CHAPTER1

1. INTRODUCTION

Now days electricity has become a cup of life. A moment without electricity makes your thinking go
dry. The major source of conventional form of electricity is through wires. The continuous research and
development has brought forward a major breakthrough, which provides electricity without the medium
of wires. This wonder baby is called WiTricity. There are certain small but very useful discoveries made
in history, which changed the world for ever, Newtons gravitational law, Watts steam engine,
Thomsons bulb and many more. But a renaissance occurred with the invention of Electromagnetic
Waves by Maxwell. Sir Jadish Chandra Bose successfully generated electromagnetic waves having
wavelength in the range of 5mm to 25 mm.
Thereafter an Italian scientist named Marconi succeeded in transmitting electromagnetic waves up to a
distance of several miles. And with this there started a new era called WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY.
Today, as we can see the wordwireless is common in day to day life. Wireless communication has
made the world smaller. Almost each and everything is wireless or cordless. Cordless mouse, cordless
keyboard, satellite communication, mobiles, cordless microphones and headphones, wireless internet
service i.e. WIFI, etc. And these have definitely increased the standard of living. In fact it dates back to
the 19th century, when Nikola Tesla used conduction based systems instead of resonance magnetic fields
to transfer wireless power. As it is in radioactive mode, most of the Power was wasted and has less
efficiency. Further, in 2005, Dave Gerding coined the term WiTricitywhich is being used by the MIT
researchers and todays world.
It is known that electromagnetic energy is associated with the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
Theoretically, we can use all electromagnetic waves for a wireless power transmission (WPT). The
difference between the WPT and communication systems is only efficiency. Maxwells Equations
indicate that the electromagnetic field and its power diffuse to all directions. Though we transmit energy
in a communication system, the transmitted energy is diffused to all directions. Though the received
power is enough for a transmission of information, the efficiency from the transmitter to receiver is quiet
low. Therefore, we do not call it the WPT system.
Typical WPT is a pointtopoint power transmission. For the WPT, we had better concentrate power to
receiver. It was proved that the power transmission efficiency can approach close to 100%. We can more
concentrate the transmitted microwave power to the receiver aperture areas with taper method of the
Transmitting antenna power distribution. Famous power tapers of the transmitting antenna are Gaussian
taper, Taylor distribution, and Chepachet distribution. Such taper of the transmitting antenna is
commonly used for suppression of side lobes. It corresponds to increase in the power transmission
efficiency. Concerning the power transmission efficiency of the WPT, there are some good optical
approaches in Russia.

Future suitable and largest application of the WPT via microwave is a Space Solar Power Satellite
(SPS). The SPS is a gigantic satellite designed as an electric power plant orbiting the Geostationary
Earth Orbit (GEO). It consists of mainly three segments; solar energy collector to convert the solar
energy into DC (direct current) electricity, DCtomicrowave

Converter and large antenna array to beam down the microwave power to the ground. The first solar
collector can be either photovoltaic cells or solar thermal turbine. The second DCtomicrowave converter
of the SPS can be either microwave tube system and/or semiconductor system. It may be their
combination. The third segment is a gigantic antenna array.

An amplitude taper on the transmitting antenna is adopted in order to increase the beam collection
efficiency and to decrease side lobe level in almost all SPS design. A typical amplitude taper is called 10
dB Gaussian in which the power density in the center of the transmitting antenna is ten times larger than
that on the edge of the transmitting antenna.

The SPS is expected to be operational around 2030. Before realization of the SPS, we can consider other
applications of WPT. In recent years, mobile devices advanced significantly and require decreasing
power consumption. It means that we can use the diffused weak microwave power as power source of
the mobile devices with low power consumption such as RFID. The RFID is radio ICtug with wireless
power transmission and wireless information. This is a new WPT application like broadcasting.

CHAPTER 1, TABLE 1.FEATURES OF DIFERENT WITRICITY MODEL

model Old JAXA JAXA1 model JAXA 2 model NASA DOE
model Model
Frequency 5.8 GHZ 5.8 GHZ 5.8 GHZ 2.45 GHZ
Diameter of 2.6 km 1 km 1.93 km 1 km
transmitting
Antenna
Amplitude taper 10 db 10 db 10 db 10 db
Gaussian Gaussian Gaussian Gaussian
Output power 1.3 GW 1.3 GW 1.3 GW 6.72 GW
(beamed to earth)
Maximum power 63 mW/cm2 420 mW/cm2 114 mW/cm2 2.2 W/cm2
Density at center
Minimum power 6.3 mW/cm2 42 mW/cm2 11.4 mW/cm2 0.22 mW/cm2
Density at edge
Antenna spacing 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Power per one antenna Max.0.95 W Max.0.95 W Max.0.95 W Max.0.95 W
(number of elements) (3.54 billion) (540 million) (1.950 (97 million)
million)
Rectenna diameter 2.0 km 3.4 km 2.45 km 1 km
Maximum power 180 mW/cm2 26 mW/cm2 100 mW/cm2 23 mW/cm2
density
Collection frequency 96.5 % 86 % 87 % 89 %

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
DOE U.S. Department Of Energy

CHAPTER2
2. HISTORY OF WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION

In 1864, James C. Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves by means of mathematical model. In
1884, John H. Poynting realized that the Poynting vector would play an important role in quantifying the
electromagnetic energy. In 1888, bolstered by Maxwell's theory, Heinrich Hertz succeeded in showing
experimental evidence of radio waves by his sparkgap radio transmitter. The prediction and evidence of
the radio wave in the end of 19th century was start of the wireless power transmission.

During the same period of Marchese G. Marconi and Reginald Fessenden who are pioneers of
communication via radio waves, Nicola Tesla suggested an idea of the wireless power transmission and
carried out the first WPT experiment in 1899. He said This energy will be collected all over the globe
preferably in small amounts, ranging from a fraction of one to a few horsepowers. One of its chief uses
will be the illumination of isolated homes. He actually built a gigantic coil which was connected to a
high mast of 200ft. with a 3 ft.diameter ball at its top. He fed 300 Kw power to the Tesla coil resonated
at 150 kHz. The RF potential at the top sphere reached 100 MV.
Unfortunately, he failed because the transmitted power was diffused to all directions with 150 kHz radio
waves whose wave length was 21 km.
To concentrate the transmitted power and to increase transmission efficiency, we have to use higher
frequency than that used by Tesla. In 1930s, much progress in generating highpower microwaves,
namely 110 GHz radio waves, was achieved by invention of the magnetron and the klystron. After
World War II, high power and high efficiency microwave tubes were advanced by development of radar

Technology. We can concentrate a power to receiver with microwaves. We call the wireless power
transmission with microwaves as microwave power transmission (MPT). Based on the development of
the microwave tubes during the World War II, W. C. Brown started the First MPT research and
development in 1960.First of all, he developed a retina, rectifying antenna which he named, for
receiving and rectifying microwaves. The efficiency of the first rectenna developed in 1963 was 50 % at
output 4WDC and 40% at output 7WDC, respectively
CHAPTER 2, FIG 2.1: MPT DEMONSTRATION WITH HELICOPTER BY W.C.BROWN

.With the rectenna, he succeeded in MPT experiments to wired helicopter in 1964 and to freeflied
helicopter in1968 (Fig. 1).In 1970s; he tried to increase DCRFtransmissionRFDC total efficiency with
2.45 GHz microwave. In 1970, overall DC total efficiency was only 26.5 % at 39WDC in Marshall
Space Flight Center.

CHAPTER 2,FIG 2.2: FIRST GROUND TO GROUND MPT EXPERIMENT IN 1975 AT THE
VENIUS SITE OF JPL GOLDSTONE FACILITY

In parallel, he and his team succeeded in the largest MPT demonstration in 1975 at the Venus Site of JPL
Goldstone Facility (fig 2). Distance between a transmitting parabolic antennas, whose diameter was
26m, and a rectenna array, whose size was 3.4 m x 7.2 m, was 1 mile.

After 1990s, many MPT laboratory and field experiments were carried out in the world. We often use
2.45 GHz or 5.8 GHz of the ISM band (ISM=Industry, Science, and Medical) for the MPT system. A
Canadian
Group demonstrated fuelfree airplane flight experiment with MPT in 1987 which was called SHARP
(Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform) with 2.45 GHz.

CHAPTER 2, FIG 2.3: STATIONARY HIGH ALTITUDE RELAY PLATFORM.

In USA, there were many MPT research and development projects after W. C. Brown: for instance, retro
directive microwave transmitters, rectenna, new devices and microwave circuit technologies.
In Japan, there were many field MPT experiments such as fuelfree airplane flight experiment with MPT
phased array with 2.411 GHz in 1992, groundtoground MPT experiment with Power Company and
universities in 199495.

CHAPTER 2, FIG 2.4: GROUNDTOGROUND MPT EXPERIMENT IN JAPAN IN 199495

CHAPTER 3
3. WHAT IS WITRICITY?

WiTricity is nothing but wireless electricity. Transmission of electrical energy from one object toanother
without the use of wires is called as WiTricity. WiTricity will ensure that the cell phones, laptops, iPods
and other power hungry devices get charged on their own, eliminating the need of plugging them in.
WiTricity technology is transferring electric energy or power over distance without wires. With the
basics of electricity and magnetism, and work our way up to the WiTricity technology. Even better,
because of WiTricity some of the devices won't enquire batteries to operate. No, this concept of wireless
electricity is not new. In fact it dates back to the 19th century, when Nikola Tesla used conductionbased
systems instead of resonance magnetic fields to transfer wireless power. Further,

In 2005, Dave Gerding coined the term WiTricity which is being used by the MIT researchers today.
Moreover, we all are aware of the use of electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) which is quite well
known for wireless transfer of information. In addition, lasers have also been used to transmit energy
without wires. However, radio waves are not feasible for power transmissions because the nature of the
radiation is such that it spreads across the place, resulting into a large amount of radiations being wasted.
And in the case of lasers, apart from requirement of uninterrupted line of sight (obstacles hinders the
transmission process), it is also very dangerous.WiTricity founding technical team was the first to
discover that by specially designing the magnetic resonators, one could achieve strong coupling and
highly efficient energy exchange over distances much larger than the size of the resonator coils,
distances very large compared to traditional schemes. These so called resonantly enhanced induction
techniques are used in certain Medical implants and high frequency RFIDs for example.

CHAPTER4

4. NEED OF WITRICITY
Now a days there is a Rapid development of autonomous electronics like Laptops, Cellphones,
Household robots and all those devices typically relay on chemical energy storage(Battery) As they are
becoming daily needs to present generation, Wireless energy transfer would be useful for many
applications as above and they need midrange energy.

CHAPTER 4, FIG 4.1: WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER

4.1 WITRICITY TECHNOLOGY IS DIFFERENT THAN TRADITIONAL

MAGNETIC INDUCTION
At first glance, WiTricity technology for power transfer appears to be traditional magnetic induction,
such as is used in power transformers, where conductive coils transmit power to each other wirelessly,
over very short distances. In a transformer, an electric current running in a sending coil induces another
current in a receiving coil .The two coils must be very close together, and may even overlap, but the
coils do not make direct electrical contact with each other. However, the efficiency of the power
exchange in traditional magnetic induction systems drops by orders of magnitude when the distance
between the coils becomes larger than their sizes The power exchange efficiency of some induction
systems is improved by utilizing resonant circuits.

CHAPTER5

5. RECENT TRENDS
1. ANTENNAS FOR MICROWAVE POWER TRANSMISSION
All antennas can be applied for both the MPT system and communication systems, for example,
YagiUda antenna, horn antenna, parabolic antenna, micro strip antenna, phased array antenna or any
other type of antenna.

To fixed target of the MPT system, we usually select a large parabolic antenna, for example, in MPT
demonstration in 1975 at the Venus Site of JPL Goldstone Facility and in groundtoground MPT
experiment in 199495 in Japan. In the fuelfree airship light experiment with MPT in 1995 in Japan, they
changed a direction of the parabolic antenna to chase the moving airship.

However, we have to use a phased array antenna for the MPT from/to moving transmitter/receiver which
include the SPS because we have to control a microwave beam direction accurately and speedily. The
phased array is a directive antenna which generates a beam form whose shape and direction by the
relative phases and amplitudes of the waves at the individual antenna elements.

It is possible to steer the direction of the microwave beam. The antenna elements might be dipoles, slot
antennas, or any other type of antenna, even parabolic antennas. In some MPT experiments in Japan, the
phased array antenna was adopted to steer a direction of the microwave beam (Fig.5).
All SPS is designed with the phased array antenna.

2. RECENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR TRANSMITTERS

The technology employed for generation of microwaveRadiation is an important subject for the MPT
system. We need higher efficient generator/amplifier for the MPT system than that for the wireless
communication system. For highly efficient beam collection on rectenna array, we need highly stabilized
and accurate phase and amplitude of microwaves for phased array system for the MPT.There are two
types of microwave generators/amplifiers. One is a microwave tube and the other is semiconductor
amplifier
CHAPTER 5,FIG 5.1: PHASED ARRAY USED IN JAPANESE FIELD MPT EXPERIMENT

3. MAGNETRON

Magnetron is a crossed field tube in which electrons emitted from the cathode takecyclical path to the
anode. The magnetron is self-oscillatory device in which the anode contains a resonant RF structure. The
magnetron has long history from invention by A. W. Hull in 1921.

The practical and efficient magnetron tube attracted worldwide interest only after K. Okabe proposed
divided anodetype magnetron in 1928. Magnetron technologies received a boost during the World War
II, especially with the Japanese Army. The magnetrons were also useful for microwave ovens. As a
result, the magnetron of 500 1,000 W is widely in use for microwave ovens in 2.45 GHz, and is a
relatively inexpensive oscillator (below $5). There is a net global capacity of 45.5GW/year for all
magnetrons used in microwave ovens whose production is 50 55 millions. It was W. C. Brown who
invented a voltage controlled oscillator with a cookertype magnetron in PLL.

4. SEMICONDUCTOR AMPLIFIER

After 1980s, semiconductor devices became dominant in microwave world instead of the microwave
tubes. This was driven by advances in mobile phone networks. The semiconductor device is expected to

Expand microwave applications, for example, phased array and active integrated antenna (AIA),
because of its manageability and mass productivity. After 1990s, some MPTexperiments were carried
out in Japan with phased array of semiconductor amplifiers.

Typical semiconductor devices for microwave circuits are FET (Field Effect Transistor), HBT (Hetero
junction Bipolar Transistor), and HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor). Present materials for the
semiconductor devices are Si for lower frequency below a few GHz and GaAs for higher frequency.. It
is easy to control phase and amplitude through the microwave circuits with semiconductor devices, for
example, amplifiers, phase shifters, modulators, and so on.

Currently, new materials are under development to enable semiconductor devices yield increased output
power and efficiency.
 CHAPTER 5,FIG 5.2: COMPACT MICROWAVE ENERGY TRANSMITTER WITH
THE PCM (COMET)

The COMET includes DC/Converters, a control circuit of the phase controlled magnetron with 5.8 GHz,
a heat radiation Circuit, a wave guide, and an antenna.

The powerweight ratio of the COMET is lightest weight in all microwave generators and amplifiers.
TWTA for satellite use has lighter power weight ratio: 220Wat 2.45GHz at 2.65 kg (the TWTA weighs
1.5kg, the power supply weighs 1.15kg). 130W at 5.8 GHz at 2.15 kg (the TWTA weighs 0.8kg, the
power supply weighs 1.35kg). Hence, they can deliver12g/W and 16.5g/W, respectively. They do not
include a heat radiation circuit, a wave guide, and an antenna.

5. RECENT TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS

5.5.1 RETRO DIRECTIVE BEAM CONTROL

A microwave power transmission is suitable for a power transmission from/to moving

transmitters/targets. Therefore, accurate target detection and high efficient beam forming are important.
Retro directive system is always used for SPS.

A corner reflector is most basic retro directive system. The corner reflectors consist of perpendicular
metal sheets, which meet at an apex. Incoming signals are reflected back in the direction of arrival
through multiple reflections off the wall of the reflector. Van Atta array is also a basic technique of the
retro directive system. This array is made up of pairs of antennas spaced equidistant from the center of
the array, and connected with equal length transmission lines. The signal received by an antenna is
reradiated by its pair, thus the order of reradiating elements are inverted with respect to the center of the
array, achieving the proper phasing for retro directivity.
Usual retro directive system have phase conjugate circuits in each receiving/transmitting antenna, which
play same role as pairs of antennas spaced equidistant from the center of the array in Van Atta array.
The signal is called a pilot signal. We do not need any phase shifters for beam forming. The
retrodirective system is usually used for satellite communication, wireless LAN, military, and so on.

5.5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

One of the characteristics of the MPT is to use more intense microwave than that in wireless
communication systems. Therefore, we have to consider MPT safety for humans.

5.5.3 INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE

In general, effect of atmosphere on microwaves is quite small. There are absorption and scatter by air,
rain, and irregularity of air refraction ratio. In 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz, the absorption by water vapor and
oxygen Dominate the effect in the air. Especially, it is enough to consider only absorption by the oxygen
in the microwave frequency. It is approximately 0.007 dB/km. In the SPS case, the amount of total
absorption through the air from space is approximately 0.035 dB

5.5.4 INTERACTION WITH SPACE PLASMAS

When microwaves from SPS propagate through ionospheric plasmas, some interaction between
microwaves and the ionospheric plasmas occurs. It is well known that refraction, Faraday rotation,
scintillation, and absorption occur between weak microwave used for satellite communication and the
plasmas. However, influence on the MPT system is negligible. It is nonlinear interaction between
intense microwave and the space plasmas that we have to investigate before the commercial SPS. We
theoretically predict that the following may occur: heating of the plasmas, plasma hall effect, thermal
self-focusing effect of the microwave beam, and threewave interactions and excitation of electrostatic
waves in MHz bands. These interactions dont not occur in existent satellite communication systems
because microwave power is very weak.

6. RECENT TRENDS: WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION

RECEIVERS AND RECTIFIERS
Pointtopoint MPT system needs a large receiving area with a rectenna array because one rectenna
element receives and creates only a few W. Especially for the SPS, we need a huge rectenna site and a
power network connected to the existing power networks on the ground. On contrary, there are some
MPT applications with one small rectenna element such as RFID.

5.6.1 RECENT TECHNOLOGIES OF RECTENNA

The word rectenna is composed of rectifying circuit and antenna. The rectenna can receive and
rectify a microwave power to DC. The rectenna is passive element with a rectifying diode, operated
without any power source. The circuit, especially diode, mainly determines the RFDC conversion
efficiency. Silicon Scotty barrier diodes were usually used for earlier rectenna. New devices like SiC and
GaN are expected to increase the efficiency. The rectenna with FET or HEMT appeared recently. The
single shunt fullwave rectifier is always used for the rectenna. It consists of a diode inserted in the
circuit in parallel, a /4 distributed line, and a capacitor inserted in parallel. In an ideal situation, 100%
of the received microwave power should be converted into DC power.

5.6.2 RECENT TECHNOLOGIES OF RECTENNA ARRAY

The rectenna will be used as an array for high power MPT because one rectenna element rectifies a few
W only.

For usual phased array antenna, mutual coupling and phase distribution are problems to solve. For the
rectenna array, problem is different from that of the array antenna because the rectenna array is
connected not in microwave phase but in DC phase. When we connect two rectenna in series or in
parallel, they will not operate at their optimum power output and their combined power output will be
less than that if operated independently. This is theoretical prediction.

7. EFFICIENCY

We classify the MPT efficiency roughly into three stages; DCRF conversion efficiency which includes
losses caused by beam forming, beam collection efficiency which means ratio of all radiated power to
collected power on a receiving antenna, and RFDC conversion efficiency.

5.7.1 RFDC CONVERSION EFFICIENCY

The RFDC conversion efficiency of the rectenna or the CWC is over 80 % of experimental results as
shown. Decline of the efficiency is caused by array connection loss, change of optimum operation point
of the rectenna array caused by change of connected load, trouble of the rectenna, and any losses on the
systems, for example, DC/AC conversion, cables, etc. However, it is easier to realize higher efficiency
than that on the other two

5.7.2 BEAM COLLECTION EFFICIENCY

The beam collection efficiency depends on the transmitter and receiver aperture areas, the wavelength,
and the separation distance between the two antennas.

CHAPTER 5, FIG 5.7: EFFICIENCY OF RECTENNA ELEMENT

CHAPTER6

6. THE BASIC IDEA OF TRANSFORMING ELECTRICITY TO WITRICITY

6.1 ELECTRICITY
The flow of electrons (current) through a conductor (like a wire), or charges through the atmosphere
(like lightning). A convenient way for energy to get from one place to another!
 CHAPTER 6, FIG 6.1: AN ILLUSTRATION REPRESENTING THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC
FIELD
6.2 MAGNETISM

A fundamental force of nature, which causes certain types of materials to attract or repel each other.
Permanent magnets, like the ones on your refrigerator and the earths magnetic field, are examples of
objects having constant magnetic fields.

Oscillating magnetic fields vary with time, and can be generated by alternating current (AC) flowing on
a wire. The strength, direction, and extent of magnetic fields are often represented and visualized by
drawings of the magnetic field lines.

6.3 ELECTROMAGNETISM

A term for the interdependence of timevarying electric and magnetic fields. For example, it turns out that
an oscillating magnetic field produces an electric field and an oscillating electric field produces a
magnetic field.
 CHAPTER 6,FIG 6.2: FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETIC FIELD

CHAPTER 6, FIG 6.3: THE BLUE LINES REPRESENT THE MAGNETIC FIELD THAT IS
CREATED WHEN CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH A COIL.

As electric current, I, flows in a wire, it gives rise to a magnetic field, B, which wraps around the wire.
When the current reverses direction, the magnetic field also reverses its direction.

6.4 MAGNETIC INDUCTION

A loop or coil of conductive material like copper, carrying an alternating current (AC), is a

Very efficient structure for generating or capturing a magnetic field. If a conductive loop is connected to
an AC power source, it will generate an oscillating magnetic field in the vicinity of the loop. A second
conducting loop, brought close enough to the first, may capture some portion of that oscillating
magnetic field, which in turn, generates or induces an electric current in the second coil. The current
generated in the second coil may be used to power devices. This type of electrical power transfer from
one loop or coil to another is well known and referred to as magnetic induction. Some common
examples of devices based on magnetic induction are electric transformers and electric generators.
6.5 ENERGY/POWER COUPLING

CHAPTER 6,FIG 6.4: MAGNETIC INDUCTION

An electric transformer is a device that uses magnetic induction to transfer energy from its primary
winding to its secondary winding, without the windings being connected to each other. It is used to
transform AC current at one voltage to AC current at a different voltage. Energy coupling occurs when
an energy source has a means of transferring energy to another object. One simple example is a
locomotive pulling a train carthe mechanical coupling between the two enables the locomotive to pull
the train, and overcome the forces of friction and inertia that keep the train stilland, the train moves.
Magnetic coupling occurs when the magnetic field of one object interacts with a second object and
induces an electric current in or on that object. In this way, electric energy can be transferred from a
power source to a powered device. In contrast to the example of mechanical coupling given for the train,
magnetic coupling does not require any physical contact between the object generating the energy and
the object receiving or capturing that energy.

6.6 WITRICITY TECHNOLOGY

Witricity power sources and capture devices are specially designed magnetic resonators that efficiently
transfer power over large distances via the magnetic nearfield. These proprietary source and device
designs and the electronic systems that control them support efficient energy transfer over distances that
are many times the size of the sources/devices themselves.
 CHAPTER 6, FIG 6.5: WITRICITY POWER SOURCE

The WiTricity power source, left, is connected to AC power. The blue lines represent the magnetic near
field induced by the power source. The yellow lines represent the flow of energy from the source to the
WiTricity capture coil, which is shown powering a light bulb. Note that this diagram also shows how the
magnetic field (blue lines) can wrap around a conductive obstacle between the power source and the
capture device.

CHAPTER7
7. PRINCIPLE & EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
7.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE

WiTricityis nothing but the short name of WirelessElectricity. The basic concept behind this is Magnetic
Resonance. Two resonant objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently,
while dissipating relatively little energy in extraneous offresonant objects. In systems of coupled
resonances, there is often a general StronglyCoupledregime of operation. If one can operate in that
regime in a given system, the energy transfer is expected to be very efficient. Midrange power

Transfer implemented in this way can be nearly Omni directional and efficient, irrespective of the
geometry of the surrounding space, with low interference and losses into environmental objects. The
above considerations apply irrespective of the physical nature of the resonances. Magnetic resonances
are particularly suitable for everyday applications because most of the common materials do not interact
with Magnetic Fields, so interactions with Environmental objects are suppressed even further. We were
able to identify the strongly coupled regime in the system of two coupled magnetic resonances by
exploring Nonradiative (nearfield) magnetic resonant induction at Megahertz frequencies.

7.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Experimental scheme consists of two Selfresonant coils. One coil (source coil) is coupled inductively to
an oscillating circuit; the other (device coil) is coupled inductively to a resistive load. Self-resonant coils
rely on the interplay between distributed inductance and distributed capacitance to achieve resonance.
The coils are made of an electrically conducting wire of total length land crosssectional radius a, wound
into a helix of nturns, radius r, and height h. There is no exact solution for a finite helix in the
literature, and even in the case of infinitely long coils, the solutions rely on assumptions that are
inadequate for this system. So here the method implemented is simple quasistatic model to find the
parameters. Those are in Electro Magnetic equations.

0 j j
(r ) (r ' )
2 r r'
L= d d
4 |I 0| |rr '| ................... (1)

1 1 ( r ) (r ')
2
= d ( r ) d (r ' )
C 4 0|q 0| |rr '| (2)

CHAPTER 7,FIG 7.0: ENERGY TRANSFER BY COIL REPRESENTATION

7.3 RANGE AND RATE OF COUPLING

The range and rate of the proposed wireless energytransfer scheme are the first subjects of examination,
without considering yet energy drainage from the system for use into work. An appropriate analytical
framework for modeling this resonant energyexchange is that of the well-known CoupledMode Theory
(CMT) .Here, the field of the system of two resonant objects 1 and 2 is approximated by F(r, t) =a1 (t)
F1(r)+a2 (t) F2(r), here F1, 2(r) are the modes of 1 and 2 alone, and then the field amplitudes a 1 (t) and a2
(t). The lower order representation of the system is given by:

d ( a1 )
=i ( 1i 1 ) a 1+ik a2 (1)
d (t )

d ( a2 )
=i ( 2i 2) a 2+ik a1 (2)
d (t )

Where 1, 2 are the individual frequencies, 1, 2 are the Resonance widths (Decay rates) due to the objects
intrinsic (absorption, radiation etc.) losses, and is the coupling coefficient. The above equation show
that at exact resonance (1=2 and 1=2), the normal modes of the combined system are split by 2.
The energy exchange between the two objects takes place in time Pi/ and is nearly perfect, apart for
losses, which are minimal when the coupling rate is much faster than all loss rates (>> 1, 2). It is
exactly this ratio { /sqrt (1, 2)} shows that, it will set as figureofmerit for any system under
consideration for wireless energytransfer, along with the distance over which this ratio can be achieved.
The desired optimal regime {/sqrt (1, 2)>>1} is called StrongCoupling regime. There is No change in
Energy, up to />>1 is true. Consequently, this energytransfer application requires resonant modes of
High Quality factor, Q=/2 for low (slow) intrinsicloss rates , so we used here the nonlossy near field.
Furthermore, strong (fast) coupling rate is required over distances larger than the characteristic sizes of
the objects, and therefore,

since the extent of the nearfield into the air surrounding a finitesized resonant object is set typically by
the wavelength, this mid-range nonradiative coupling can only be achieved using resonant objects of
Subwavelength size.
Such subwavelength (/r) resonances can often be accompanied with a high radiationQ, so this will
typically be the appropriate choice for the possiblymobile resonant deviceobject.

7.4 PARAMETERS FOR DESIGNING AND SIMULATION

The coupled mode theory plays a vital role in solving the lower order equations of the system. Using
perturbation technique of x(t)=A cos( 0t)+ B sin( 0t) The solution of this equation is by including
decay rate due to loss 0 is X(t)=C exp(I 0t)exp(t/ 0) By considering all energy inputs and outputs we
can conclude that at resonance condition decay loss by source and device is = /2Q. The ratio / is
proportional to the Quality factor i.e. proportional to the power developed and inversely proportional to
decay rate due to loss. so if / is high the power output is high. The simulation process is going on in
the above way such that to prove in strongly coupled mode at subwavelength (/r) resonances by
considering the following process.

Consider two loops at distance D between their centers, radius r1 and r2 of conducting wire with circular
crosssection of radius aand diameter d.via a dielectric of relative permittivity and everything
surrounded by air. To calculate the RLCparameters used the method called FiniteElement
FrequencyDomain (FEFD) simulations (for Maxwells equations solving purpose). The wire has
inductance L, the plates have capacitance C and then the system has a resonant mode, where the nature
of the resonance lies in the periodic exchange of energy from the electric field inside the capacitor, due
to the voltage across it and due to the current in the wire. The energy released is Magnetic energy.
Losses in this resonant system consist of ohmic loss, Rabs inside the wire and radiative loss, Rrad into
free space. 0, 0 are the magnetic permeability, electric permittivity and impedance of free space and
is the conductivity of the conductor. By the calculations of FEFD, we found = M/2*sqrt(L1L2)
L=0r[ln(8r/a)] C=0a/D =sqrt(0/ 0) where M is the mutual inductance of the two loops and it is
dependent on r1, r2,D. M={(Pi/2)* 0* ( r1r2)^2}/D^3 Rabs {(Pi/6) r/a} Rrad{(Pi/6) r/ }
QabsL/ Rabs Qrad L/ Rrad And taking copper wires so that it is having =10 other considerations
in COMSOL software and Acoustics Module Tool, designed the system as

7.5 RESONANT MAGNETIC COUPLING

Magnetic coupling occurs when two objects exchange energy through their varying or oscillating
magnetic fields.
 CHAPTER 7, FIG 7.1: ENERGY EXCHANGE

7.6SIMULATION MODEL USING RESONANT MAGNETIC COUPLING

Two idealized resonant magnetic coils, shown in yellow. The blue and red color bands illustrate their
magnetic fields. The coupling of their respective magnetic fields is indicated by the connection of the
color bands. Simulation Performance:The results and performance given with and Without the
External object in between the coils.

CHAPTER 7,FIG 7.2: ENERGY EXCHANGE (WITH EXTERNAL OBJECT)

CHAPTER 7,FIG 7.3: ENERGY EXCHANGE (WITHOUT EXTERNAL OBJECT)

 CHAPTER 7,FIG 7.4: RESULTS WITHOUT EXTRANEOUS OBJECTSI

If we include a man having muscles of electric permittivity =49+16i so that observed the results that
only decay is somewhat raised but got the required / ratio.

CHAPTER 7, FIG 7.5: RESULTS WITH EXTRANEOUS OBJECTSI

CHAPTER8

8. PERFORMANCE OF DESIGN

8.1 ADVANTAGES OF DESIGN

There are so many advantages with this Witricity concept, some of those are:

a) Unaffected by the day night cycle, weather or seasons.

b) This is an ecofriendly.
c) It is a boon for the devices which use midrange power.
8.2 LIMITATIONS OF DESIGN

a) The resonance condition should be satisfied, if any medium error is there possibility of power
transfer.
b) If there is any possibility of Very Strong ferromagnetic material presence, then there may be a
possibility of low power transfer due to radiation.

8.3 PARAMETRIC CONCLUSIONS FOR DESIGN

Wireless Electricity concept is a boon for devices which uses midrange energy. The Power transfer is
explained with the help of Magnetic resonance and Coupled mode theory. By the above paper we can
concludes the below points.

a) The optimal regime of efficient power transfer is strongly coupled regime.

b) High / ratio gives high power output. If no change in / ration no chance in power transfer.
c) Designed the parameters with FEFD method and simulated for the / ratio changes with and
without the external objects and concluded that there is no large variation in / ratio.

CHAPTER9

FEATURES AND BENEFITS

9.1 BENEFITS: WITRICITY TECHNOLOGY WILL MAKE YOUR PRODUCTS

a) More convenient
a) No manual recharging or changing batteries.
b) Eliminate unsightly, unwieldy and costly power cords.
9.2 MORE RELIABLE

a) Never run out of battery power.

b) Reduce product failure rates by fixing the weakest link: flexing wiring and mechanical
interconnects.
9.3 MORE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY

a) Reduce use of disposable batteries.

b) Use efficient electric gridpower directly instead of inefficient battery charging.

9.4FEATURES: HIGHLY RESONANT STRONG COUPLING PROVIDES HIGH EFFICIENCY

OVER DISTANCE

WiTricity mode of wireless power transfer is highly efficient over distances ranging from centimeters to
several meters. Efficiency may be defined as the amount of usable electrical energy that is available to
the device being powered, divided by the amount of energy that is drawn by the WiTricity source. In
many applications, efficiency can exceed 90%. And WiTricity sources only transfer energy when it is
needed. When a WiTricity powered device no longer needs to capture additional energy, the WiTricity
power source will automatically reduce its power consumption to a power saving idlestate.

9.5ENERGYTRANSFER VIA MAGNETIC NEAR FIELD CAN PENETRATE AND WRAP

AROUND OBSTACLES

The magnetic near field has several properties that make it an excellent means of transferring energy in a
typical consumer, commercial, or industrial environment. Most common building and furnishing

Materials, such as wood, gypsum wall board, plastics, textiles, glass, brick, and concrete are essentially
transparent to magnetic fieldsenabling WiTricityTechnology to efficiently transfer power through them.
In addition, the magnetic near field has the ability to wraparoundmany metallic obstacles that might
otherwise block the magnetic fields.

WiTricity applications engineering team will work with you to address the materials and environmental
factors that may influence wireless energy transfer in your application.
 CHAPTER10
10.1 APPLICATIONS

WiTricity wireless power transfer technology can be applied in a wide variety of applications and
environments. The ability of our technology to transfer power safely, efficiently, and over distance can
improve products by making them more convenient, reliable, and environmentally friendly. WiTricity
technology can be used to provide:

10.1.1 AUTOMATIC WIRELESS POWER CHARGING

When all the power a device needs is provided wirelessly, and no batteries are required. This mode is for
a device that is always used within range of its WiTricity power source. When a device with
rechargeable batteries charges itself while still in use or at rest, without requiring a power cord or battery
replacement. This mode is for a mobile device that may be used both in and out of range of its WiTricity
power source.

10.1.2 CONSUMER ELECTRONICS

Automatic wireless charging of mobile electronics (phones, laptops, game controllers, etc.) in home, car,
office, WiFi hotspots while devices are in use and mobile.
Direct wireless powering of stationary devices (flat screen TVs, digital picture frames, home theater
accessories, wireless loud speakers, etc.) eliminating expensive custom wiring, unsightly cables and
wall wartpower supplies.

Direct wireless powering of desktop PC peripherals: wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, speakers,
display, etc eliminating disposable batteries and awkward cabling.

10.1.3 INDUSTRIAL

Direct wireless power and communication interconnections across rotating and moving joints (robots,
packaging machinery, assembly machinery, machine tools) eliminating costly and failureprone
wiring. Direct wireless power and communication interconnections at points of use in harsh
environments (drilling, mining, underwater, etc.) where it is impractical or impossible to run wires.
Direct wireless

Power for wireless sensors and actuators, eliminating the need for expensive power wiring or battery
replacement and disposal.

10.1.4 TRANSPORTATION

Automatic wireless charging for existing electric vehicle classes: golf carts, industrial vehicles.
Automatic wireless charging for future hybrid and allelectric passenger and commercial vehicles, at
home, in parking garages, at fleet depots, and at remote kiosks.

Direct wireless power interconnections to replace costly vehicle wiring harnesses and slip rings.

10.2 OTHER APPLICATIONS

a) Direct wireless power interconnections and automatic wireless charging for implantable medical
devices (ventricular assist devices, pacemaker, defibrillator, etc.).

b) Automatic wireless charging and for high tech military systems (battery powered mobile devices,
covert sensors, unmanned mobile robots and aircraft, etc.).

c) Direct wireless powering and automatic wireless charging of smart cards.

d) Direct wireless powering and automatic wireless charging of consumer appliances, mobile
robots, etc.
 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a single specific
task. An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control
system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.

An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end embedded
& lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit Controllers used
with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower end embedded systems -
Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems and hardware layout designed
for the specific purpose. Examples Small controllers and devices in our everyday life like Washing
Machine, Microwave Ovens, where they are embedded in.
SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

Build
Operating
Digital Integrated Download
Systems circuit
Electronic design designDebug
Analog Tools
Electronic design Computer
Embedded Architecture
Sensors and Systems
measurements Software
Engineering
Electric motors
and actuatorsControl Data
Engineering
Communication

Embedded system design calls on many disciplines

Sys Har
2.1.1 EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLESys
tem dwa tem
Defi re- Tes
niti Rapid
in- ting
on Proto
the-
typin
Loo
g Targe
p
ting Tes
ting

V Diagram
 In this place we need to discuss the role of simulation software, real-time systems and data
acquisition in dynamic test applications. Traditional testing is referred to as static testing where
functionality of components is tested by providing known inputs and measuring outputs. Today there is
more pressure to get products to market faster and reduce design cycle times.
This has led to a need for dynamic testing where components are tested while in use with the entire
system either real or simulated. Because of cost and safety concerns, simulating the rest of the system
with real-time hardware is preferred to testing components in the actual real system.

The diagram shown on this slide is the V Diagram that is often used to describe the
development cycle. Originally developed to encapsulate the design process of software applications,
many different versions of this diagram can be found to describe different product design cycles. Here
we have shown one example of such a diagram representing the design cycle of embedded control
applications common to automotive, aerospace and defense applications.

In this diagram the general progression in time of the development stages is shown from left to
right. Note however that this is often an iterative process and the actual development will not proceed
linearly through these steps. The goal of rapid development is to make this cycle as efficient as possible
by minimizing the iterations required for a design. If the x-axis of the diagram is thought of as time, the
goal is to narrow the V as much as possible and thereby reduce development time.

The y-axis of this diagram can be thought of as the level at which the system components are
considered. Early on in the development, the requirements of the overall system must be considered. As
the system is divided into sub-systems and components, the process becomes very low-level down to the
point of loading code onto individual processors. Afterwards components are integrated and tested
together until such time that the entire system can enter final production testing. Therefore the top of the
diagram represents the high-level system view and the bottom of the diagram represents a very low-level
view.

Notes:
V diagram describes lots of applicationsderived from software development.
Reason for shape, every phase of design requires a complimentary test phase. High-level to low-
level view of application.
This is a simplified version.
Loop Back/Iterative process, X-axis is time (sum up).

2.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a computer.
 There will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in
addition to those we encounter when we write applications

Throughput Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of time.
ResponseOur system may need to react to events quickly
TestabilitySetting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult
DebugabilityWithout a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is doing
wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem
Reliability embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without human
intervention
Memory space Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make the
software and the data fit into whatever memory exists
Program installation you will need special tools to get your software into embedded
systems
Power consumption Portable systems must run on battery power, and the software in
these systems must conserve power
Processor hogs computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can complicate the
response problem
Cost Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system
projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.
Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a serial
port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk drives.
2.2 APPLICATIONS
1. MILITARY AND AEROSPACE EMBEDDED SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

2. COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS

3. INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION AND PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE

2.3 CLASSIFICATION

1. Real Time Systems.

2. RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.
3. A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer
2.3.1 RTS CLASSIFICATION

1. Hard Real Time Systems

2. Soft Real Time System
2.3.1.1 HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM

"Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.

Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.

2.3.1.2 SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM

"Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still

must operate very quickly and repeatable.
Example: Railway reservation system takes a few extra seconds the
data remains valid.

LANGUAGES USED

C
C++
Java
Linux
Ada
Assembly
 CHAPTER 3
SERIAL COMMUNICATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Serial communication is basically the transmission or reception of data one bit at a time. Today's
computers generally address data in bytes or some multiple thereof. A byte contains 8 bits. A bit is
basically either a logical 1 or zero. Every character on this page is actually expressed internally as one
byte. The serial port is used to convert each byte to a stream of ones and zeroes as well as to convert a
stream of ones and zeroes to bytes. The serial port contains a electronic chip called a Universal
Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) that actually does the conversion.

The serial port has many pins. We will discuss the transmit and receive pin first. Electrically
speaking, whenever the serial port sends a logical one (1) a negative voltage is effected on the transmit
pin. Whenever the serial port sends a logical zero (0) a positive voltage is affected. When no data is
being sent, the serial port's transmit pin's voltage is negative (1) and is said to be in a MARK state. Note
that the serial port can also be forced to keep the transmit pin at a positive voltage (0) and is said to be
the SPACE or BREAK state. (The terms MARK and SPACE are also used to simply denote a negative
voltage (1) or a positive voltage (0) at the transmit pin respectively).

When transmitting a byte, the UART (serial port) first sends a START BIT which is a positive
voltage (0), followed by the data (general 8 bits, but could be 5, 6, 7, or 8 bits) followed by one or two
STOP Bits which is a negative(l) voltage. The sequence is repeated for each byte sent. Figure shows a
diagram of what a byte transmission would look like.

Fig 3.1 Byte Transmission

At this point you may want to know what the duration of a bit is. In other words, how long does the
signal stay in a particular state to define a bit. The answer is simple. It is dependent on the baud rate. The
baud rate is the number of times the signal can switch states in one second. Therefore, if the line is
operating at 9600 baud, the line can switch states 9,600 times per second. This means each bit has the
duration of 1 '9600 of a second or about 100sec.

When transmitting a character there are other characteristics other than the baud rate that must be
known or that must be setup. These characteristics define the entire interpretation of the data stream.

The first characteristic is the length of the byte that will be transmitted. This length in general
can be anywhere from 5 to 8 bits.

The second characteristic is parity. The parity characteristic can be even, odd, mark, space, or
none. If even parity, then the last data bit transmitted will be a logical 1 if the data transmitted had an
even amount of 0 bits. If odd parity, then the last data bit transmitted will be a logical 1 if the data
transmitted had an odd amount of 0 bits. If MARK parity, then the last transmitted data bit will always
be a logical 1. If SPACE parity, then the last transmitted data bit will always be a logical 0. If no parity
then there is no parity bit transmitted.

The third characteristic is the amount of stop bits. This value in general is 1 or 2. Assume we
want to send the letter A' over the serial port. The binary representation of the letter 'A' is 01000001.
Remembering that bits are transmitted from least significant bit (LSB) to most significant bit (MSB), the
bit stream transmitted would be as follows for the line characteristics 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit and
9600 baud. LSB (0100009101) MSB.

The above represents (Start Bit) (Data Bits) (Stop Bit). To calculate the actual byte transfer rate
simply divide the baud rate by the number of bits that must be transferred for each byte of data. In the
case of the above example, each character requires 10 bits to be transmitted for each character. As such,
at 9600 baud, up to 960 bytes can be transferred in one second.

The above discussion was concerned with the "electrical/logical" characteristics of the data
stream. We will expand the discussion to line protocol.
Serial communication can be half duplex or full duplex. Full duplex communication means that a
device can receive and transmit data at the same time. Half duplex means that the device cannot send
and receive at the same time. It can do them both, but not at the same time. Half duplex communication
is all but outdated except for a very small focused set of applications.

Half duplex serial communication needs at a minimum two wires, signal ground and the data
line. Full duplex serial communication needs at a minimum three wires, signal ground, transmit data
line, and receive data line. The RS232 specification governs the physical and electrical characteristics of
serial communications. This specification defines several additional signals that are asserted (set to
logical 1) for information and control beyond the data signal.

These signals are the Carrier Detect Signal (CD), asserted by modems to signal a successful
connection to another modem, Ring Indicator (RI), asserted by modems to signal the phone ringing.
Data Set Ready (DSR), asserted by modems to show their presence, Clear To Send (CTS), asserted by
modems if they can receive data, Data Terminal Ready (DTR), asserted by terminals to show their
presence, Request To Send (RTS), asserted by terminals if they can receive data. The section R.S232
Cabling describes these signals and how they are connected.

The above paragraph alluded to hardware flow control. Hardware flow control is
a method that two connected devices use to tell each other electronically when to send or
when not to send data. A modem in general drops (logical 0) its CTS line when it can no
longer receive characters. It re-asserts it when it can receive again. A terminal does the
same thing instead with the RTS signal. Another method of hardware flow control in
practice is to perform the same procedure in the previous paragraph except that the DSR
and DTR signals are used for the handshake.

Note that hardware flow control requires the use of additional wires. The benefit to this however
is crisp and reliable flow control. Another method of flow control used is known as software flow
control. This method requires a simple 3 wire serial communication link, transmit data, receive data, and
signal ground. If using this method, when a device can no longer receive, it will transmit a character that
the two devices agreed on. This character is known as the XOFF character.
 CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

3.1 MICROCONTROLLER
Introduction to microcontroller:
A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the processor core
(CPU), some memory, and I/O (input/output) lines, all on one chip. The computer-on-a-chip is called the
microcomputer whose proper meaning is a computer using a (number of) microprocessor(s) as its CPUs,
while the concept of the microcomputer is known to be a microcontroller. A microcontroller can be
viewed as a set of digital logic circuits integrated on a single silicon chip. This chip is used for only
specific applications.

Most microcontrollers do not require a substantial amount of time to learn how to efficiently
program them, although many of them, which have quirks, which you will have to understand before
you, attempt to develop your first application.
 Along with microcontrollers getting faster, smaller and more power efficient they are also getting
more and more features. Often, the first version of microcontroller will just have memory and digital
I/O, but as the device family matures, more and more pat numbers with varying features will be
available.

In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. For most applications, we will be able to
find a device within the family that meets our specifications with a minimum of external devices, or an
external but which will make attaching external devices easier, both in terms of wiring and
programming.

For many microcontrollers, programmers can built very cheaply, or even built in to the final
application circuit eliminating the need for a separate circuit. Also simplifying this requirement is the
availability of micro-controllers wit SRAM and EEPROM for control store, which will allow program
development without having to remove the micro controller fro the application circuit.

3.2 PIC MICROCONTROLLER CORE FEATURES:

High-performance RISC CPU.

Only 35 single word instructions to learn.
All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle.
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle.
Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory
(RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory.
Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77
Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources)
Eight level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes.
Power-on Reset (POR).
Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST).
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation.
Programmable code-protection.
Power saving SLEEP mode.
 Selectable oscillator options.
Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology.
Fully static design.
In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) .
Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability.
In-Circuit Debugging via two pins.
Processor read/write access to program memory.
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V.
High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA.
Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges.
Low-power consumption.

In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. PIC means Peripheral Interface Controller.
The PIC family having different series. The series are 12- Series, 14- Series, 16- Series, 18- Series, and
24- Series. We used 16 Series PIC microcontrollers.

3.3 ADVANTAGES OF USING A MICROCONTROLLER OVER MICROPROCESSOR:

A designer will use a Microcontroller to

Gather input from various sensors
Process this input into a set of actions
Use the output mechanisms on the Microcontroller to do something useful
RAM and ROM are inbuilt in the MC.
Cheap compared to MP.
Multi machine control is possible simultaneously.

Examples 8051 (ATMEL), PIC (Microchip), Motorola (Motorola), ARM Processor.

APPLICATIONS:

Cell phones.

Computers.

Robots.

Interfacing to two PCs.

3.4 PIN DIAGRAM PIC 16 F874A/877A:
3.5 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877A:
PIN DESCRIPTION:

OSC1/CLKI:
 Oscillator crystal or external clock input. Oscillator crystal input or external clock source input.
ST buffer when configured in RC mode; otherwise CMOS. External clock source input. Always
associated with pin function OSC1 (see OSC1/CLKI, OSC2/CLKO pins).

OSC2/CLKO:

Oscillator crystal or clock output. Oscillator crystal output. Connects to The crystal or resonator
in Crystal Oscillator mode. In RC mode, OSC2 pin outputs CLKO, which has 1/4 the frequency of
OSC1 and denotes the instruction cycle rate.

MCLR/VPP:

Master Clear (input) or programming voltage (output). Master Clear (Reset) input. This pin is an
active low Reset to the device. Programming voltage input.

RA0/AN0.
RA1/AN1.
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF.
VREFCVREF.
RA3/AN3/VREF+.
VREF+.
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT.
T0CKI.
C1OUT.
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT/SS/C2OUT.
I/O PORTS:

Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral
features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a general
purpose I/O pin.

PORT A AND TRIS A REGISTER:

PORT A is a 6-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRIS A.
Setting a TRIS A bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORT A pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding
output driver in a High Impedance mode). Clearing a TRIS A bit (= 0) will make the corresponding
PORT A pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Reading the PORT
A register reads the status of the pins, whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write
operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore, a write to a port implies that the port pins are
read; the value is modified and then written to the port data latch.

Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The
RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open-drain output. All other PORT A pins have TTL
input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORT A pins are multiplexed with analog inputs and
the analog VREF input for both the A/D converters and the comparators. The operation of each pin is
selected by clearing/setting the appropriate control bits in the ADCON1 and/or CMCON registers. The
TRIS A register controls the direction of the port pins even when they are being used as analog inputs.
The user must ensure the bits in the TRIS A register are maintained set when using them as analog
inputs.

Note: On a Power-on Reset, these pins are configured as analog inputs and read as 0. The comparators
are in the off (digital).

PORT B AND TRIS B REGISTER:

PORT B is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRIS B.
Setting a TRIS B bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORT B pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding
output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRIS B bit (= 0) will make the corresponding
PORT B pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Three pins of PORT
B are multiplexed with the In-Circuit Debugger and Low-Voltage Programming function: RB3/PGM,
RB6/PGC and RB7/PGD.

Four of the PORT B pins, RB7:RB4, have an interruption- change feature. Only pins configured
as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur (i.e., any RB7:RB4 pin configured as an output is excluded
from the interruption- change comparison). The input pins (of RB7:RB4) are compared with the old
value latched on the last read of PORTB. The mismatch outputs of RB7:RB4 are ORed together to
generate the RB port change interrupt with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>).

This interrupt can wake the device from Sleep. The user, in the Interrupt Service Routine, can
clear the interrupt in the following manner:

a) Any read or write of PORT B. This will end the mismatch condition.

b) Clear flag bit RBIF.

 A mismatch condition will continue to set flag bit RBIF. Reading PORT B will end the
mismatch condition and allow flag bit RBIF to be cleared. The interrupt-on-change feature is
recommended for wake-up on key depression operation and operations where PORT B is only used for
the interrupt-on-change feature. Polling of PORT B is not recommended while using the interrupt-on-
change feature. This interrupt-on-mismatch feature, together with software configurable pull-ups on
these four pins, allow easy interface to a keypad and make it possible for wake-up on key depression.

PORT C AND TRIS C REGISTER:

PORT C is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRIS C.
Setting a TRIS C bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORT C pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding
output driver in a High- Impedance mode). Clearing a TRIS C bit (= 0) will make the corresponding
PORT C pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). PORT C is
multiplexed with several peripheral functions (Table 4-5). PORT C pins have Schmitt Trigger input
buffers. When the I2C module is enabled, the PORT C<4:3> pins can be configured with normal I2C
levels, or with SMBus levels, by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT<6>). When enabling peripheral
functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each PORT C pin. Some peripherals override
the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an
input. Since the TRIS bit override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify write
instructions (BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRIS C as the destination, should be avoided. The user should
refer to the corresponding peripheral section for the correct TRIS bit settings.

PORT D AND TRIS D REGISTERS:

PORT D is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually configurable
as an input or output. PORT D can be configured as an 8-bit wide microprocessor port (Parallel Slave
Port) by setting control bit, PSP MODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

PORT E AND TRIS E REGISTER:

PORT E has three pins (RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7) which are individually
configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers. The PORT E pins
become the I/O control inputs for the microprocessor port when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In
this mode, the user must make certain that the TRIS E<2:0> bits are set and that the pins are configured
as digital inputs. Also, ensure that ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode, the input buffers
are TTL. Register 4-1 shows the TRIS E register which also controls the Parallel Slave Port operation.
PORT E pins are multiplexed with analog inputs.
 When selected for analog input, these pins will read as 0s. TRIS E controls. The direction of
the RE pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must make sure to keep the pins
configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION:

There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F87XA devices. The program memory and
data memory have separate buses so that concurrent access can occur and is detailed in this section. The
EEPROM data memory block is detailed in.

PROGRAM MEMORY ORGANIZATION:

The PIC16F87XA devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing an 8K word x 14
bit program memory space. The PIC16F876A/877A devices have 8K words x 14 bits of Flash program
memory, while PIC16F873A/874A devices have 4K words x 14 bits. Accessing a location above the
physically implemented address will cause a wraparound. The Reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt
vector is at 0004h.

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose
Registers and the Special Function Registers. Bits RP1 (Status<6>) and RP0 (Status<5>) are the bank
select bits. Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved for
the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General Purpose Registers,
implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain Special Function Registers. Some
frequently used Special Function Registers from one bank may be mirrored in another bank for code
reduction and quicker access.

TIMER0 MODULE:

The Timer0 module timer/counter has the following features:

8-bit timer/counter
Readable and writable
8-bit software programmable prescaler
Internal or external clock select
Interrupt on overflow from FFh to 00h
Edge select for external clock
Timer mode is selected by clearing bit T0CS (OPTION_REG<5>). In Timer mode, the Timer0 module
will increment every instruction cycle (without prescaler). If the TMR0 register is written, the increment
is inhibited for the following two instruction cycles. The user can work around this by writing an
adjusted value to the TMR0 register.
TIMER0 INTERRUPT:

The TMR0 interrupt is generated when the TMR0 register overflows from FFh to 00h. This
overflow sets bit TMR0IF (INTCON<2>). The interrupt can be masked by clearing bit TMR0IE
(INTCON<5>). Bit TMR0IF must be cleared in software by the Timer0 module Interrupt Service
Routine before re-enabling this interrupt. The TMR0 interrupt cannot awaken the processor from Sleep
since the timer is shut-off during Sleep.

TIMER1 MODULE:

The Timer1 module is a 16-bit timer/counter consisting of two 8-bit registers (TMR1H and TMR1L)
which are readable and writable. The TMR1 register pair (TMR1H:TMR1L) increments from 0000h to
FFFFh and rolls over to 0000h. The TMR1 interrupt, if enabled, is generated on overflow which is
latched in interrupt flag bit, TMR1IF (PIR1<0>). This interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting or
clearing TMR1 interrupt enable bit, TMR1IE (PIE1<0>). Timer1 can operate in one of two modes:

As a Timer
As a Counter
The operating mode is determined by the clock select bit, TMR1CS (T1CON<1>).
In Timer mode, Timer1 increments every instruction cycle. In Counter mode, it increments on every
rising edge of the external clock input. Timer1 can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing control bit,
TMR1ON (T1CON<0>).Timer1 also has an internal Reset input. This Reset can be generated by
either of the two CCP modules. Shows the Timer1 Control register. When the

Timer1 oscillator is enabled (T1OSCEN is set), the RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 and RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI

pins become inputs. That is, the TRISC<1:0> value is ignored and these pins read as 0.

TIMER2 MODULE:

Timer2 is an 8-bit timer with a pre scaler and a post scaler. It can be used as the PWM time base
for the PWM mode of the CCP module(s). The TMR2 register is readable and writable and is cleared on
any device Reset. The input clock (FOSC/4) has a prescale option of 1:1, 1:4 or 1:16, selected by control
bits T2CKPS1:T2CKPS0 (T2CON<1:0>). The Timer2 module has an 8-bit period register, PR2. Timer2
increments from 00h until it matches PR2 and then resets to 00h on the next increment cycle. PR2 is a
readable and writable register. The PR2 register is initialized to FFh upon Reset. The match output of
TMR2 goes through a 4-bit postscaler (which gives a 1:1 to 1:16 scaling inclusive) to generate a TMR2
interrupt (latched in flag bit, TMR2IF (PIR1<1>)). Timer2 can be shut-off by clearing control bit,
TMR2ON (T2CON<2>), to minimize power consumption.

IN-CIRCUIT DEBUGGER:

PIC16F87XA devices have a Watchdog Timer which can be shut-off only through configuration
bits. It runs off its own RC oscillator for added reliability. There are two timers that offer necessary
delays on power-up. One is the Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST), intended to keep the chip in Reset until
the crystal oscillator is stable. The other is the Power-up Timer (PWRT), which provides a fixed delay of
72 ms (nominal) on power-up only. It is designed to keep the part in Reset while the power supply
stabilizes. With these two timers on-chip, most applications need no external Reset circuitry. Sleep mode
is designed to offer a very low current power-down mode. The user can wake-up from Sleep through
external Reset, Watchdog Timer wake-up or through an interrupt. Several oscillator options are also
made available to allow the part to fit the application. The RC oscillator option saves system cost while
the LP crystal option saves power. A set of configuration bits is used to select various options.

3.6 2X16 LCD:

Most LCD programmed in 8 bit configuration. Moreover LCD put on equipment that

show the value of measurement, i.e. temperature, voltage, current, etc. There are a lot of tutorial show

steps how to configure out in order to LCD on. But each LCD has own characteristic

Basic Specifications

Power requirements 4.8 to 5.5Vdc @ 3Ma

User connector 5-pin header; 0.025" posts on 0.10" centers

Connector pinout +5V GND SERIAL GND +5V

Serial Input RS-232 or inverted TTL, 2400/9600, N81

Operating Temperature 0 to 50 C

Initialization switches LCD power; performs soft init

Instruction prefix ASCII 254 (0FE hex)

LCD type Supertwist (STN), yellow-green

Optimum viewing direction 6 o'clock

LCD Instructions by Function

Function ASCII Value

Clear screen 1
Home cursor 2
Blank display (retaining data) 8
Hide cursor 12
Show underline cursor 14
Move cursor 1 character left 16
Move cursor 1 character right 20
Scroll 1 character left 24
Scroll 1 character right 28
Set display address (position the cursor) 128 + location
Move to 1st character of 1st line 128
Move to nth character of 1st line 128 + n
Move to 1st character of 2nd line 192
Move to nth character of 2nd line 192 + n
Set character-generator address 64 + address

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

8.1 SOFTWARE TOOLS

Development tool MPLAB IDE v7.42
 Hardware Compiler - HI-Tech PIC C
Programmer - PIC Flash
Hardware Simulation tool - Proteus v7.6Sp0

8.2 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED C:

Ex: Hitec c, Keil c

HI-TECH Software makes industrial-strength software development tools and C compilers that
help software developers write compact, efficient embedded processor code.

For over two decades HI-TECH Software has delivered the industry's most reliable embedded
software development tools and compilers for writing efficient and compact code to run on the most
popular embedded processors. Used by tens of thousands of customers including General Motors,
Whirlpool, Qualcomm, John Deere and many others, HI-TECH's reliable development tools and C
compilers, combined with world-class support have helped serious embedded software programmers to
create hundreds of breakthrough new solutions.

Whichever embedded processor family you are targeting with your software, whether it is the
ARM, PICC or 8051 series, HI-TECH tools and C compilers can help you write better code and bring it
to market faster.

HI-TECH PICC is a high-performance C compiler for the Microchip PIC micro 10/12/14/16/17
series of microcontrollers. HI-TECH PICC is an industrial-strength ANSI C compiler - not a subset
implementation like some other PIC compilers. The PICC compiler implements full ISO/ANSI C, with
the exception of recursion. All data types are supported including 24 and 32 bit IEEE standard floating
point. HI-TECH PICC makes full use of specific PIC features and using an intelligent optimizer, can
generate high-quality code easily rivaling hand-written assembler. Automatic handling of page and bank
selection frees the programmer from the trivial details of assembler code.

8.3 EMBEDDED C COMPILER

ANSIC - full featured and portable

Reliable - mature, field-proven technology
Multiple C optimization levels
An optimizing assembler
Full linker, with overlaying of local variables to minimize RAM usage
Comprehensive C library with all source code provided
Includes support for 24-bit and 32-bit IEEE floating point and 32-bit long data types
 Mixed C and assembler programming
Unlimited number of source files
Listings showing generated assembler
Compatible - integrates into the MPLAB IDE, MPLAB ICD and most 3rd-party development
tools
Runs on multiple platforms: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, Solaris

8.4 MPLAB INTEGRATION

MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the
development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC micro and dsPIC
microcontrollers. MPLAB IDE runs as a 32-bit application on MS Windows, is easy to use and
includes a host of free software components for fast application development and super-charged
debugging. MPLAB IDE also serves as a single, unified graphical user interface for additional
Microchip and third party software and hardware development tools. Moving between tools is a
snap, and upgrading from the free simulator to MPLAB ICD 2 or the MPLAB ICE emulator is done
in a flash because MPLAB IDE has the same user interface for all tools.

Choose MPLAB C18, the highly optimized compiler for the PIC18 series microcontrollers, or try
the newest Microchip's language tools compiler, MPLAB C30, targeted at the high performance
PIC24 and dsPIC digital signal controllers. Or, use one of the many products from third party
language tools vendors. They integrate into MPLAB IDE to function transparently from the MPLAB
project manager, editor and compiler.

EMBEDDED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

This environment allows you to manage all of your PIC projects. You can compile, assemble and
link your embedded application with a single step.

Optionally, the compiler may be run directly from the command line, allowing you to compile,
assemble and link using one command. This enables the compiler to be integrated into third party
development environments, such as Microchip's MPLAB IDE.

8.5 EMBEDDED SYSTEM TOOLS

8.5.1 ASSEMBLER

An assembler is a computer program for translating assembly language essentially,

a mnemonic representation of machine language into object code. A cross assembler (see
cross compiler) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on another. The computational step
where an assembler is run is known as assembly time. Translating assembly instruction mnemonics into
opcodes, assemblers provide the ability to use symbolic names for memory locations (saving tedious
calculations and manually updating addresses when a program is slightly modified), and macro
facilities for performing textual substitution typically used to encode common short sequences of
instructions to run inline instead of in a subroutine. Assemblers are far simpler to write than
compilers for high-level languages.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE HAS SEVERAL BENEFITS

Speed: Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs around.

Space: Assembly language programs are often the smallest.

Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible in High level
languages.

Knowledge: Your knowledge of assembly language will help you write better programs, even
when using High level languages. An example of an assembler we use in our project is RAD 51.

8.5.2 SIMULATOR

Simulator is a machine that simulates an environment for the purpose of training or research. We
use a UMPS simulator for this purpose in our project.

8.5.3 COMPILER

A compiler is a program that reads a program in one language, the source language and translates
into an equivalent program in another language, the target language. The translation process should also
report the presence of errors in the source program.

Source Target
Compiler
Program Program

Error
Messages
 There are two parts of compilation. The analysis part breaks up the source program into constant
piece and creates an intermediate representation of the source program. The synthesis part constructs the
desired target program from the intermediate representation.

COUSINS OF THE COMPILER ARE

1. Preprocessor.

2. Assembler.

3. Loader and Link-editor.

A naive approach to that front end might run the phases serially.

1. Lexical analyzer takes the source program as an input and produces a long string of tokens.

2. Syntax Analyzer takes an out of lexical analyzer and produces a large tree.

3. Semantic analyzer takes the output of syntax analyzer and produces another tree. Similarly,
intermediate code generator takes a tree as an input produced by semantic analyzer and
produces intermediate code

PHASES OF COMPILER

The compiler has a number of phases plus symbol table manager and an error handler.

Input Source
Program

Lexical
Analyzer

Syntax
Analyzer

Symbol
Semantic Error
Table
Analyzer Handler
Manager


Intermediate
Code
Generator

Code
Optimizer

Code
Generator

Out Target
Program

FABRICATION DETAILS

The fabrication of one demonstration unit is carried out in the following sequence.

Finalizing the total circuit diagram, listing out the components and sources of procurement.

Procuring the components, testing the components and screening the components.

Making layout, repairing the interconnection diagram as per the circuit diagram.

Assembling the components as per the component layout and circuit diagram and soldering
components.

Integrating the total unit, interwiring the unit and final testing the unit.

8.6 DESIGN OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Like every other system development design cycle embedded system too have a design cycle. The
flow of the system will be like as given below. For any design cycle these will be the implementation
steps. From the initial state of the project to the final fabrication the design considerations will be taken
like the software consideration and the hardware components, sensor, input and output. The electronics
usually uses either a microprocessor or a microcontroller. Some large or old systems use general-purpose
mainframe computers or minicomputers.
8.6.1 USER INTERFACES

User interfaces for embedded systems vary widely, and thus deserve some special comment.
User interface is the ultimate aim for an embedded module as to the user to check the output with
complete convenience. One standard interface, widely used in embedded systems, uses two buttons (the
absolute minimum) to control a menu system (just to be clear, one button should be "next menu entry"
the other button should be "select this menu entry").

Another basic trick is to minimize and simplify the type of output. Designs sometimes use a
status light for each interface plug, or failure condition, to tell what failed. A cheap variation is to have
two light bars with a printed matrix of errors that they select- the user can glue on the labels for the
language that he speaks. For example, most small computer printers use lights labeled with stick-on
labels that can be printed in any language. In some markets, these are delivered with several sets of
labels, so customers can pick the most comfortable language.

In many organizations, one person approves the user interface. Often this is a customer, the
major distributor or someone directly responsible for selling the system.

8.6.2 PLATFORM

There are many different CPU architectures used in embedded designs such as ARM, MIPS,
Coldfire/68k, PowerPC, X86, PIC, 8051, Atmel AVR, H8, SH, V850, FR-V, M32R etc.

This in contrast to the desktop computer market, which as of this writing (2003) is limited
to just a few competing architectures, mainly the Intel/AMD x86, and the Apple/Motorola/IBM
PowerPC, used in the Apple Macintosh. With the growing acceptance of Java in this field, there is
a tendency to even further eliminate the dependency on specific CPU/hardware (and OS) requirements.

Standard PC/104 is a typical base for small, low-volume embedded and ruggedized system design.
These often use DOS, Linux or an embedded real-time operating system such as QNX or Inferno.

A common configuration for very-high-volume embedded systems is the system on a chip,

an application-specific integrated circuit, for which the CPU was purchased as intellectual
property to add to the IC's design. A related common scheme is to use a field-programmable gate
array, and program it with all the logic, including the CPU. Most modern FPGAs are designed for this
purpose.

8.6.3 TOOLS
 Like typical computer programmers, embedded system designers use compilers,
assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they also use a few
tools that are unfamiliar to most programmers.

Software tools can come from several sources:

Software companies that specialize in the embedded market.

Ported from the GNU software development tools.

Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded processor is
a close relative to a common PC processor. Embedded system designers also use a few software tools
rarely used by typical computer programmers.

One common tool is an "in-circuit emulator" (ICE) or, in more modern designs, an embedded
debugger. This debugging tool is the fundamental trick used to develop embedded code. It replaces or
plugs into the microprocessor, and provides facilities to quickly load and debug experimental code in the
system. A small pod usually provides the special electronics to plug into the system. Often a personal
computer with special software attaches to the pod to provide the debugging interface.

Another common tool is a utility program (often home-grown) to add a checksum or CRC to a
program, so it can check its program data before executing it.

An embedded programmer that develops software for digital signal processing often has a
math workbench such as MathCad or Mathematics to simulate the mathematics.

Less common are utility programs to turn data files into code, so one can include any kind of
data in a program. A few projects use Synchronous programming languages for extra reliability
or digital signal processing.

8.6.4 DEBUGGING

Debugging is usually performed with an in-circuit emulator, or some type of debugger

that can interrupt the microcontroller's internal microcode. The microcode interrupt lets the debugger
operate in hardware in which only the CPU works. The CPU-based debugger can be used to test and
debug the electronics of the computer from the viewpoint of the CPU. This feature was pioneered on the
PDP-11.

As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating systems are
migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cell phones, personal digital
assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or
provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open
programming environment such as Linux, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the third-
party software provider can sell to a large market.

8.6.5 OPERATING SYSTEM

Embedded systems often have no operating system, or a specialized embedded

operating system (often a real-time operating system), or the programmer is assigned to port
one of these to the new system.

BUILT- IN SELF- TEST

Most embedded systems have some degree or amount of built-in self-test.

There are several basic types.

1. Testing the computer.

2. Test of peripherals.

3. Tests of power.

4. Communication tests.

5. Cabling tests.

6. Rigging tests.

7. Consumables test.

8. Operational test.

9. Safety test.

START UP

All embedded systems have start-up code. Usually it disables interrupts, sets up the electronics,
tests the computer (RAM, CPU and software), and then starts the application code. Many embedded
systems recover from short-term power failures by restarting (without recent self-tests). Restart times
under a tenth of a second are common.

Many designers have found a few LEDs useful to indicate errors (they help troubleshooting).
A common scheme is to have the electronics turn on all of the LED(s) at reset (thereby proving that
power is applied and the LEDs themselves work), whereupon the software changes the LED pattern as
the Power-On Self Test executes. After that, the software may blink the LED(s) or set up light
patterns during normal operation to indicate program execution progress or errors. This serves to
reassure most technicians/engineers and some users. An interesting exception is that on electric power
meters and other items on the street, blinking lights are known to attract attention and vandalism.

APENDIX-A

INSTALLING CODING INTO PIC MICROCONTROLLER

1. Write the program in MPLAB IDE.

2. Save the file as *.c. and compile it.
3. After successful compilation of the coding close the MPLAB IDE.
4. Fix the Controller IC into PIC Flash kit.
5. Then click on Micro controller Micro Systems PIC Flash Software Icon on the desktop.
6. It displays on dialog box. Then select open and select the program which we already saved as
*.c.
7. Then it asks the Confirmation that The IC is empty, select ok.
8. Then it asks Fuses Settings, select YES
9. Then it displays Fuses Settings Dialog Box.
10. In that put WDT -- > Disabled, WRT-- > Enabled, Oscillator-- > XT then click on OK.
11. Then it displays the Program successfully installed into PIC.
12. Then Remove the IC from the PIC Flash and it is ready for used into the project or circuit
operation.