Chapter 1.

Introduction

Outcomes:
Able to define the ceramic material
Able to qualitatively compare engineering properties of ceramics, metals, and
polymers
Able to describe several examples of engineering applications of ceramics

Key concepts:
Chemical composition of ceramics
Long-range vs. short-range atomic order
Relevant physical properties of engineering materials

1.1. A Brief History of Ceramics

Ceramics are the oldest engineering materials utilized by mankind. It is quite

likely that we are not aware of the extent to which ceramics are utilized in our daily
lives - the dishware in our kitchen, glass windows in our house, car windshields,
the floor tiles that we walk upon, the bricks and mortars making up the walls of
our houses and workplaces, various components in electronic appliances, the glass
screen in our TV set and computer monitors, and many, many more. One may not
be aware that the earth crust itself consists almost entirely of ceramic materials !
It is generally believed that the art of pottery making was developed by the
earliest civilisations in the Middle East - Northern Africa regions. Pottery ware
made from burnt clay has been discovered dating from roughly 6500 BC. Other
major archaeological discoveries related to ancient ceramics are [1,2]:
commercial-scale production of pottery ware initiated in approximately 4000 BC
commercial glass production utilizing obsidian (a naturally-formed glass) has
been established in Egypt by approximately 1500 BC
the potter's wheel (or throwing wheel) was invented in roughly 3500 BC
the Roman empire was the first civilization to establish the art of manufacturing
cement by combining burnt lime and volcanic ash (this is known as the
pozzolanic cement)
 The Venus of Dolni Vestonice - 29000-
25000 BC; the oldest known ceramic
figurine, found in 1925 in Czech
Republic; thought to be made by a clay
body fired at low temperature; predates
the use of fired clay to make pottery.

A potter's wheel

Bits of clay pottery found in Xiamen

region in southern China dating
20,000 years

A Roman empire aqueduct

constructed using the pozzolana
cement

Figure 1.1. Brief history of

ceramics

An Egyptian wall painting dating

back to ~1900 BC, depicting potter
making
The development of ceramic manufacturing technology underwent a long stagnant
period which was broken in the 18th century with the invention of the slip casting
process, auger extrusion, and tunnel kiln firing process. The discovery of steam
power in the 19th century brought about a major improvement in the
mechanization of the ceramic industry, which included the mixing, pressing, and
grinding processes. This period also saw the development of Seger pyrometric cones
for controlling the firing process, the synthesis of Silicon carbide in electric furnace,
and the invention of the Portland cement [2].

Figure 1.2. Pyrometric cones in a 3-cone setup

The 20th century saw a remarkable development in ceramic characterization

using the X-Ray diffraction and electron microscope techniques, development of
various organic additives for ceramic processing, development of computer-based
process control for ceramic manufacturing, and many other major process
breakthroughs. Various novel ceramic synthesis routes have also been developed.
Ceramic has become not only a commodity engineering / construction material,
but also a high added-value critical material for various sophisticated applications
such as microelectronics, biomedical devices, space exploration instruments, and
many more [2].

1.2. What Are Ceramics ?

A ceramic material may be defined in a variety of ways [1,3]:

a solid material composed largely of inorganic non-metallic species
an engineering material which is neither a metal nor a polymer
a material produced through the action of heat
a mixture of metal oxides
It is quite clear that none of these definitions is sufficient. A rather exhaustive
definition is outlined by Barsoum [3]:

Ceramics are materials formed by the application of heat or a combination of heat

and pressure, and are composed of at least:
1 metal + 1 non-metallic elemental solid (NMES - solids such as Si, C)
1 metal + 1 non-metal
2 NMES
 2 metals or NMES + 1 non-metal

An example of a ceramic material defined by the first group is MoSi2

(Molybdenum disilicide), which is used to construct resistive heating elements for
extremely high temperature applications. Classical examples of the second group of
ceramics are metal oxides such as MgO, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, ZrO2, etc. One of the
most commonly used example of the third group is SiC (Silicon carbide).
Applications of SiC range from abrasive material, cutting tools, to heat shields. An
important example from the last group is BaTiO3 (Barium titanate), which is used
as a dielectric material in electrical components.
The definition of ceramic materials is often limited to crystalline materials,
namely materials that have a long-range order or repetitive pattern of atoms in
their structure. This restriction excludes the vast array of amorphous ceramics,
also known as glasses. In contrast to (crystalline) ceramics, glasses exhibit only
short-range atomic order in their structure. Figure 1.1 presents the interatomic
structure of a crystalline ceramic and an amorphous ceramic. Note the different
degree of regularity in their structures. We will defer the discussion on glass
structure to Chapter 5 and focus on crystalline ceramics for the time being.

Figure 1.3. Atomic structure of crystalline vs. amorphous silica

1.3. Families of Crystalline Ceramics

The following is a number of commercially important families of ceramics.

While these are the widely used types of ceramics, the list is by no means
exhaustive.

a. Oxides
Included in this group are the oxides (MxOy), niobates (MxNbOy), zirconates
(MxZrOy), titanates (MxTiOy), and aluminates (MxAlOy). The structures of these
materials are relatively well understood. The interatomic bonding in oxide ceramics
is predominantly ionic.
b. Silicates
The silicates are the first ceramic materials discovered and engineered by human
societies. This family of ceramics is composed of silicate (SixOy) groups. Silicate
ceramics include familiar minerals such as clay, talc, and feldspar, and also
relatively simple compounds such as Sodium metasilicate (Na2SiO3). The silicates
are characterized by relatively complex crystal structures. They tend to have open
structures which enable the crystal to host a large number of ions, or even small
molecules (such as water molecules). As a result, these materials frequently exhibit
ion exchange capability and hygroscopic behavior.

c. Covalent ceramics
Covalent ceramics include carbides, nitrides, borides, silicides, and oxynitrides. As
the name implies, the interatomic bonding nature of these materials is
predominantly covalent. Compared to other families of ceramics, covalent ceramics
exhibit the highest refractoriness, hardness, and toughness. These superior
thermomechanical properties also make them the most expensive among all
ceramics.

1.4. Engineering Properties of Ceramics

As a class of engineering material, ceramics are qualitatively characterized

by high strength and hardness, low to intermediate electrical and thermal
conductivities, brittle fracture behavior, high chemical durability, and high
resistance to wear or abrasion. Table 1.1 compares these qualitative properties
against those of metals and polymers. These properties are the reason why
ceramics are frequently the material of choice for applications involving extreme
conditions - temperature, chemically aggressive environments, extreme mechanical
loading (e.g. mechanical shock from the ballistic impact of a projectile).

Table 1.1. Comparison of Qualitative Properties of Ceramics, Metals & Polymers

Ceramics Metals Polymers

Hard Ductile, malleable Relatively soft
Brittle Tough Deformable
Wear-resistant Prone to corrosion Not chemically durable
Chemically durable Reactive / not Low conductivity
Intrinsically chemically durable
transparent Shiny & opaque
Low to intermediate High conductivity
conductivity

As engineers, it is worthwhile to familiarize ourselves with order-of-

magnitude numbers in comparing the physical properties of the common
engineering materials. Table 1.2 is a numerical comparison of a number of
important engineering properties of sample ceramics, metals, and polymers [4].
Table 1.2. Comparison of Several Engineering Properties of Ceramics, Metals, &
Polymers [4]

Materials Young's Tensile Melting Thermal

modulus (GPa) strength (MPa) temperature conductivity
(K) (W/mK)
Metals:
high alloy steel 215 460-1700 1680 12-30
iron 211 200 1809 78
Polymers:
HDPE 0.55 20-37 350 (softening) 0.52
Epoxy resins 1.0 40-85 400-440 0.2-0.5
Ceramics:
Al2O3 390 3000 2323 26
SiC 410 2000 3110 84
Figure 1.4. Comparison of several mechanical properties of ceramics, metals &
polymers
1.5. Applications of Ceramics

Such is the range of application of ceramics that any attempt at compiling

all existing applications is bound to be futile. Table 1.3 presents a list of products
which utilize ceramic materials in whole or as a part of their construction. You are
encouraged to look for specific examples of ceramic materials that may be used
according to Table 1.3 (a good place to start is the reference from which the table is
cited).

Table 1.3. Products Applying Ceramic Materials [2]

Electronics:
Semiconductor substrates, chip carriers, electronic packaging, capacitors,
inductors, resistors, electrical insulation, transducers, servisors, electrodes,
igniters, motor magnets, spark plug insulators
Advanced structural materials:
Cutting tools, wear-resistant inserts, engine components, resistant coatings, dental
& orthopaedic prostheses, high-efficiency lamps
Chemical processing components:
Ion exchange media, emission control components, catalyst supports, liquid & gas
filters
Refractory structures:
Refractory lining in furnaces, thermal insulations, kiln furniture, recuperators,
regenerators, crucibles, metal-processing materials, filters, molds, heating elements
Construction materials:
Tiles, structural clay products, cement, concrete
Institutional & domestic products:
Cookware, hotel china & dinnerware, bathroom fixtures, decorative fixtures &
household items

References
1. Kingery, W.D., Bowen, H.K. and Uhlmann, D.R., Introduction to Ceramics,
Chapter 1, J. Wiley & Sons, Singapore, 1991
2. Reed, J.S., Principles of Ceramic Processing, Chapter 1, J. Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1995
3. Barsoum, M.W., Fundamentals of Ceramics, Chapter 1, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1997
4. Ashby, M.F. and Jones, D.R.H., Engineering Materials 2: An Introduction to
Microstructures, Processing & Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1998