontributeequallyto the masstransport Fige 8) would display a line dendence of gradient on
at thethreshold angleSe. The coefficientSo reflectstheexpected position, i.e., a uniform curvature.) e basal slopes e
spatialvariationin the failurepotentialwithin the landscapedue con,oiled by e nsifivity of e fl law m it approaches e
to variationsin (1) lithology, structureand root strengthsetting critical angle,and e roughly Sc*. Steady state relief is
the resisting forces, (2) the groundwaterfield, and (3) the erefore well apoxad by R = L t(S c .).
 20,170 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

considerablylower, givenroundingof crestsdueto diffusion,and flow scour of the channelsincreasesthe dependenceof the
earlier lower-angle failures associated with the scale S,. incisionrateon the localslopeof thechannel[Seidland Dietrich,
Simulationssuchas thoseshownin Figure 9 showthat a better 1992]. The incisionrule is the sameas that in equation(15)
approximation
mightbe R=L tan(Sc-S, ). exceptthatthedependence on S is nonlinear.I takethedepen-
We may now assessunder what conditionsthe relief will be dencetogoasS2,knowing
thatthisonlycrudely
accounts
forthis
determinedby diffusive processesversuslandslidingprocesses. poorlyconstrained
process.
Diffusive processeswill no longerdominatewhen the maximum Figure 10 showsthe evolutionof a longitudinalcrosssection
slope begins to approachthe landsliding threshold,i.e., when of a channelwithinitiallystraightslope,whenacteduponby the
Smax >Sc-S,. Recallingthatthemaximumslopein a steadystate simpleslopeareaproductrule. Here the areaof the drainage
diffusive
landscape
(withparabolic
hill)is L/r, wethereforebasin,A, is assumedto increasewith distancedown the channel,
expect.that
landsliding will setthelocalreliefof thelandscape x, asa powerlaw A=xs/3'thisis meantto approximate typical
whene > [:(Sc- S,)]/L. Otherwise, thelocalreliefwill be de- basingeometry. Base level is assumedto remainconstantand is
terminedby the diffusivesteadystate(equation(11)). imposedby forcingthe channelslopeto vanishat baselevel. I
definea thresholddistancefrom the drainagedivide,x*, above
Stream Channel Incision which channelization is not allowed. The channel incises most

As hasbeen demonstratedby earlier modelingefforts [Koons, deeplyintothecentralregionof thebasin;thelow slopesnearthe

1989], the large-scaletopographicevolutionof a mountainrange mouthof thechannelinhibiterosion,whilethelow drainagearea
cannot be modeled without proper attention to the incision of inhibitsincisionin the upperreaches.
streamchannelsinto the uplifting rock mass. Koonsproceeded
by simply draping stream channelswithin the mountain belt, The SingleDrainageBasin: An Interior ModelApproach
specifyinga characteristiclogarithmicshapeto the longitudinal One may take any of several possible approachesto the
profilesof eachstream. Here I attemptto incorporatea process- problemof howto treatthe freerscaletopography
withina coarse
elated streamincisionrule of the type describedin greaterdetail modelgrid. An interiormodelcouldbeconstructed thatdisplays
by Seidl and Dietrich [1992] and as applied to the streams thedynamicresponse to changes
in theconditionsimposed upon
incising the marine terracesof Santa Cruz by Rosenbloom and a grid cell by the surroundingchanneland drainagedivide
Anderson [1994]. The stream is assumedto incise at a rate boundaries.This would allow the transientresponses of the
dictatedby the local streampower,or the energylostby a parcel hillslopesand the channelto be explicitlylinked within the
of water per unit time per unit downstreamlength of channel. system.If theproblemscaledemandssuchresolution,thiswould
This energy goes into heat within the water mass, into the be appropriateand in certaininstancescan be made quite
transportof sediment, and into degradationof the bed. The compact.Below I illustratesucha solutionto the singlefirst-
streampower may be castas the productof the dischargeof water
(or waterdischarge)andthe slopeof the bed:
2.0
P = p g H W u sin(o0= p g QwS (14)
whereQw is thewaterdischarge, andfor smallanglesthesineof
theslopeis approximately thetangentof thechannelslopeS.
In keepingwith thelargespatialandtemporalscalesrequired,
I do not incorporateindividual storm eventsfrom which one
might calculate both spatial and temporal patternsof stream
powerwithpositionin thestreamsystem,a strategyillustrated by 1.0 .+%oo-. '
Dunne [1991] on hillslopes.Earlier workers[e.g., Howard and tr -++o'-.
Kerby, 1983; Seidl and Dietrich, 1992; Howard et al., 1992] have , %% '-.
proposedtheuseof the drainageareaas a surrogatefor the water [ ,++ Oo
o -...
discharge in such events. This approachis followed by 0.51- -+ o oo -..
Rosenbloomand Anderson [1994], although in the channel '
i'
",, ++ O0 00 mm
t ",, + 0 O_ I
reachesthey addressed, the additional assumptionthat the I' ',,,'' 0 O_ mm ,
drainage area was effectively uniform was justified. Here, I
slightlyrefine this approachin two ways. I takethe productof 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
thedrainageareaandtheaveragerainfallabovea particularpoint
on the channel stand as the surrogate for the local water Distancefrom DrainageDivide (km)
discharge.The incisionrule thenbecomes
Figure 10. Bedrockchannelincisionhistorydrivenby stream
z poweror area-slope
productrule. Initial conditionof a straight
3-=- cARS (15) prof'de
withgradient
of 4.0x104, andfoursubsequent
timesin the
calculationare shown. Drainageareais assumedto increaseas
where A is the basin area above the channelpoint, R is the distancedownstreamto the 5/3 power. The channelhead is
averageprecipitationrate in that area, and c is an empirically arbitrarilytaken to be 10 km from divide. The zero-slope
determinedconstantthat reflects the proportionof the stream boundaryconditionat the mouthof the systemdictatesthe low
powerexpendedin incisionof the channel.If, on the otherhand, slopesof thelowerreaches.No areaat thechannel headrequires
one assumesthatrainfall is constantwithin the drainagebasin,the incision to vanish there as well (no headwardretreat of the
rainfall term is subsumed in the coefficient c and we return to the
channelheadis allowed). The channelprofilethereforedroops
simplestslope-areaproductformulation. intobedrock withmaximumerosion wheretheslope-area
product
In addition,I attemptto accountfor the expectedchangein is greatest,resultingin headwardmigrationof the regionof
processin the upperreachesof the drainagesystem,wheredebris greatestconcavity.
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,171

orderbasinresponseanduseit to assessthe relativetimescalesof

channelsandhillslopesin the larger-scaleproblem. Ultimately, I
determinethat the timescalesof hillsloperesponseare far shorter a) Low Diffusivity Case
thanthe responseof the channelsystem,motivatinguseof the as- 1.0
sumptionof steadystaterelief.
0.8
Considera singlefirst-orderchannelwithin a very simplified
rectangular drainagebasinof width 2W, containinga channelof
0.6
lengthL c. The distancefrom the drainagedivide to the tip of the
channel is x*. The dependenceof drainage area on position
basinresponse
within the channelis linear: A -- Ao 4-2(Lc-x)W, x being the
0.4
upstreamdisrancefrom the tributaryjunctionat the baseof the
drainage,W beingthe hillslopelengthandAo beingthedrainage 0.2 Ilsloperesponse
areacontributingto thechannelhead(representing the areain the
thresholdslope-areaproductnecessaryto generatea channelas 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
arguedby Montgomery andDietrich [1990] andDietrich et al.
[1992, 1993]). The processesare taken to be diffusive on the Time (ky)
hillslopes, and to be controlled by the stream power rule
describedabove within the channel. The systemis perturbedat
time -- 0 by a simple baselevel drop dz at the channeljunction, .
for instanceby the passageof a knickpointin the trunk stream
1.o
b) High Diffusivity Case
[$eidl and Dietrich, 1992]. The integratedresponseis measured
by thedischargeof sedimentfrom the system,whichyieldsa his-
tory of mean denudationrate when divided by the basin area. 0.8
Formally, the responseof the system in terms of sediment
dischargeis a convolutionintegral 0.6

Q=2dx
f)q(t-'c)
dt (16)
whereq [=] M L 4 T 'l represents
thehillsloperesponse
function
after rejuvenation and'c is the time since passage of the
knickpoint:'c=x/(u(x)). Here the averagespeedof the
knickpoint up to this position in the channel <u> is calculated
from the mean of all local speeds of the knickpoint u =
c(Ao+2(Lc-x)W) from x--0 to the point of concern. The hillslope
responsefunctionmay be solvedby appealto the analogousheat
flow problem of a finite slab (ridge) of thickness2W, initial
conditions of a parabolic steady state thermal (topographic)
profile andstepchangesin the temperature (elevation)boundary
conditionsat eachedgeby AT (Az) at t=0 [seeCarslaw and
Jaeger, 1986]. The resultingdischargeor denudationhistoryis
shownin Figure 11.
Physically,as the knickpointcreatedby the baselevel dropat
the tributary junction migrates headward, it rejuvenates the
adjacent slopes, which begin to deliver more material to the
channel,thenceout of the system. The headwardmarch of the
channelconvexityslowsas the drainagearea aboveit declines.
Oncethisconvexityreachesthe channeltip, the channelhasfully
respondedto the perturbation,and the remainingsedimentflux
history is due solely to the responseof those hillslopesmost
recentlyrejuvenated.
Importantly, two timescalesemerge in the problem, one
associated with the hillsloperesponse,the otherwith the channel
response.As determinedabove,the hillsloperesponsetime is
scaled
by L2hc.Thechannel
response
timeisscaled
bythe
channel length and the average migration velocity of the
knickpoint,whichresultsin
1
xa='2c In ' (17)
0.4
0.2,
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (ky)
Figure 11. Drainagesystemresponse to a 2-m baselevel dropat
time--O. Simplifieddrainagebasinhas 100 m hillslopeson either
side of a 1-km-longchannelextendingto within 100 m of the
drainagedivide. Hillslopeprocessesare takento be diffusive, (a)
40 m2/kyrand(b) 400m2/kyr.Channelincisionproceeds
by
propagationof a knickpoint at a speed dictated by the local
drainage area above the convexity and the channel incision
constant,
c = 2x10'?m'l yr4. Smoothdecliningline is the
hillsloperesponsecurve,q(t), for a singlehillslopeperturbedat
its baseat time--0by a channelincisionevent,suchasthepassage
of a knickpoint past the base. Timescale for responsegoes
inversely as the diffusivity. Drainage system responseis
displayedas historyof sedimentdischargefrom the basin,nor-
malizedagainstthemaximumdischarge.Dischargesmoothlyin-
creases as knickpoint migrates headward, turning on
progressivelymore hillslopes. Propagationvelocity of the
knickpointslowsas it losesdrainageareatoward the headof the
channel.Sawteethin theplot reflectdiscretization of the channel
length;at low knickpointspeeds,significanthillsloperesponse
occursbeforethe next incrementof hillslopeis perturbed. The
channelhead has been reachedat 70 ky.r Thereafter the dis-
chargehistoryis enfirely dictatedby the flux of sedimentfrom
the most recently rejuvenatedhillslopes. Note the system
responsetime is dictatedin Figure 1la) by the hillsloperesponse
time andin Figure1lb) by thechannelresponse time.

whereAtota1 is the totaldrainagebasinarea. When the hillslope I arguethatin thelandslide-dominated majorityof theSanta
responsetime is very short comparedto the channelresponse Cruz Mountainsthe high effectivediffusivityassociated with
time, thehillslopeswill essentiallyalwaysbe in equilibriumwith landslides
dictatesthatthisis thecase,andonemayproceedwith
the local channel incision rate. an evensimplerstrategythat ignoresthe hillslopes'transience.
20,172 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF TI-IE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

Ontheother
hand,
themarine
terraced
portion
ofthelandscape
is 60 0.30
clearly in a state of transience;the younger broad fiat terrace
interfiuves
have
notyetresponded
tothedowncutting
ofchannels
'r 50 0.25
through
theterrace
sequence.
In theterraced
fringe,
theeffective
diffusivifies
arelow(10m2/kyr)andthehillslope
timescales
are 40 0.20
thereforeof the order of severalhundredthousandyears. The []
0.15
topographic
details
ofinterest
in thissmaller
scale
landscape
30 []
demand a much more finely griddedmodel [Rosenbloomand
Anderson,1994] thanthe oneemployedherein.
> 20 []
0.10
ca 10
Summary of GeomorphicModel Strategy
The above discussionof the geomorphicprocessesleads to 50 100 150 200 250
0.05
0.00
300
severalkey assumptions embeddedin the model. I assumethat
relative to the channels,the hillslopescomequickly to a steady Drainage
Area(km2)
state form. This justifies the imposition of steadystate local
relief along a channel reach (i.e., within a grid cell) without Figure 12. Shrevemagnitude[Shreve, 1966] (dots) and erosion
carryingout the time-dependentcalculationillustratedabove. I rate (squares)as functionsof drainagearea for 13 coastalSanta
emphasizethathillslopesarenot resolvedin the modellandscape. Cruz streams.Note that Shrevemagnitude(numberof first-order
Rather,a cell has two altitudes,one correspondingto the channel tributariesin the basin)is a goodestimatorof the drainagearea,
elevation, and anothercorrespondingto the hillcrests(channel the inferredmeanlrrst-order
basinareabeingroughly5 km2.
elevationplusrelief). Erosionratescalculatedfrom sedimentfluxes[Bestand Griggs,
The local rate of incision of the stream channel into bedrock, 1991] increasewith drainagearea,primarilybecauseonly the
calculatedat eachtime step accordingto the slope-areaproduct, largerstreamsaccessthe highrainfall centerof therange. Basin
sets the local relief. For the low incision rates associated with the averageerosionratesare probablyof the orderof 0.2 mm/yr for
much of the mountains.
streammouths,the steadystaterelief is calculatedassumingthat
diffusion dominatesthe hillslopes. Above some point on the
channel,the incisionratesbecomehigh enoughto causeslopes
adjacentto the channelto fail as landslides;herea differentlocal betweenthe drainageareaof themajorstreams(tabulatedby Best
relief is fixed by the slopeangleandthehillslopelength. andGriggs [1991]) andthe Shrevemagnitude(as measuredon
The geomorphic rulesarethereforeconfinedto thatfor stream 1'100,000 maps), implying that the mean size of a first-order
incisionand a calculationof localrelief thatis processdependent. drainageon suchmaps,A 1, is a constant,about5 km2. The
Only the largest channel in any cell is assessed,the smaller drainageareaat eachnodeis thereforetakento be A = Ms A1. I
tributariesrespondingon much shortertimescales.In addition, notethat this approachto obtainingdrainageareais crude,that
the known shapesof the steady state hillslopes allow simple closermapscrutinywouldcertainlyyield a moredetailedpicture,
calculationof themeanelevationin a pixel: <z> = Zch+ 0.667R andthatuseof mapsof a differentscalewouldundoubtedly yield
in thecaseof theparabolicdiffusiveridgesand<z> = Zch+ 0.5R a differentmeasureof the areacorresponding
to first-orderbasins.
in the landsliding-dominatedridges, where Zch is the local However,giventhecoarsenatureof thegridon whichthemodel
channel elevation and R is the local relief. is calculated
(with 16 km2 pixels),theeffortinvolvedis not
commensurate with the goal of efficientmodeling. While the
drainageareaabovea channelpointwill notchangewith time,in
Model Setup accordwith the assumption that the streampatternis the most
The model spacerepresentingthe presentextentof the Santa slowlychangingaspectof the landscape, themeanprecipitation
Cruz Mountainsis subdividedinto 4x4 kin pixels. The SAF is above a point could be allowed to change with growing
theboundarybetweenthe two modelhalves.Notethatthefault is orographiceffectsandwith globalclimateswings. This hasnot
straight,as dictatedby the fact that the grid cannotdeform. The beeninstitutedin thepresentstudy.
relative slip rate acrossthe fault is prescribedas Ure1. That The initial topographyis taken to be fiat, with all channel
landscapeto the NE of the fault all migratesto the SE at the same elevationsand relief set to zero. Channelsare thereforeonly
rate,Ue, while that on the SW of the fault all migratesat a pre- "lightly etched";the drainageareaassociatedwith eachnodeis
scribedrate, Uw, to the NW, the two speedsrelatedthroughUrel specifiedas describedabove, and the direction of flow between
= U w + U e. No deformation of the grid is allowed, only adjacentpixelsis fixed (in general,downthe highestgradientin
translationparallel to the SAF. The uplift pattern is fixed in Shrevemagnitude). The geomorphicprocessesand rates are
spaceand is centeredat (0,0) (Figure 7); the speedsUw and U e specifiedthroughthe assignment of a hillslopediffusivityc, a
thereforerepresentspeedsrelative to this uplift pattern. The channel incisionparameter , anda criticalslopeSc.S,, above
uplift pattern is specified,and the elasticconstantsand density which landslidingis expectedto dominate.
contrastparameterscontrolling the deflection are as listed in The model time stepis chosento be small enoughto ensure
Table 1, whichlistsall modelparametersrequired. stabilityof the channelprofiles. Insufficientparsingof time
Ratherthandeterminingby scrutinyof mapsthedrainagearea resultsin overdeepening of channelsanda reversalof gradientsin
above each node in the model, as needed in the stream incision placesexperiencing highincisionrates. This is typically40 kyr.
algorithm, I have inferred drainage area from the Shreve The modelis allowed to run for timesof either 4 or 8-10 m.y.
magnitude,M s, of the stream at each node (Figure 12). The The shorterinterval corresponds to the time in which the plate
Shrevemagnituderepresentsthe sumof the upstreamfirst-order margin has been in slight compression [e.g., Page and
drainages at anypointon the channel[Shreve,1966]. For the Engebretson,1984]. The longertime represents a conservative
Santa Cruz Mountains, a roughly linear relationship exists estimateof the time sincethepassage of thetriplejunction[e.g.,
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,173

Irwin, 1990]. The deflection field is calculatedlessfrequently, ROCK UPLIFT AND ELEVATION HISTORIES

everyfive time steps. 2.5

Results

I monitorthe development of severalfieldswithinthemodel 1.5

space. The topographicfields are represented by (1) channel
elevation, (2) relief, and (3) mean elevation. The flexural ,R2
t'
deflection field associated with the mean elevations is recorded,
allowingthe possibility
of predicting
gravityanomalies.I
calculatetherockupliftpatternby retainingthetopographicfield 0.5

that would result in the complete absence of geomorphic

modificationof theupliftedmass. This allowsthe calculationof
the exhumationfield, the difference between the rock uplift !

patternandthesurfacetopography.In addition,we maytrackthe o 5 1o

elevation, exhumation, and deflection histories of particular
parcelsof crustandof statistical
properties
of thelandscapesuch Time (My)
asthehypsometric curveandthemeanelevation. The resultsare
thereforetestableagainsta numberof datasets;only a few of Figure 14. Rockuplift (R) andelevationhistories(Z) for two
thesepossiblecomparisons areshownhere. Themostareallyex- points(1 and 2) within the calculationspace. Point 1 is found at
tensive and most easily accessibledata set is the topography the end of the calculation at (64,4), while point 2 is (0,4) (see
of relief, labels
itself. Othersincludethe gravityfield,thedistribution in Figure13). Slipratewithrespect
to thebend,U westTM
theelevationof benchmarks,thedipof originallyflat surfaces, 10 km/m.y. Uplift rate maximum is 1 km/m.y. in the uplift
center. Delay betweenuplift of points1 and 2 corresponds
and exhumationrates at points as deducedfrom fission track to the
analyses. differenttimes they encounterthe uplift pattern. Divergenceof
The resultingtopography(meanelevationsin each 4x4 km elevation of a point from the rock uplift reflects geomorphic
Pixel)is shownin Figure13 alongwiththeactualtopography. erosion, which in turn is dependentupon the local channel
Many of the grossfeaturesof the SantaCruz Mountainsare system.Point1 is adjacentto the upliftmaximumat roughly5
m.y., resultingin its highestrock uplift rate then. Its elevation
maximum is attained about 1 m.y. later, and it decays
monotonically thereafter as geomorphic erosion processes
outstriprock uplift. Maximum elevationsin the range should
thereforebe about10 km downslipfrom the uplift ratemaximum,
and the max'unaof the northernand southernrangesshouldbe
slifted
fromoneanother
bytwotimesthis,or 20 kin. Thisis
approximatelythe case(seeFigures1 and 13).

reproduced. The generaldecayof the range downslipfrom the

edgesof the uplift patternis clear. The major streamvalleys are
now etcheddeeplyinto the topography,the mostnotableof these
being the San LorenzoRiver separatingthe Ben Lomondmassif
from the crestof the northernrange. The maximumelevationsof
therangecrestandthe principalsubsummits of the northernrange
areroughlyin theirproperplacesandare roughlycorrectin their
altitudes.

Therockuplift
andelevation
histories
oftwoparcels
ofcrust
(labelledin Figure13) are shownin Figure14. Bothpointsare4
km from the SAF on the Pacific Plate. At the end of the
calculation,the first point is 64 km NE of the uplift maximum,
while the secondhasjust reachedthe uplift maximum. The rock '
uplift historiesreflecttheintegrateduplift rate alongthepathof
Figure 13. Overlayof calculatedoverreal topography,
bothwith theparcelof crust. The tracesare thereforeparallelbut offsetby
100-m contours,for themodelinputparameterslistedin Table 1. a time correspondingto their horizontal separation:t=(xl-
Maximumelevationsare approximatelycorrect.The rangeshave x2)/Uwest- The elevationhistoriesdivergefrom the rock uplift
the correctdimensions,bothin lengthand in maximumaltitude. histories once the geomorphicprocesseshave become more
The major streamson the westcoast,the SanLorenzoRiver and efficient due to enhancedchannelgradients. Eventually, the
Pescadero Creek, are shownwrappingbehindthe prominentBen erosion rates become greater than the uplift rates, and the
Lomond Mountain massif. This massif has not been attacked topography
decays.Maximum
elevations
in themodeltherefore
Significantlyon the coastalside, which sportsonly low order correspondto thepositionsat whichuplift anderosionare equal.
drainagebasins.Seetext for discussion. Inspectionof Figure 14 revealsthat there is roughly 1 m.y.
20,174 ANDERSON: EVOLU'rION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

Figure16, 75% of the slip is allowedto takeplaceon the westof

between passageof the crust past the uplift center and the
achievementof this balance,a time corresponding the fault, resultingin significantlymore uplift of rock on the east
to 10 km of
slip with respectto the bend (assuming$0% displacementon sideasit spendsmoretime traversingtheuplift pattern.
The exhumationpatternis alsodepictedin Figure15. That this
eachsideof the fault and 20 km/m.y. relative slip). This should
happenon both sidesof the fault. The topographicmaxima ofso closelymimics the rock uplift patternshownin the bottom
northernand southernrangesthereforeoughtto be separatedbypanelimpliesthatthemajorityof therockmasslifted abovezero
approximately 20 km. altitude in the bend region has been removed by subsequent
geomorphic processes. Given the high efficiency of the
The rock uplift patternand the exhumationpatternare shown
geomorphicprocesses,
in Figure 15 at the end of a 10 m.y. model run. Rock uplift it is the rock uplift magnitudemore than
thegeomorphicerosionratepatternthatappearsto be reflectedin
resultsfrom uplift within the bendregion and translationof the
the exhumationpattern. Such patterns are commonly docu-
upliftedmasswith respectto the bend. The patterndemonstrates
thattheentirelengthof bothhalvesof therangemaybe created mentedthroughthe useof fissiontrack analyses[see Burgmann
in thetimeavailable,giventhelong-term sliprateontheSan eta/., this issue]. Whether the magnitudeof the exhumationis
Andreas
Fault.Theamplitude
of thepattern
is dictated
bythe sufficient
to havebeenrecorded
in fissiontracksdepends
upon
timea parcelOfcrustspends
withintheupliftpattern.Although whetherthe amplitudeof therockuplift is sufficientto havelifted
the relative slip is fixed by geologicalconstraints,
the relative therock parcelthrougha greatenoughrangeof temperatures.
amplitudeof the rock uplift on the two sidesof the fault may be The deflection field at the end of a model run is shown in an
adjustedby placingmore of the slip with respectto the uplift oblique view in Figure 16. Note the small amplitudeof the
patternon one or the other side of the fault. For example,in pattern,of order 10-20 m, which is typical of all othermodel

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0.!

Figure 15. AerealviewfromSW of anexampleof a calculated exhumation pattern,with200-mcontours.That

theexhumation patternsocloselyreflectstherockupliftpattern(shownin bottomof diagramfor comparison)
impliesthegeomorphic processes areefficientenough to removealmostallmassliftedpasttheoriginalsealevel
datum.Maximumpossible exhumation in thiscaseshouldbeof theorderof 2 km for thechosenupliftpatternand
thechosenpartitioning
of sliprelativeto thebend.Thismaximum exhumation oughtto beachievedwelldownslip
fromtheupliftsource,
wherethetopography hasbeensubjectedmostextensively to geomorphicprocesses. Thisis
wheretheexhumation
androckupliftpatternsmatchmostclosely.
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,175

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0
o
-0.02

Figure 16. Obliqueview from SW of topography(100-m contours)andresultingcrustaldeflection(5-m contours)

for casein whichthe slip with respectto the bendis chosento be asymmetric,the westsideslippingat 15 km/m.y.,
the eastat 5 km/m.y. (retainingrelative slip of 20 km/m.y.). Note the high southernSantaCruz Mountainscrest
relative to that of the northernrange,and the retentionof significanttopographywell down-lip to the NW on the
westside,due to its rapid transit. The largestcrustaldeflectionis shownbeneaththemostextensivemountainsand
hasdecayedto nearzerobeneaththemostdownslipportionof the northernrange.

runs.Themajorityof thetopographicloadis beingsupported by Reminiscent

of thehistoriesof individualpointelevations(Figure
even 14), themaximumelevationgrowsmorerapidlythandoesthe
theflexuralstrengthof theelasticportionof thelithosphere,
for the chosenrelatively small elastic thicknessof 5 km. maximumexhumation.Thismaybeinterpreted assignifyingthat
Deflectionhistoriesof thesametwo pointsdepictedin Figure14 thegeomorphic
processes
drivenby thelowergradients
earlyin
are shownin Figure 17. Note that the deflectiongrowsto a the calculation time are insufficient to drive significant
geomorphic
maximum,associatedwith maximumgrowth of the range crest decay.Thetopography at thistimeis determined
overheadand subsequently largelyby therockupliftpattern.Subsequently,
decaysas the load is diminished thegrowing
anduplift has topographic
througherosion.Thusbothflexuralsubsidence gradients
forcegreaterincision rates,andexhumation
beenaccomplished,
although in this rateseventuallyoutstriprock uplift rates. The time to reach
theyareof smallamplitude
particularrange. Importantly,the timing of the reboundis maximumtopography
corresponds
to thetimenecessary
to trans-
delayedfrom that of the decayof topography at a point. The late a parcelof crustthroughthe upliftregionto thepointat
flexuralrigidityof thecrustcauses reboundto be a regionalef- whicherosion equalsuplift. Theattainment
of statistically
steady
fect. A parcelof crustmay not rebounduntil the meanload, topography, however,is roughlythetimeit takesto reachthe
averaged over a ratherlongdistancedetermined by the flexural maximumexhumation, by whichtimetheparcelof upliftedcrust
parameter, isreduced.In thiscase,it tookroughly1 m.y.beyond hasbeenbeveled byerosion.Giventhatthesimulation lastsmore
the time at which the elevationof theparcelbeganto declinefor thanthis6 m.y.,thetopography wouldlookstatistically thesame
_ rebound to be enacted. - from6 m.y.through 8 m.y.,theendof thisparticular run. The
Typicalmodelresultsnotshownalsoshowthatthemaximum hypsometry of therange,a representative
statistical
descriptionof
elevationreachesa steadystateof approximately1 km within therangeshape,is shownin Figure18 at fourdifferenttimes
about4 m.y.,whiletheexhumation to growfor another withinthecalculation.Onemay seethattherangehasreacheda
continues
._
2 m.y. beforereachinga steadyvalue of more than 2 km. statisticalsteadystateby roughly6 m.y.
20,176 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF THE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

southernrange might suggestslower translationof the eastern

crust with respectto the uplift patternassociatedwith the bend.
The corollary to this is that the southernrange should have
experienced morerockuplift thanthenorthernrange. Given the
roughlysimilarmaximumaltitudesof thenorthern(1100 m) and
-0.002 southern(900 m) ranges,the exhumationof rock in the southern
range should be greater than that of the northern range.
-0.003 Comparisonof measuredand model-predicted exhumationfields
may thereforeprovidea testof this statement.Insufficientdata
-0.004 currentlyexist. However,the exhumationratescalculatedhere
arecomparedwith the few dataderivedfrom fissiontrackcounts
-0.00 and length distributions in apatites sampled from near the
southernrangecrest;time sinceclosureat approximately100C
is estimatedto be 4 Ma [Burgmannet al., this issue]. If the
long-termgeothermalgradientis assumedto be consistentwith
-0.007 presentregionalgradientsof 25C/km, then thesedata imply
exhumation rams of order 1 km/Ma in the southern Santa Cruz
Mountains [Burgmann et al., this issue]. That this is
0 5 10 approximatelythe expectedmean thickeningrate necessaryto
accommodateconservation of mass in the bend, as assumedin the
Time (My) generation of themodel-upliftalgorithm,impliesthatthemajority
of the crustalthickeninghasbeenstrippedawayby geomorphic
Figure 17. Historyof deflection,W, of two parcelsof crust processes (i.e., rock uplift rate equalsexhumationrate), andthat
within the northernrange. Point 1, solidline labeledW1, is no significantroot shouldexist. On the otherhand,the model
presently nearMontaramountain in thenorthern SanFrancisco resultsfrom the equi-partitionedslip casedo not reproducerock
peninsula, whilepoint2, labeledW2, is a similardistance from uplift of the magnitudenecessaryto allow 4 km of exhumation
theSAF butis presently adjacentto theupliftsource(seeFigure (maximumexhumationis 2.4 km). In orderto reconcilethe two,
13 for locations).Thesecorrespond to the pointsfor whichrock oneeitherneedsto call uponanotheruplift mechanism andhence
uplift and elevationhistorieswere recordedin Figure 14. uplift patternaltogetheror to partitionlessrelativeslip ontothe
Calculated deflectionmagnitudes aresmall reflectingthesmall eastsideof the SAF (e.g.,Figure16). It is alsoprobablethatthe
scaleof the mountainrange (meanelevationabout250 m). actuallong-termupliftpatterncoulddiffer considerably fromthat
Reboundof the northernpointis forcedby geomorphic decayof I haveusedin the calculation,given the inadequacyof a simple
therangeasit translates awayfromtheupliftregion.Rebound is symmetricbendto capturetherealityof thefaultgeometry.
suppressed for about1 m.y. beyondthe time at whichthepoint Giventhesmallamplitudeof thedeflectionfield (Figure17), it
reachesits maximumelevation(compareFigure14) dueto there- would seem appropriate to ignore the flexural deflection
gionalization of theloadby theflexuralrigidity.Theflexuralpa- altogether. However,the shapeof the subtlemoat aroundthe
rmeter impliedby the choiceof elasticconstants is roughly12 mountains,in particularto theNE of thebend,is worthnoting,as
kin,meaningloadsaresignificantly felt for aboutthisdistance. the gravity field associatedwith it may representa testable
feature. Indeed, the measuredBouguergravity anomalyfield
[Chapman andBishop,1968]displays themostprominent gravity
low (-25 mGal) in this southernSan FranciscoBay arearegion,
Discussion indicatinga slightdeflectionof the densitycontrastsurfaceat
depth. In addition,the low amplitudeof thedeflection,evenfor
Discussionof the Santa Cruz Mountains Application
the chosensmall elastic thicknessof 5 km, implies that the
The hypothesisthat the Santa Cruz mountainsmay be majority of the crustalthickeningassociated with the fault bend
explained asa consequence of anupliftsource associatedwiththe goesintosurfacerockuplift.
fault bend,translationof the cruston eithersideof the fault with The rangeis simplyinsufficientin scaleto causesignificant
respect to thebend,andge0morphic attackof thetectonically flexure. This in turndisallowsthe interestingerosionalfeedback
produced rockuplift appearsto be supported.A reasonable occurring in largermountainranges,generatedby the evolution
landscape isdeveloped usingmeasurable geomorphic parameters. of relief. Nonetheless,a closer comparisonof the measured
The diffusivities used are of order thens of squaremeters per gravityfield with a model-generated gravityfield, whichcould
thousand years,in accordwithmeasured valuesof 11 m2/kyr easily be incorporated in the model algorithm,wouldprovide
another test of the model.
[Rosenbloom
andAnderson,
1994]and35m2/kyr
[McKeanet al.,
1993]. The constants
controllingthe incisionratesof channels
Discussion
of the Model Strategy
arenotgreatlydifferentfromthosethatbestfit streamchannels
crossing
theterraced fringeof thelandscape[Rosenbloomand Tectonicforcing. The tectonicforcingin thepresentmodel
Anderson,1994]. is admittedlycrudeandcan be improvedthroughthoughtful
That the modeltopography approaches the real topography applicationof recentlyemergingboundary elementtechniques.
usinga stationary upliftpatternassociated
withthebendin the Recentgeodeticevidence[e.g., Lisowskiet al., 1990] points
SanAndreasFaultsuggests thatthebendis a long-livedfeature towardvery high,short-lived,near-faultverticalmotionsthatcall
of this portionof the plate boundary. AlthoughI havenot into questionthe degreeto whichthe uplift field may be es-
explored thefull rangeof possible
partitionings
of faultsliponto timated using purely elastic models. Nonetheless,over the
the two sidesof the fault, the shorterfault-parallellengthof the severalhundredthousandyearsrepresented
by the SantaCruz
 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF TIIE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA 20,77

marineterraces,the far-field (>5 km) uplift patternmimicswell resolvethe convergenttopographyabovechannelheads,which

theexpected
uplift fromdislocations
on individualactivefault occurat sitesof landscapeinstability due to shallowlandsliding
structures [ValensiseandWard, 1991;Anderson,1990;Anderson or overlandflow processes[Montgomery and Dietrich, 1988;
andMenking,1994],implyingthatoverthesetimeintervalsthe Dietrich et al., 1992, 1993] (see also Willgooseet al. [1991]).
verticalupliftpatternmaybewellmodeled by boundary-elementThen both climate and lithologic informationis embeddedin this
andotherelasticdislocationtechniques. choiceof hillslopelength, which setsthe valuesof the stability
The scaleproblem. The modeldivergesfromtheapproaches thresholdsin the landscape.
takenby otherresearchers, all of whomevolvetopography on a Plan view drainage system. If the goal is to address a
gridded landscape. Chase[1992]demonstrates theuseof cellular specificlandscape, whosetopography,exhumation,relief, etc.,
automaton-like events(precipitons) thattransportwaterdownthe will be usedto assessthe choicesof modelparameters,one must
lineof steepest descent andmodifies thetopography accordingto adopta strategythat will allow individual drainagesto occurin
a fluvial sedimenttransport rule anda diffusivehillsloperule. their correctplaces. In the absenceof this strategy,we must
Whenoperating on crustallengthscales, thisandothermodels dependuponstatisticalrepresentations of theresultinglandscape
cannot resolve low-order drainagesor individual hillslopes. (e.g., its hypsometriccurve, averagesof river profiles, and the
Operating on a grid with cell sizeL, the hillslopediffusivity like), which althoughuseful (Figure 18) are lessrobustas tests.
becomes an effectivediffusivitythatmustbe scaledby L2 in In addition,the latter approachcalls for numerousrealizationsof
orderto be comparedwith measuredor theoreticallyderived the model topographyin order to create a statisticalbasis for
diffusivities.Beaumontet al. [1992] describea coupledtectonic- comparisonwith the actualtopography. I have takenthe former
geomorphic processmodelat the mountainrangescalethat approachand have dictated the planview drainagepattern. The
incorporates bothfluvial andhillslopeprocesses.Kooi and topographyrises above sea level with effectively no relief but
Beaumont[1994] applya similarmodelto the tectonicrifting with a drainagepatternlightly etchedinto it (adjacentcells are
environment. Theresultingtopographies areimpressive,andone "told"the directionthey are to drainin the first time step,as well
may explorefruitfullya rangeof geomorphic and tectonic as theirdrainagearea). The assumption that thisdrainagepattern
questions.They alsoadmitthatthesubgridprocesses arenot does not deform as the crust upon which it rides translates
resolved and that these are thereforetaken into accountby an throughthe bendis a severeone. In the absenceof a modelgrid
enhanced diffusivitythatmustscalewith thesquareof thegrid that can appropriately deform, this problem will remain
cell size. intractable.The majorityof the drainagepatterndeformationwill
occurwhile theparcelof crustis within the bendregionandwill
The presentmodel differs from these predecessors by
be mostradicallyalteredby any discretefault structuresthat take
incorporating a simplesubgrid analyticalsolutionforthehillslope
up obliquestrain. I expectthis problemto degradethe present
shapes,fromwhichthelocalreliefandmeanaltitudewithina
model worst to the east of the SAF, where numerous structures
grid cell are calculated.I haveshown,througha subsidiary are shown to be active.
analysisof response timesof hillslopes
to changes in thebasal
boundary conditions(channelincision),that hillslopesin this No alepositionalscheme. A further fault of the model at
environmentcanbe represented
by theirsteadystateform. The present is that there is no depositional schemein the current
esultinglocalrelief is scaledby the real (field measurable) geomorphicrole set. While this doesnot presenta problem on
diffusivity,
thehillslope lengths,
and thelocalincision rateof the the west slopesof the Santa Cruz Mountains, where almost all
channel. sedimentderivedfrom the mountainsis rapidly sweptdowncoast
Anothercostof theinabilityto resolvefirst-order
drainages is via longshoredrift and out of the system through Monterey
thatI mustassigna hillslopelengthscale.The modelcannot Canyon, this is not the caseon the east slopeof the mountains.

0.35
!

-,-,--,-
Real
I
2MyI
4MyI
6MY
I
8MYI

0.05

0 200 400 600 800 1000 'i200

Altitude (m)

Figure 18. Fractional hypsometry (areain a particular100m elevation bin/totallandarea)for themodelto-

pography shownat fourevenlyspaced intervalsup to 3 m.y. in thecalculation.The finalhypsometry is very
similarto thatat 6 m.y.,implyingthatsteadystatetopography haddeveloped withinapproximately 6 m.y. Final
hypsometry is similarto thatof thepresenttopography (dashed).Theseelevational
statisticsof a mountain
range
topography arepotentially importantin estimationof thecrustal
loadimposed byranges of variousages.
20,178 ANDERSON: EVOLUTION OF TIlE SANTA CRUZ MOUNTAINS, CALIFORNIA

This sedimentis trappedon alluvial fans on the easternflank of
the mountains,and in the San FranciscoBay, providinga record
of depositionand hence of exhumationfrom the range. This
depositmerits further attentionas a tracerof the erosionalhistory
of the range. A similar fan deposit to the eastof San Francisco
Bay has been used to great advantage on a shorter, 700 kyr,
timescaleto deduceclimatic fluctuationsin sedimentoutputfrom
the Diablo Range[Koltermanand Gorelick, 1992].
Conclusions
I have shown that the hypothesis that the Santa Cruz
Mountainsmay be attributedto uplift associated
with a long-lived
restrainingbend in the San AndreasFault remainsviable under
the closer scrutiny of this numerical model. This places
constraints on the kinematics of such a fault bend. Alternative
modelsin which the range is due solely to uplift associatedwith
transpressiveplate motions must explain the strong (but not
perfect)symmetryof the rangeaboutthe SAP bend.
Not surprisingly,the scaleof this particularmountainrangeis
insufficient to trigger significant plate flexure, which in turn
disallows the interesting feedback of uplift driven by the
geomorphic creation of topographicrelief. Nonetheless,the
model elementsare in place that would allow this feedbackto
occurgiventhe propertectonicdriving.
Following Koons [1989], I recognize the importance of
channelincision as the driving force behindthe etchingof the
topography. Channel incisioninto bedrockis at the core of the
natural evolution of mountainranges,as it is in this model. It
dictates the general pattern of relief and timing of relief
productionwithin a range,yet is a processaboutwhich we know
the least within the suite of geomorphicprocessesdiscussed.
This processmerits further scrutiny within the geomorphic
community.
Extensionsof thismodel strategycouldincludecalculationof
the expectedgravity field, which can constrainyet more tightly
the suite of appropriatemodel parameters. In addition, such
modelingeffortscouldaid in the choiceof appropriatefield sites
for sampling to document the exhumationpattern within this
specificmountainrange. The broad alluvial apronon the east
flank of the northern Santa Cruz Mountains, west of the San
FranciscoBay, representsa key sitefor derivationof a long-term
denudationchronologyof themountainrange.
Acknowledgments.This work waspartiallysupported
by the
PetroleumResearchFund of the American Chemical Society, and
by NSF (EAR 9158074).I thankMike Ellisformanystimulating
discussions
andJ. GombergandM. Ellis for sharingtheboundary
element code and discussion of initial results therefrom.
manuscript hasbenefitedgreatlyfromthepersistent
andexacting 675-679, 1992.
editingof S. P. Anderson
andfromthecriticalreviewsof S. Ellis, Dietrich, W. E., C. J. Wilson, D. R. Montgomery,and J. McKean,
D. Valentine, and G. Tucker.
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