A reliable and clean water supply is an essential need but a large number of people currently lack this basic

provision.
Solar water pumps is a socially and environmentally attractive technology to supply water. Especially if the need for
water is in remote locations which are beyond the reach of power lines, solar power is often the economically
preferred technology.

Introduction top :

Solar water pumps can supply water to locations which are beyond the reach of power lines. Commonly, such places
relie on human or animal power or on diesel engines for their water supply (Omer, 2001). Solar water pumps can
replace the current pump systems and result in both socio-economic benefits as well as climate related
benefits. The water supplied by the solar water pump can be used to irrigate crops, water livestock or provide potable
drinking water.

A solar water pump system is essentially an electrical pump system in which the electricity is provided by one or
several PhotoVoltaic (PV) panels. A typical solar powered pumping system consists of a solar panel array that powers
an electric motor, which in turn powers a bore or surface pump. The water is often pumped from the ground or stream
into a storage tank that provides a gravity feed, so energy storage is not needed for these systems. A typical
installation is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: A solar water pump system

Feasibility of technology and operational necessities top :

There are two main types of solar water pump technologies: a) the centrifugal pump, which uses high speed rotation
to suck water in through the middle of the pump. Most conventional Alternating Current (AC) pumps use such a
centrifugal impeller. However, when operating at low power the performance of the pump drops dramatically. This
makes centrifugal pumps less suitable for solar applications, since low power due to cloudy weather is to be
expected; and b) the positive displacement pump, which usually uses a piston to transfer water (Short & Thompson,
2003). Many solar water pumpts use the positive displacement pump, which brings water into a chamber and then
forces it out using a piston or helical screw. These types generally pump slower than other types of pumps, but have
good performance under low power conditions and can achieve high lift. Since PV is expensive and is an intermittent
power supplier, solar pumps need to be as efficient as possible. Efficiency of the pump is measured in the amount of
water pumped per watt of electricity used.

Two types of pump exist: submersible pumps and surface pumps. It depends on the water source which pump type is
more suitable. In the case of a well, the pump needs to be placed underwater. Surface pumps can be placed at the
side of a lake or, in the case of a floating pump, on top of the water. Surface pumps are less expensive than
submersible pumps, but they are not well suited for suction and can only draw water from about 6.5 vertical meters.
Surface pumps are excellent for pushing water over long distances.

Other options for remote watering exist. In Table 1 the option of solar water pumping is compared to several other
remote watering options.

Table 1. Comparison of Solar and other Remote Watering Options

Pumping Advatantages Disadvantages
Technology
Solar - Low maintenance - Potentially high initial costs
- No fuel costs or spills - Lower output in cloudy weather
- Easy to install - Must have good sun exposure between 9 AM and 3
- Simple and reliable PM
- Unattended operation
- System can be made to be
mobile
Diesel or gas - Moderate capital costs - Needs maintenance and replacement
- Can be portable - Maintenance often inadequate, reducing lifetime of
- Extensive experience available system
- Easy to install - Fuel often expensive and supply intermittent
- Noise, dirt and fume problems
- Site visits necessary
Windmill - Potentially long lasting - High maintenance and costly repair
- Works well in windy site - Difficult to find parts
- Seasonal disadvantages
- Need special tools for installation
- Labor intensive
- No wind, no power
Gravity - Only feasible in a small number places
- Very low cost
- Low maintenance
- No fuel costs or spills
- Easy to install
 - Simple and reliable

Ram - Very low cost - Requires moving water as a operational necessity

- Low maintenance
- No fuel costs or spills
- Easy to install
- Simple and reliable
Hauling - Lowest initial costs - Very labor intensive
- Excellent mobility
Status of the technology and its future market potential top :

PV water pumping has become a widely adopted solar energy technology in the last two decades (Firatoglu &
Yesilata, 2004). Ten thousand PV water pump systems were installed worldwide up to the year 1993 (Barlow et al.,
1993). This grew over sixty thousand systems by 1998 (Short and Orlach, 2003)

Rapid expansion over the last two decades of the global solar PV market has occured, with an average annual
growth rate of 40 % (IEA, 2010) and 60% between 2004 and 2009 (REN21, 2010). A record 7GW of new grid-
connected capacity was added in 2009, bringing total grid-connected capacity to 21GW with off-grid PV accounting
for an additional 3 to 4GW. Crystalline silicon and thin film solar systems are in the early phases of rapid market
deployment, and third generation and concentrated solar PV are currently in the R&D and demonstration phase.

While solar water pumps are much more small scale applications compared to PV technologies such as concentrated
solar PV, the rapid expansion of PV technologies in general will benefit the deployment rate of solar water pumps.
Since the main barrier to wide scale deployment of solar water pumps is the high initial capital costs due to the PV
array, and the rapid expansion of PV technologies is leading to reduced prices for PV systems, it is expected that the
solar water pump technology will reach higher penetration levels.

The IEA (2010) forecasts an average annual market growth rate of 17% in the next decade, leading to a global
cumulative installed PV power capacity of 200 GW by 2020 and 3000GW by 2040 (with repowering of older
systems). This would represent roughly 11 percent of global energy demand should this scenario play out. In terms
of technology, the market share of thin films is expected to grow to 35% by 2013, due to constraints in the availability
of high grade silicon.

Contribution of the technology to social development top :

Solar water pumps contribute to social development in several ways. Since other remote water supply systems are
less reliable than solar water pumps. The use of solar water pumps therefore provides a reliable, safe and adequate
water supply which improves the community's health. Other benefits to social development are the improvement of
social cohesion within the community, reduced migration out of the community, and increased community interaction
in social events due to increased time availability (Short & Thompson, 2003).

In addition, in many developing countries there is a strong link between gender and water. In many developing
countries, women are responsible for the water supply, spending a large portion of their time to gather the water. The
use of solar water pumps can have considerable positive effects for women in these communities (Short &
Thompson, 2003). The scope of these benefits is very broad. For instance, the adequate water supply improves the
personal hygiene of women but also allows them to allocate more of their time to the other activities (Short &
Thompson, 2003). After installation of solar water pumps women in these communities might allocate more time to
activities such as education or foodgathering (WaterAid, 2001).

Contribution of the technology to protection of the environment top :

Solar PV systems, once manufactured, are closed systems; during operation and electricity production they require
no inputs such as fuels, nor generate any outputs such as solids, liquids, or gases (apart from electricity). They are
silent and vibration free and can broadly be considered, particularly when installed on brownfield sites, as
environmentally benign during operation. The main environmental impacts of solar cells are related to their production
and decommissioning. In regards to pollutants released during manufacturing, IPCC (2010) summarises literature
that indicates that solar PV has a very low lifecycle cost of pollution per kilowatt-hour (compared to other
technologies). Furthermore they predict that upwards of 80% of the bulk material in solar panels will be recyclable;
recycling of solar panels is already economically viable. However, certain steps in the production chain of solar PV
systems involve the use of toxic materials, e.g. the production of poly-silicon, and therefore require diligence in
following environmental and safety guidelines. Careful decommissioning and recycling of PV system is especially
important for cadmium telluride based thin-film solar cells as non-encapsulated Cadmium telluride is toxic if ingested
or if its dust is inhaled, or in general the material is handled improperly. In terms of land use, the area required by PV
is less than that of traditional fossil fuel cycles and does not involve any disturbance of the ground, fuel transport, or
water contamination (IPCC, 2010).

While the use of PV technology provides several environmental benefits compared to traditional technologies, care
should be taken that the installation of the solar water pump does not increase the use of groundwater so that
supplies are depleted. Especially in the case where the initial capital costs are covered by a grant or other financial
arrangement, the water supplied is more economical to the users compared to the original situation. This might
increase water use. One approach to reducing this possible problem is to maintain water price for the users on the
original level, and invest the extra money into a community development fund. For example, a solar water pump
project in Thailand used the community development fund to invest in solar lighting systems.

Climate top :

When solar water pumps replace either diesel generated electricity or grid based electricity, there are certain climate
related benefits. A diesel generator emits CO2 during operation and grid based electricity is usually generated with
either coal, oil or natural gas which also emits considerable quantities of CO2. In contrast. a solar based water pump
system does not result in greenhouse gas emissions. Extensive use of solar water pumps would therefore lead to
substantial greenhouse gas emission reductions.

Financial requirements and costs top :

Several aspects of a PV pump system are key in determining the system costs:

a) size of the system. The high initial capital costs of the PV array is the major barrier to high penetration rates of the
use of solar water pumps (Firatogly & Yesilata, 2004). The PV array is the most expensive part of the system. The
size and capacity of the PV array considerably influences the up-front costs of the system. Therefore, it is important
to use the smallest system size possible that still meets all the criteria of that particular location. Government or aid
agency subsidies which cover the high initial capital costs are required in many locations to realize PV water pump
systems (Short and Oldach, 2003). The high reliability of solar water pumps might offset its higher initial costs
compared to diesel powered pump systems (Barlow et al., 2003).
b) insolation levels. This is direclty related to the required size of the system. The intensity and number of hours of
sunshine determine the capacity requirements and thus the PV array size requirements. The more sunshine, the
smaller the system requirements.

c) pumping head. The pumping head is the distance over which the water needs to be moved. The costs of water
volume unit are proportional to the pumping head. Odeh et al., outline that a shallow well of only 20 meters depth
compared to a deep well of 100 meters depth reduces water volume unit cost by around five times (Odeh, Yohanis, &
Norton, 2006).

While system size and insolation levels greatly influence the capital costs of a PV water pump the operational costs of
the system are generally very low due to low labor and maintenance costs. In contrast, inexpensive diesel or gas
generators have low initial capital costs but require constant maintenance and the parts have shorter lifetimes which
increases operating costs. This long-term economic advantage makes solar water pumping more cost-effective to
conventional pumping systems, such as diesel powered pumps (NYSERDA, 2004). For example, a study
investigating the economics of solar water pumps shows that in seven countries (Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, Jordan,
the Philippines, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe) solar water pump systems had a cost advantage over diesel pumping
systems in the power range up to 4 kWp (Posorski & Haars, 1994; Posorski, 1996). A study by the Bureau of Land
Management at Battle Mountain, Nevada, USA, showed that certain PV systems cost only 64 % over twenty years
compared to a comparable diesel generator system did over ten years (NYSERDA, 2004). Additionally, the PV
system required only 14 % of the labor hours that the diesel generator system required. The study by Odeh et al.
found that PV water pumping systems are more cost-effective than diesel pumping systems for equivalent hydralic
energy below 5750 m4 /day and 21.6 MJ/m2 day average insolation. In turn, diesel pumping becomes more
economical for larger applications (Odeh, Yohanis, & Norton, 2006). This difference in costs over a long term is
clearly illustrated in Table 2.

PV systems are particularly useful in locations to which it is not practical to extend the grid. Even in locations where
connection could be made to a grid, utilities have found it more viable to use PV pumps than to extend and maintain
the electric grid (Kou et al., 1998).

Table 2. Comparison in financial requirements between five PV systems and five diesel
pump systems of increasing size. Source: (Odeh, Yohanis & Norton, 2006)
System Total Capital Total Operating Total costs over Total costs over a
Costs (US$) Costs (US$/year) a 10-year period 20-year period
PV 1 (2800 18 188 600 24 188 30 188
Wp)
PV 2 (4500 27 470 800 35 470 43 470
Wp)
PV 3 (6300 37 398 900 46 398 55 398
Wp)
PV 4 (10 000 56 800 1400 70 800 84 800
Wp)
PV 5 (15 000 82 000 1600 98 000 114 000
Wp)

Diesel 1 (3.5 3840 5642 60 260 116 680

KVA)
Diesel 2 (4.5 4720 5864 63 360 122 000
KVA)
Diesel 3 (6.3 6050 6029 66 340 126 630
KVA)
Diesel 4 (10.0 8350 6307 71 420 134 490
KVA)
Diesel 5 (15.0 10 320 6593 76 250 142 180
KVA)
Clean Development Mechanism market status top :

Currently, there are no registered CDM projects using solar water pumps. However, two solar water pump projects
were in the CDM pipeline. Of these, one got rejected and the other was withdrawn from the process. In both cases,
this was because the methodology that was chosen was incompatible with the project description.

Solar water pump projects, however, certainly have the potential to be eligible for CDM registration and funding. The
baseline for GHG emissions in the absence of such a project would be based on a diesel powered pump. A solar
water powered pump would therefore reduce GHG emissions which would generate CDM credits.

For calculation of these GHG emission reductions, it is recommended to apply the approved methodology
for Mechanical energy for the user with or without electrical energy (AMS-I.B. version 10). This methodology helps to
determine a baseline for GHG emissions in the absence of the project (i.e. business-as-usual circumstances), how
emission reductions below this baseline can be calculated, and how these reductions can be monitored. General
information about how to apply CDM methodologies for GHG accounting can be found
at: http://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/PAmethodologies/approved.html.

However, close attention should be paid to the project description to ensure compatibility between the project and the
methodology. This methodology considers mechanical energy for the direct user, and is therefore not compatible with
a project that delivers water to several users. For example, a project that irrigates multiple fields with the same
installation should not use this methodology.

References top :

Firatoglu, Z., Yesilata, B., (2004). New approaches on the optimization of directly coupled PV pumping systems. Solar
Energy 77, pp. 81-93.

IEA (International Energy Agency) 2010. Technology Roadmap - Solar photovoltaic energy

IPCC 2010. Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, In Press.

NYSERDA, (2004). Guide to Solar Powered Water Pumping Systems in New York State. New York State Energy
Research and Development Authority. Retrieved from: http://www.nyserda.org/publications/solarpumpingguide.pdf

Odeh, I., Yohanis, Y., G., & Norton, B., (2006). Economic Viability of Photovoltaic Water Pumping Systems. Solar
Energy Vol 80 (2006) pp. 850-860.

Posorski, R., (1996). Photovoltaic water pumps, an attractive tool for rural drinking water supply. Solar Energy 58, pp.
155 - 163.
Short, T., Oldach, R., (2003). Solar Powered Water Pumps: the Past, the Present - and the Future. Journal of Solar
Energy Engineering 125 (1), pp. 76 -82.

Short, T.D., & Thompson, P., (2003). Breaking the Mould: Solar Water Pumping - the Challenges and the Reality.
Solar Energy 75 (2003) pp 1-9.

REN21. 2010. Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (Paris: REN21 Secretariat).