Note 1460990940

UNIT IV SPRX1003 METROLOGY & INSTRUMENTATION
Measuring of surface finish Direct and indirect methods Tool makers microscope
Introduction to Co-ordinate Measuring Machine. Measurement of gear and thread, Dovetail
measurement of center of the hole and hole size, Computer aided inspection Machine vision
Opto-electric sensors Applications
The elements to be taken into account while measuring the Screw threads to
determine the accuracy
Major diameter, Minor diameter, Effective diameter, pitch, thread form
Following in relation to screw threads.
1. Periodic Errors :
Periodic errors are those which vary at regular intervals.
2. Druken thread :
If the periodic error occur every revolution, then the thread is known as Drunkeh
Thread.
Standards do not specify tolerance on pitch
The error in pitch have the effective of virtually increasing the effective diameter
of an external thread and decreasing that of an internal thread, and the simplest way of
controlling them in to fix a limit for main equivalent in terms of the effective diameter.
The effect of the lead angle on a three wire measurement for an effective diameter of
a screw thread.
If the lead angle in lack as in case of worms, quick transversing lead screw etc.
the ordinary rule or formula for checking the effective diameter by the three wire
method is inaccurate and the effect of the lead angle on the position of the wires should
e taken into account. This effect depends not only upon the size of the lead angle, but to
some extent upon the size of the lead angle, but to some extent upon the degree of
accuracy required In checking the effective diameter. The error in measurement in
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 1

about 0.0125mm when the lead angle is 41/2" for 60 single thread.
For lead angle, above 41/2 degree the compensation for rake and compression
must be taken in to account.
Reason for using three wire.
a) Generally three wires are used to measure a screw thread with a hand
micrometer and only two wires when using a floating carriage machine for same
purpose.
The use of three wires for measurement, when using a hand micrometers in
essential, because two wires on one side help in aligning the micrometer square to the
thread and the third placed on the other side is essential for taking the readings
In a floating carriage machine the alignment is inherent and thus the purpose in served
with two wires only.
b) A screw is never placed on centers to measure its major diameter whereas for
measuring the effective or minor diameters it in placed on the centers
While measuring the major diameter, the micrometer "Sine error" which are
likely to be introduced if the thread on the centers and the micrometer are misaligned.
Therefore for measuring major diameter, the screw thread should not be placed on the
centers. In the measurement of effective diameter and minor diameter, VECS are used
and with the help of wires or three only a negligible error can be introduced by such
misalignment.
The pitch of a screw thread.
The pitch of a thread is d as the distance between corresponding points on the

adjacent thread forms, measured parallel to the thread axis. In the same plane and on
the same side of the axis.
Course thread .
When the lead relative to the diameter is large, the thread is known as course
thread.

The two corrections applied in the measurement of effective diameter by the method
of wires
1. Rake correction
2. Compression correction
Rake Correction.
The rake correction becomes necessary because in the determination of the

formula for effective diameter by three wire method, a plane axial section of the thread
had been considered and it in assured that the wire touches each flank of the thread in
this plane. This occupation in
true for angular grooves with zero helical angle, but not for screw thread which have a
helix; and it the later case wire lies parallel to the helix at the radius of the point of
contact. The points of contact on opposite flanks will lies on opposite gides of the mean
axial plane. As a result of this,
the wire lies slightly farther from the thread axis than what has been assured and a
correction has to be applied to the effective diameter as measured and calculate. This
correction is different for difference effective diameter being measured.
A general formula for calculating rake correction is,
Cos x / 2 l2 A 2 (l + A sin x/2+A 2Sin2 x)

C= Cot x/2 =
2p2 d
C= Rake Correction
X/2 = Half the included angle the thread
d= Diameter of wire
A= Constant = d/T+d
T = Diameter under the wire.

This correction is always subtracted from the measured diameter.

Compression correction.
As the micrometer exerts some force on the wire while measuring the effective
diameter of the thread, some degree of compression takes place and as a result the
diameter observed in less. This correction in, therefore, added to the value of diameter
obtained. This correction is more pronounced on fine thread and those whose inclined
angle is small, example B, A threads. For measuring forces up to about 350gm, the
correction in with in 0.0025mm for thread diameter down to about 3.5mm and only
0.04mm at 1mm diameter. For larger threads, for the some measuring force, the
compression correction in less and can be ignored.
E2 / 3
Compression correction = 0.01 1/ 3 mm
E
E = Measuring force in Newtons.
The classification of Thread gauges.
Thread gauges are mainly classified in to two groups.

1. Working gauge (or) Inspection gauge
2. Setting gauge (or) checking gauge
1. Working gauge :
It is used to check the product as it is being manufactured and the inspection

gauge. Which are used to determine the acceptance or rejection of the product.
2. Setting gauge :
Which are generally plug gauges with the help of which adjustable thread ring
gauges, thread snap gauges and other thread comparator are set for checking size of
master or basic gauge.
The various forms of thread gauges
1. Plug screw gauges

2. Ring screw gauges
3. Caliper gauge
4. Screw thread gauge

The various method of specifying the pitch of a gear
Three different methods for specifying the pitch of a gear are
1. base pitch 2. circular pitch 3. Diameter pitch.
In all the above, only base pitch is directly measured and the other two are computed
(or) calculated.
Base pitch = circular pitch x Cosine of pressure angle.
The base pitch of a spur gear is so important
Base pitch is of importance in the case of interchangeable gears as all gears

generated from the same basic rack have the same base pitch.
The case of involutes gears the Chordal thickness, merits and demerits
Chordal Thickness :
It is the Chordal tooth thickness at the base circle. It is denoted by "M".

90
M = mT sin
T
Merits and Demerits :
The chordal thickness element is simple to understand, easy to measure and is

correct for tooth forms other than involutes. For these reason it is not delay used, but as
can be seen from the mathematical formula it depend upon the number of teeth in the
gear.
Involutes gears the base pitch, its merit and demerits
The base pitch "Pn" a gear in the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base
circle.

The base pitch is an important gear tooth parameter, but can not easily be
gauged as can the chordal thickness or the constant Chord elements. However, it can
be measured.
The tooth thickness in the case of a simple spur gear.
The tooth thickness is d as the length of the are of the pitch circle between
opposite facts of the same tooth.
Some special features of a gear tooth Vernier Caliper.
A gear tooth vernier has a length measuring Caliper and also has a vernier depth
gauge to fix the depth at which the length in to be measured.
Accuracy of gear tooth vernier in the vanity of 0.05mm.
A gear tooth vernier actually measure the d tooth thickness.
The gear tooth Vernier measures the Chordal thickness which is not a tooth
thickness as per definition It "M" is the Chordal thickness, then the thickness or actual
tooth thickness (M') in computed by
A gear tooth Vernier may be set to one of two possible pains of dimensions for
measuring tooth thickness. Which of the settings has the widest application and why
A gear tooth Vernier may be set to measure the tooth thickness in two ways.
1. To measure tooth chordal thickness at pitch line.
2. To measure the Chordal thickness as constant chord. Out of the above two ways, the
following reasons
a) The depth form the tip of the tooth (ie "n") at which the measurement in taken is
independent of the number of teeth in the gear. Also the measured dimensions, ie
constant chart (m) in independent of the number of teeth
b) No separate setting are required for the gears of one set but having different number
of teeth.
c) The vernier setting can be easily educated.

Gear tooth thickness
The gear tooth thickness is d as the are length of the pitch circle of one tooth.
The chordal thickness of a gear tooth can be found by a gear Caliper provided
with sliding vernier at 90 degree. Adjustment can be made to the jaws that are integrate
with the vernier slides so that the thickness of a gear tooth can be gauged at any pre-
determined distance below the tip of the tools. It is usual to measure Chordal thickness
between those points of a tooth that lie on the pitch circles and redial distance from
those points to the tip of the teeth. If this dimension is "M", then the arc length M' is
given by
Expected order of accuracy in a gear tooth Vernier
The expected order of accuracy in a gear tooth vernier is in the vicinity of

0.05mm.
The various methods for determining the gear tooth thickness
Various methods available for a gear tooth thickness measurement are the
following.
1. The Chordal thickness

2. The constant Chord
3. The base tangent
4. Measurement over rollers.
Out of these, the first three utilize the vernier gear tooth.
The gear manufacturing methods.
Gears are generally made by one of the following two methods.
1. Reproducing method
2. Generating method
The sources of error in manufacturing of gears

1. Error in the manufactured certify tool

2. Error in positioning the tool in relation to the work
3. Error in the relative motion of tool and blank during the generating operation.
The Classification of gears.
1) High speed gears

2) High power gears
3) Precision gears
The possible type of error in gears
Adjacent pitch error, cumulative pitch error, profile error, tooth to tooth
composite error - single and double flank, total composite error - single and double
flank, total composite error-single and double flank, tooth thickness error, cyclic error,
periodic error, run out radial run out , Eccentricity, Arial run out, undulation,
undulation height, wavelength of an undulation, tooth alignment error.
Sampling length :
Sampling length is the length over which the surface texture in measured.
Sampling lengths are given in the appropriate Indian and other countries National
Standards.
Primary texture : This refers to the roughness of a surface, as opposed to its waviness
(secondary texture)
The function and operating of stylus - type surface texture measuring instrument.
Stylus is a fine point, usually diamond, drawn over the surface. The reference
plane is usually generated by a shoe or skied following the crest of the surface. Straight
line or radius attachments may also be fitted. Movement of the diamond stylus are
amplified electronically and traced on a moving chart. An integrating meter also can be
used in indicate the Ra value direct.
Disadvantages of the stylus type of instrument.
Its bulk, complexity, relative fragility, high initial COSA limitation to a section of
surface.

Statement of roughness.
The roughness statement should include the following informations.
1. Range of "Ra" value (or) "N" values

2. Sampling length
3. Direction of lay
4. Production process
Surface finish differs from surface integrity
Surface finish refers to the quality finish or roughness over the surface while
surface integrity refers to the continuity of the plane, that h, there should be no
discontinuity of the plane is the surface is integral.
The basis of selecting a sampling length
The length over which the study is made will affect the value of "Ra", if the
waveness is to fully included, the examination must be over atlas one waveness
wavelength. The wavelength for different processes vary and now standardized based
on the experience.
Hence, the sampling length also varies.
"AARH" as applied to surface texture
Average Arithmetic Roughness Height. Its significance is same as C.L.A. or Ra

value. The term is mostly used in Oil Industry Piping material.
Real surface :
It is the surface limiting the body and separating it from the surrounding surface.
Geometrical Surface :
It is the Surface prescribed by the design or by the process of manufacture

neglecting the errors of form and surface roughness.

Effective Surface :
It is the close representation of real surface obtained by instrumental means.
Surface texture :
Repetitive or random deviations form the normal surface which form the pattern
of the surface. Surface texture include roughness, waveness, lay and flows.
Flows :
Flows are irregularities which occurs at one place or at relatively infrequent or

widely varying intervals in a surface like scratches, cracks, random blemishes etc.
The methods of measuring surface finish
1. Surface Inspection (or) comparison method

2. Direct Instrument
a) Touch Inspection
b) Visual Inspection
c) Scratch Inspection
d) Microscopic Inspection
e) Surface photograph
f) Micro - Interferometer
g) Wallace surface Dynamometer
h) Reflected light Intensity
Squarness of a try-square .
The term "Squarness" of a try-square refers to the accuracy of the right angle
formed by the outer edges of the blade and stock.
The reversal method used to test the squareness error of an engineer's square.
In the several method for testing the squareness of an engineer in square, a

double edged straight edge is arranged vertical. The square in placed on either side of
the straight edge, keeping in base at equal distance in bulk the cases. Then, the slips are
so adjusted which can be just inserted between the straight -edge and the square at the

top of other side. If the straight edge is not exactly vertical than the till of the straight
edge will add to the squareness error when the square is on one side and subtract from
it on the other side. The mean of the apparent errors on both sides then gives the true
squareness error.
The reversal method in very accurate. The straight edge need not be exactly
vertical and provided each edge is straight, it need not be parallel, the parallelism error
must be checked and allowed for.
The various error in threads, and their effects.
Errors in threads : In the case of plain shafts and holes, there is only one dimension
which has to be considered (i.e diameter) and errors on this dimension if exceed the
permissible tolerance, will justify the rejection of part. While in the case of screw
threads there are at least five important elements which require consideration and error
in any one of these can cause rejection of the thread. In routine production all of these
five elements (major diameter, minor diameter, effective diameter, pitch and angle of
the thread form) must be checked and methods of gauging must be able to cover all
these elements.
Errors on the major and minor diameters will cause interference with the mating
thread. Due to errors in these elements, the root section and wall thickness will be less,
also the flank contact will be reduced and ultimately the component will be weak in
strength. Errors on the effective diameter will also result in weakening of the assembly
due to interference between the blanks.
Similarly pitch and angle errors are also not desirable as they cause a progressive
lightening and interference or assembly. These two errors have a special significance as
they can be precisely related to the effective diameter.
Now will consider come errors in detail and some terms.
Drunken Thread : This is the one having erratic pitch, in which the advance of the helix
is irregular in one complete revolution of the thread.
Thread drunkenness is a particular case of a periodic pitch error recurring at

intervals of one pitch. In such a thread, the pitch measured parallel to the thread is not
but to a true helix. If the screw thread be regarded as an inclined plane wound around a
cylinder and if the thread be on wound from the cylinder. (i.e development of the

thread are taken) then the drunkness can be visualized. The helix will be a curve in the
case of drunken thread and not a bright line as shown in fig.
True Thread
Drunken Thread
Pitch
Helix angle
II x Mean Dia
It is very difficult to determine such errors and moreover they do not have any great
effect on the working unless the thread is of very large size.
Pitch Errors in Screw Threads : Generally the threads are generated by a point cutting
tool. In this case, for pitch to be correct, the ratio of the linear velocity of tool and
angular velocity of the work must be correct and this ratio must be maintained constant,
otherwise pitch errors will occur. If there is some error in pitch, then the total length of
thread engaged will be either too great or too small, the total pitch error in overall
length of the thread being called the cumulative pitch error. Various pitch errors can be
classified as,
1. Progressive pitch Error : This error occurs when the tool work velocity ratios
incorrect though it may be constant. It can also be due to pitch errors in the lead screw
of the lathe or other generating machine.
The other possibility is by using an incorrect gear or an approximate gear train

between work and lead screw e.g while metric threads are cut with an inch pitch lead
screw and a translatory gear is not available. A graph between the cumulative pitch
error and the length thread is generally a straight line in case of progressive pitch error.
2. periodic Pitch Error : this repeats itself at regular intervals along the thread. In
this case, successive portions of the thread are either longer or shorter than the mean.
This type of error occurs when the tool work velocity ratio is not constant. This type of
error also results when a thread is cut from a lead screw which lacks squareness in the
abutment causing the lead screw to move backward and forward once in each
revolution. Thus the errors due to these cases are pitch increases to a maximum, then
reduces and through normal value to minimum and so on. The graph between the

cumulative pitch error and length of thread for this error will, therefore be of sinusoidal
form.
3. Irregular Errors : These arise from distributes in the machining setup variations
in the cutting properties of material etc. thus they have no specifics causes and
correspondingly no specific characteristics also.. these errors could be summarized as
follows.
Erratic Pitch : This is the irregular error in pitch and varies irregularly in magnitude
over different lengths of thread.
Progressive Error : When the pitch of a screw is uniform, but is shorter or longer than
its nominal value, it is said to have progressive errors.
Periodic Error : If the errors vary in magnitude and recur at regular intervals, when
measured from thread to thread along the screw are referred to as periodic errors.
Effect of pitch errors :
An error in pitch virtually increases the effective diameter of a bolt or screw and
decreases the effective diameter of a nut. The meaning of the virtual change in effective
diameter is that if any screw is perfect except for pitch error. It will not screw easily into
a perfect ring gauge of same nominal size until its effective diameter is reduced.
For White worth thread, if sp is the error in pitch then the virtual increase (decrease)
in the effective diameter of the thread in case of bolt (nut) is given by the relation.

Virtual change in effective diameter = 1.921 X p. Similarly errors in flank angles also
require a corresponding reduction in the effective diameter if the screw is to fit a perfect
ring gauge of the same nominal size.
It 1 and 2 are the errors flank angles in degrees (regardless of sign), the
corresponding virtual change (increase or decrease) in effective diameter of the thread
in case of a bolt or nut is given by (for Withworth thread) E=0.0105 X p (1+ 2),
where p is the normal pitch.
It is assumed that the maximum pitch error over the length of engagement is equally
disturbed at each end of engagement. Increase in effective diameter will obviously be
the vertical movement of flanks necessary to produce coincidence.
It may be mentioned here that effect, of long or short pitch will be same, i.e increase
of the interference between the mating threads, so each will lead to increase in effective
diameter nut.
In ABC
ABC = = half the angle of thread
Cot = BC / AC = (Ed/2)/( p/2), or Ed = p cot
Increase in effective diameter = p X cot .
Since cot 55/2 = 1.921 (for Whitworth), its effect is nearly doubled when the
equivalent increase in effective diameter is calculated.
Similarly the effect of pitch error will be reduce the effective diameter of the screw.
Angle Errors : Angle errors on threads may be either due to errors on one or both
flanks. Any error in angle of thread results in interface between the bolt and nut and to
accommodate it, the effective diameter of nut has to be increased. Thus like pitch errors,
the angle errors also increase the virtual effective diameter of a bolt and decrease that of
a nut. Assuming that one of the pairs is correct, it is possible to satisfactorily assemble
the thread pairs by modifying the effective diameter. The effective diameter of an
incorrect bolt must be decreased to permit a correct mating thread to make and
similarly the effective diameter of an incorrect nut must be increased.
If (1+ 2) be equivalent to the errors in the adjoining flank angles of any thread, then

the corresponding correction = Cp((1+ 2 )
Where C = 0.0100 for unified thread = 0.0105 for Whitworth thread = 0.0091 for British
associated threads = 0.0115 for ISO metric thread p = basic pitch of thread, (1+ 2 ) =
sum of errors in adjacent flank angles in degrees (regardless of signs of the errors)
Diameter Errors : Errors of major, minor and pitch diameter and their mutual non-
concentricity give rise to interference and strain in the joint. More forces is required for
fitting.
Measurement of Various elements of thread : The methods discussed here are from
the point of view of measurement of gauges, but they can obviously be applied to
precise work, threading tools, taps and hobs etc. we will be dealing with the
measurement of most important six elements i.e major, minor and effective diameters,
pitch angle and form of thread.
Measurement of major diameter in screw threads.
Measurement of diameter in screw threads : for the measurements of major diameter

of external threads, a good quality hand micrometer is quite suitable. In taking
readings, a light pressure must be used as the anvils make contact with the gauge at
points only and otherwise the errors due to compression can be introduced. It is
however, also desirable to check the micrometer reading on a cylindrical standard of
approximately the same size, so that the zero error etc, might not come into picture.
For greater accuracy and convenience, the major diameter is measured by bench
micrometer. This instrument was designed by N.P.L to estimate some deficiencies
inherent in the normal hand micrometer. It uses constant measuring pressure and with
this machine the error due to pitch error in the micrometer threads avoided. In order to
that all measurements be made at the same pressure, a fiducial indicator is used in place
of the all measurements machine there is no provision for mounting the work piece
between the centers and it is to be held in hand. This is so because, generally the centers
of the work piece are not true with its diameter. This machine is used as a comparator in
order to avoid any pitch errors of micrometers, zero error setting etc. a calibrated setting
cylinder is used as the setting standard.
The advantage of using cylinder as setting standard and not slip gauges etc. is that it
gives greater similarity of contact at the anvils. The diameter of the setting cylinder

must be nearly same as the major diameter. The cylinder is held and the reading of the
micrometer is noted down. This is then replaced by threaded work piece and again
micrometer reading is noted for the same reading of fiducial indicator. Thus, if the size
cylinder is approaching that of major or diameter, then for a given reading the
micrometer thread is used over a short length of travel and any pitch errors it contains
are virtually eliminated.
If D1 =diameter of setting cylinder

R1 =reading of micrometer on setting cylinder
R2 =Micrometer reading on thread, then major diameter = D1 +(R
R1)
In order to determine the amount of taper, the readings should be taken at various
positions along the thread and to detect the ovality, two or three readings must be taken
at one plane in angular positions.
Major diameter of internal threads: The measurement of the elements of an internal

threads is more cumbersome. Since it is difficult to approach the elements of internal
thread, an indirect approach is followed by making a cast of the thread. The main art
thus lies in obtaining a perfect cast, because once good cast is available the various
elements can be measured as for external threads.
Cast may be made by plaster of paris, dental wax, or sulphur. The part whose
internal thread is to be measured is first cleaned and brushed with a fine oil. The part is
then mounted between two wooden blocks whose upper surface lie about half way up
the ring. Cast materials is then poured to depth less than the radius of part to permit
easy removal of cast without screwing it out. After the plaster is set, it should be taken
out without rotating, but by pulling up the middle portion of the cast. It may be
mentioned that taking out of sulphur cast is easier than the plaster. Oiling is not
necessary in case of sulphur cast.

Measurement of minor diameter in screw threads.
Measurement of Minor diameter : This is also measured by a comparative process

using small Vee-pieces which make contact with root of the thread. The Vee pieces are
available in several sizes having suitable radii at the edges. The included angle of the
root of the thread. To measure the minor diameter by Vee pieces is suitable for only
Whitworth and B.A threads which have a definite radius at the root of the thread. For
other threads, the minor diameter is measured by the projector or microscope.
The measurement is carried out on a floating carriage diameter measuring machine

in which the threaded work piece is mounted between centers and a bench micrometer
is constrained to move at right angles to the axis of the center by a Vee ball side. The
method of the application of vee pieces in the machine is shown diagrammatically in
fig. the dimension of vee piece play no important function as they are interposed
between the micrometer faces and the cylindrical standard reading is taken.
It is important while taking readings, to ensure that the micrometer be located at

right angles to the axis of the screw being measured. The selected vee are placed head is
then advanced until the pointer of the indicator is opposite the zero marl, and note
being made of the reading of the micrometer is taken.
If reading on setting cylinder with Vee pieces in position = R1 and reading on thread
= R2 and diameter of setting cylinder = D1 then minor diameter = D1 +(R2 R1).
Readings may be taken at various positions in order to determine the taper ovality.
Before proceedings to the

measurement of effective diameter, the screw diameter measuring machine is first
described in brief here. The machine is shown. Also refer this figure. For schematic
sketch. If consists of three main units. A base casting carries a pair of centers, on which
the threaded work piece is mounted. Another carriage is mounted on it and is exactly at

90 to it.. On this is provided another carriage capable of moving towards the centers. On
this carriage one head having a large thimble enabling reading upto 0.002mm is
provided. Just opposite to it is affixed anvil which is spring loaded and its zero position
is indicated by a fiducial indicator. Thus the micrometer elements are exactly
perpendicular to the axes of the centers as the two carriages are located perpendicular
to each other. On the fixed carriage the centers are supported in two brackets fitted on
either end. The distance between the two centers the second carriage is adjusted
depending upon the length of the thread job. After job is fitted between the centers the
second carriage is adjusted in correct position to take measurements and is located in
position. The third carriage is then moved till the fiducial indicator is against the set
point. The readings are noted from the thimble head. It is now obvious that the axes of
the indicator is specially designed for this class of this work and has only one index
line. Against which the pointer is always to be set. This ensures constant measuring
pressure for all readings. Sufficient friction is provided by the conical pegs to restrain
the movement of carriage along the line of centers. The upper carriage is free to float on
balls and enables micrometer readings to be taken on a diameter without restraint.
Square ness of the micrometer to the line centers can be adjusted by rotating the pegs in
the first carriage which is made eccentric in its mounting.
Above the micrometer carriage, two supports are provided for supporting the wires
and vee pieces for measurement of effective diameter etc.
Minor diameter of internal threads : minor diameter of internal threads can be

measured conveniently by the following methods.
i) Using taper parallels : The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having radiuses and
parallel outer edges. The diameter across their outer edges can be changes by sliding
them over each other shown in fig. the taper parallels are inserted inside the thread and
adjusted until firm contact is established with the minor diameter. The diameter over
the outer edges is measured with a micrometer. This method is suitable for smaller
diameter threads.
ii) Using rollers : For threads bigger than 10mm diameter, precision rollers are inserted
inside the thread and proper slip gauge inserted between the rollers as shown in fig.

So that firm contact is obtained. The minor diameter is then the length of slip gauges
plus twice the diameter of rollers.
Effective diameter measurement in screw threads by micrometer.
The effective diameter or the pitch diameter can be measured by any of the following
methods.
i) Micrometer method
ii) One wire, two wire or three wire (or rod) method.
Thread micrometer method : the thread micrometer resembles the ordinary

micrometer, but it has special contacts to suit the end screw thread form that is to be
checked. In this micrometer, the end of the spindle is pointed to the Vee thread form
with a corresponding vee recess in the fixed anvil. When measuring threads only, the
angle of the point and the side of vee-anvil i.e the flanks of the threads should come into
contact with the screw thread.
If correctly adjusted, this micrometer gives the pitch diameter.
This value should agree with that obtained by measurement by outside diameter and
pitch from the following relation.
Pitch dia = D-0.6403p (in case of Whitworth thread) where 0.6403p = depth of thread, D
= outside dia p = pitch.
Limitations of thread micrometer : The micrometer must be set to a standard thread

plug. If not done so in the first instance, there will be error due to helix angle of the
thread being measured. When setting the instrument to a standard plug gauge it will be
observed that the reading is not exactly zero, as previously inferred, when the spindle
and anvil are brought together.
For correct results it is necessary to use a separate thread micrometer for every size of
screw thread to be gauged, otherwise there will be a small amount of error inherent in
thread micrometer.
A big advantage of thread micrometer is that is the only method which shows the
variation for the drunken thread.
One-wire method of measuring effective diameter of screw threads.
One wire method : In this method, one wire is placed between two threads at one side
and on the other side anvil of the measuring micrometer contacts the crests as shown in
fig. First the micrometer reading is noted on a standard gauge whose dimension is
nearly same as to be obtained by this method. Actual measurement over wire on one
side and threads on other side = size of gauge difference in two micrometer readings.
This method is used for measuring effective diameter of counter pitch threads, and
during manufacture of threads.
The difficulty with his method is that the micrometer axis may not remain exactly at
right angles to the thread axis.
Two wire method : The effective diameter of a screw thread may be ascertained by
placing two wires or rods of identical diameter between the flanks of the thread, as

shown in fig. and measuring the distance over the outside of these wires. The effective
diameter E is then calculated as
E = T + P, where
T = Dimension under the wires = M -2d

M =Dimension over the wires, d = diameter of each wire
The wires used are made of hardened steel to sustain the wear and tear in use. These
are given a high degree of accuracy and finish by lapping to suit different pitches.
Dimension T can also we determined by placing wires over a standard cylinder of

diameter greater that the diameter under the wires and noting the reading R1 and then
taking reading with wires over the gauge, say R2 then = S-(R1-R2)
P = It is a value which depends upon the dia of wire and pitch of the thread.
If P = pitch of the thread, then
P = 0.9605p 1.1657d (for whitworth thread) P = 0.866p-d (for metric thread)
Actually p is a constant value which has to be added to the diameter under the wires
to give the effective diameter. The expression for the value P in terms of P (pitch), d
(diameter of wire) and x (thread angle) can be derived as follows.
Since BC lies on the effective diameter line,
1
BC = pitch = 12 p
2
d cosecx/2
OP =
2
d (cosecx/2-1)
PA =
2
Two wire method can Pbe carried out only on the diameter measuring machine
PQ = QC cot x / 2 = cot x / 2
described for measuring the 4 minor diameter, because alignment is not possible by 2
wires and can be provided only by
p cotx/2 the floating carriage machine. In the case of three
d (cosecx/2-1)
AQ = PQ - AP = -
wore method, 2 wires on one 4 side help in
2 aligning the micrometer square to the thread
while theAQ
third placed
is half on the
the value of readings.
P
p x x
P value =2AQ= cot - d cos ec - 1
2 2 2

A simplified diagram of this measuring machine is shown in fig. as already pointed

out the machine ensures that the axis of the micrometer is maintained at 90 to the axis of
the screw under test. The lower slide (wrongly indicated as lower side ) is capable of
movement parallel with the axis of thread while the top slide moves at 90 to thread axis.
Three wire method of measuring effective diameter.
Three wire method : This method of measuring the effective diameter is an accurate
method, in this three wires or rods of known diameter are used one on one side and
two on the other side. This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faced
parallel to the thread axis. This wires may be either held in hand or hung from a stand
so as to ensure freedom to the wires to adjust themselves under micrometer pressure.
M = distance over wires, E=effective diameter, r=radius of the wires, d=diameter of

wires, h=height of the center of the wire rod from the effective diameter, x=angle of

thread.
From fig. AD = AB cosec x/2 = r cosec x/2

CD = H/2 cotx/2 = cotx/2
h=AD-CD
r=cosecx/2 p/4 cotx/2
distance over wires = M=E+2h+2r
=E+2(r cosec x/2 p/4 cot x/2) + 2r
=E+2(1+ cosec x/2 p/2 cot x/2)
M=E+d(r cosec x/2 p/ cot x/2
i) In case of Whitworth thread :
x=55, depth of thread =0.64p, so that, E=D-0.64p and cosecx/2=2.1657,

cotx/2=1.921
M=E+d(1+cosecx/2)-p/2cotx/2=D-0.64p+d(1+2.1657)-p/2(1.921) = D+3.1657d
1.605p
M=D+3.1657d-1.6p, where D=outside dia
ii) In case of metric thread:
depth of thread = 0.6495p

so, E=D-0.6495p, x=60, cosec x/2=2; cotx/2 = 1.732
M=D-0.6495p+d(1+2)-p/2(1.732)=D+3d-(0.6495+0.866)p=D+3d-1.5155p
We can measure the value of M practically and then compare with the theoretical
values with help of formula derived above. After finding correct value of M and
knowing d, E can be found out.
If the theoretical and practical values of M(i.e measured over wires) differ, then this
error is due to one or more of the quantities appearing in the formulas.
Effect of lead angle on measurement by 3 wire method. If the lead angle is large (as
with warms; quick traversing lead screw, etc) then error in measurement is about
0.0125mm when lead angle is 4.5 for 60 single thread series.

For lead angles above 4.5 compensation for rake and compression must also be
considered.
There is no recommendation for B.S.W threads.
Rake correction in U.S Standard.

cot x / 2 x S2 x x
E = m+ - x 1 + cos ec + cos cot
2n 2 2 2 2
Where x/2 = half the included angle of threads, E = effective diameter, M=actually
measured diameter over wires, n=number of threads/inch, d=diameter of wire,
s=tangent of the helix angle in thread.
Best size wire: The wire is of such diameter that it makes contact with the flanks of the
thread on the effective diameter or pitch line. Actually effective diameter can be
measured with any diameter wire which makes contact on the true flank of the thread.
Bu the values so obtains will differ from those obtained with best size wires if there is
any error in angle or form of thread. It is recommended that for this condition the wire
touches the flank at mean diameter line within 1/5 of flank length (refer solved
problem) with best size wire, any error on the measured value of simple effective
diameter due to error in thread form or angle is minimized.
It can be shown that size of best wire diameter

p
d=
2 cos x / 2
With best size wire, P value = d (cosecx/2+1)cotx/2

1 + sin x / 2 - cos 2 x / 2 p 1 + sin x / 2
=d = d (1 + sin x / 2) = .
sin x / 2 2 cos x / 2
Measurement of effective diameter of tapered threads: The measurement of the

effective diameter of taper threads is not made perpendicular to the axis, but at an angle
depending on the taper. The measurement is made at a given point or distance from the
end of the thread, and in the three wire method, the single wire is placed at this point.
The other two wires are placed in two opposite grooves and care must be taken to
ensure that the micrometer or measuring anvils make contact with each of the three
wires.

The formula for the effective diameter of the taper thread is :

cot x / 2
E = ( M - d )sec h + - d cos ecx / 2
2n
Where E=effective diameter, M=measurement over the wires, d=diameter of the wires,
h=half the angle of taper, x/2=half the included angle of the thread form, n=number of
threads per inch.
Effective Diameter measurement threads.
Thread comparator : In this case a pair of a ball tips engage the flanks of the threads in
the work and measure the effective diameter only.
The ball tip on the right is fixed at the end of a measuring jaw attached to a floating
head in the sliding brackets (B). the floating head has extension in contact with the
spindle of the dial indicator and the movement of floating head towards the indicator is
constrained by a spring. (The set up in fig does not show the ball tips)
The instrument is set to a reference standard, with the dial pointer a zero. To use the
gauge, the floating head is retracted to insert the ball tips in the internal threads of the
work, and released to allow the tips to engage the flanks of the thread under the
pressure of the spring. The dial indicator then shows the deviation from the nominal
size to which the gauge is set. The instrument may be used on work in the machine, or
on the working bench. The fixed head (A) carrying the left hand ball tip is adjusted by a
fine screw to set gauge to the reference standard. The reference standard is built up
from slip gauges as shown in fig. the two end pieces have V-jaws of an angle of vee
corresponding to the thread i.e 60 degree or 55 degree.
The dimension J1 are marked on the pieces, and are the depths from the face to the apex

points of the vees. Assuming the effective diameter and pitch of the thread to be known,
the distance S is found from the formula.
S=X+y-Z
Where, X = mean effective diameter
Y = Depth of the thread from apex to the apex of the V form
The value of y depends on the V-form, angle of the thread, and is equal to 0.9605p for 55
threads and 0.866p for 60 threads.
Z = J1 + J2 i.e, constants for the end gauge pieces.
The assembled slips are set in a holder with a slip equal to half the pitch, bench one end
piece to compensate for the helix angle.
The reference gauge thus assembled is ready for setting the comparator. Ball tips
must be of suitable size for the thread. The size is not critical provided the ball point
first the thread so as to bear o the flack near the mean pitch line.
For threads from 4 to 7 t.p.i a ball of 0.095 inch dia is used, from 7 to 12 t.p.i 0.060
inch diameter and from 12 to 20 t.p.i. 0.035 inch diameter balls are used. A pair of V-
jaws, 55 or 60 covers all pitches from 4 to 20 t.p.i. The method of calculating the value
of S from the effective diameter excluded the radius OY at the creset and root of the
thread, as the form is considered to extend to the apex of the vee. In some cases it may
be necessary to accept the major diameter as it may be the basic dimension of the
thread, and the form at the root of the thread must then be taken into account.
P

For metric threads, S=D+0.2165p-Z; for whitworth threads, S=D+0.3202p-Z.
Laymans method of finding the effective diameter (internal thread) is by taking the
impression of threads with the help of wax or any other material, say sulphur. Sulphur
is mostly used because it can be used many times.
The checking of thread form by optical projection method.
Checking the Thread form and Angle by optical projection of thread. This
method is applicable only to external threads because internal threads cannot be
projected.
The standard type of projector is used, consisting of a projector lamp, a condenser

lens or collimator, the projection lens and the screen.
The screw thread to be examined is placed in the parallel beam of light between the
condenser lens and the projector lens.
The modern projectors are quipped with work holding pictures, the projection lamp
and the lenses situated on top of the cabinet, and the screen at the front. The light rays
from the lens are directed downwards into the cabinet, and hence to the screen by a
system of prisms and mirrors, bringing every thing within the reach of the operator.
The enlarged image of the thread form appears on the ground glass screen on
which is mounted the template or drawing of the form made to scale equal to the
magnification of the lens. This way the two forms (i.e ideal and projected) are
compared.

One of the difficult I projecting screw thread is the fact that form is specified on an axial
plane. So we must consider the correction for it.
Referring to fig. the normal pitch p is less than the axial pitch P and is given by the
relation; p = P cos; where is the helix angle.
Referring to fig.
IfA = half the included angle of thread on the axial plane.
X= half the included angle of the thread on normal plane

B= full depth of thread to apex and
0.5P 0.5P cosq 0.5 p

tan A = ; tan X = or tan X =
B B B
Or we say tan X = tan A cos
Values of A and are known 2X is the included angle 2X and then compare it to the
theoretically calculated value 2X=2tan-1 (tan A cos )
The included angle can be determined by two ball method.
The measurement of pitch of screw threads.
Measurement of pitch : The accuracy of pitch in any form of thread is very important.
Therefore it is very important to able to measure this element of thread to high degree
of accuracy, at least double that of the effective diameter measurement. The
measurement must be made in such a way that other features or dimensions e.g
diameter and thread angle do not influence the result.
External Threads :
1. For less accurate methods, the zees pitch or lead measuring instrument may be
used. It utilizes contact members having two ball points which are applied to the
effective surface of the thread. These points are aligned parallel to the thread axis either

by a thread pin at the back or a special back rest having a plane face parallel to the
thread axis. The instrument is adjusted to zero before making a measurement, with the
aid of a special micrometer gauge supplied for the purpose, or buying a standard plug
gauge. Upon applying the instrument to the thread it registers the pitch deviation from
the standard measurement. The scale of the indicator has a range of 0.1mm and each
division reads to 0.01mm. The measuring accuracy of the indicator is 0.003mm.
2. The pitch of external threads can be measured by using screw pitch or profile
gauge. Such a gauge consists of series of thread forms with varying pitch. The one
which coincides perfectly with the thread under test gives the pitch. The accuracy of
measurement depends on the method of sighting used to judge the perfect ness.
3. A more accurate method is the microscope method. Screw threads can be

inspected and their profile angles and linear pitches checked with the aid of a
goniometric microscope. The parts to be gauged are usually held between centers and
illuminated from below, their silhouettes appearing in the field of the viewing eyepiece.
Effective pitch diameters can also be measured by this method.
The method of measuring pitch is shown in fig. the microscope has two reticules that
can be oriented to the slopes of the thread and the point of intersection of these is used
as the measuring reference. The movement of the longitudinal carriage is read off the
linear scale, the micrometer microscope being employed for this purpose.
The linear measuring accuracy is within 0.001mm and for angles, it is 10 sec of arc.
A comparatively simple, method of testing the pitch of a screw thread with the cooke
tool room microscope fitted with its projection screen is as follows.
The screw to be checked is mounted in a cradle under the microscope objective and

the necessary adjustments made to project the sharp enlarged image of the thread on
the screen. The appropriate thread form on the microscope thread template is then
brought into coincocide with the projected image, as shown in fig. and a reading of the
lon-gitudinal table micrometer screw taken; this can be done to an accuracy of
0.0025mm. The table is then moved by means of the micrometer screw until the image
of the next thread on the screen under inspection fills the template profile and the
reading of the micrometer again taken. The difference between the readings gives the
measured pitch of the screw. The procedure is repeated for each in individual thread in
order to find the separate pitch error, if any. Finally, the difference between the initial
and last readings of the micrometer when divided by the number of threads that have
been measured enables the mean pitch of the screw to be estimated.
For still more accurate purpose it is necessary to employ a special screw pitch
measuring machine by which the actual pitch error of individual threads can be
measured. The Pitter and Matrix are typical examples of pitch measuring machines.
The Pitter screw measuring machine employs various stylus points to suit screw
threads that are to be checked. The screw under measurement is held stationary
between centers on the machine. The indicator unit, carrying the stylus which bears on
the flanks of each thread successively, is carried on a slide which is mounted on balls.
The slide is actuated by means of a micrometer. The act of rotating the micrometer
spindle causes the slide to move in relation to the fixed centers. i.e causes the indicator
to move in relation to the work being measured. The stylus which is mounted on a leaf
spring, falls in and out of each thread; the pointer of the indicator reads zero (it is
adjusted to read zero in the first groove) when this stylus is in a central position in each
successive thread. The micrometer reading is taken each time the indicator reads zero;
these readings then shown the pitch error of each thread of the screw ordinary pitches
whilst special can be provided for.

It may be mentioned that is small hand wheel below the micrometer actuates screw
for the purpose of moving the indicator in relation to the slide so as to bring the stylus
opposite to the screw to be tested in any position between the centers. The total travel of
the micrometer is 25mm.
As the pitch of the micrometer screw is checked accurately when the machine is
inspected and a curve of errors is provided, it is possible to attain a high standard of
precision in measuring screws. The pitch errors are extremely small, being of the order
of 0.002mm for a thread. A test screw is also supplied with the machine and a chart of
itch error for this screw.
The metric pitch measuring machine operates on a similar principle to the pitter
machine. It is robust in construction and sensitive in measurement, revealing pitch
accuracies of 0.0025mm for all thread forms. In this machine refer fig. a micrometer
head is provided on the headstock which is fixed on the base. The rotation of
micrometer head produces movement of the longitudinal carriage along the bed of the
base.

Another carriage carrying the indicating and amplifying units comprising a radiuses
stylus and visual scale allowing a zero reading to be taken, and also capable of moving
at 90 longitudinally and locked in any position. A weight ensures a unidirectional
thrust at all times. The micrometer screw of 40 t.p.i has a 50 mm traverse and also has a
compensator for any small residual pitch errors. In operation, the screw thread to be
checked is placed between centers and the correct stylus mounted in the indicating
head.
When the test screw is in position between the centers, and the correct stylus chosen
i.e the one which makes contact at or near the diameter, the carriage carrying the
indicating unit is traversed until the stylus is located in the first thread of the test screw
and the indicator of coincident with the fiducial line; the second carriage is then locked.
The stylus, by virtue of an ingenious mounting device, is capable of free movement
riding up and down the thread flanks on linear movement of the screw thread by
rotation of micrometer head. The stylus is now traversed along the thread, pitch by
pitch, reading being taken each time the indicator is set to zero. The micrometer can be
fitted with a series of graduated dials that can be changes quickly. With the proper dial
for the pitch that is to be measure the readings of the error obtained from the
displacement of the lines on the disc which is graduated in (0.002 mm) divisions. It is
after making this test, to the turn to first thread and repeat the readings, and the
micrometer should read zero again.

Additional description of pitch measuring machines: To correct any error pitch of the
micrometer screw a compensator bar is provided.
The instrument is checked periodically with a master reference screw which is placed
between centers and measured for the pitch over full range of micrometer. In this case
variation in the reading is taken to indicate errors in the micrometer screw, and the
compensator bar modified accordingly.
The micrometer screw has 40 t.p.i and with a graduated dial of 250 divisions
numbered every 10 divisions, the instrument is read as on ordinary micrometer
calibrated to 0.0001inch. the micrometer dial may be replaced by any one of the five
alternative dials to simplify the measurement of the threads of certain pitches. Each of
the dials is marked with a number of divisions to suit a range of pitches as follows.
Dial No.of div For measurement

6 6,12,24,48,15,30,60 t.p.i
A
9 4,5,9,18,36 t.p.i
7 7,14,28,56,5,10,20,40, t.p.i
B
11 11,2 t.p.i
C 8 4,8,16,32t.p.i
13 13,26 t.p.i
D
19 19 t.p.i
25 (Each 0.002mm numbered every fifth division pitch multiples of
E
20 0.025mm)
Dial C is for British association, metric or non-standard pitches. Dial E is for metric
machines only. The provision of a dial marked to suit a particular pitch simplifies pitch
measuring, a division on the dial is opposite the zero mark for nominal pitch each
thread. Any variation of the
division from the zero may then be read directly to 0.0001 on either side of the zero

line.
Stylus points are available to suit any particular thread. Care should be taken to
make the stylus point touch the thread at or near the pitch line. The stylus holder is
pivoted to allow the stylus point to follow in and out of the threads, as the carriage is
moved along, and is adjustable for pressure.
Expression for the best size wire.
The best size wire is one, in which case the wire makes contact with the thread flank.
i.e the contact points of the wires should be, on the pitch line or effective diameter. In
other words, OP is perpendicular to the flank position of the thread. Let half the
included angle of thread be x.
Then in OAP, sin POA

AP
SinPOA =
OP
AP AP
OP = = = AP sec x
Since AP = r, and wire diameter = 2r=2AP sec x

As AP lies on the pitch line, AP=p/4 (where p = pitch of the thread)
2p p
dp = sec x = sec x
4 2
Problem 1: Derive an expression from first principles for the limits of diameter for best
size wires for measuring threads of BA form in terms of pitch

Best wire size is d

p x
d= sec
2 2
here x=included angle of the thread
p 47 30 p 1
= sec = = 0.5465 p
2 2 2 0.9150
1
(a ) upper limit/lower limit:
5
1
flank length = BF
5
Refer fig please note that point B could not be shown in fig. Actually B lies on line OF
such that AB OF. Point C lies on inter section of line AD and OF).
BF = CE + BC + EF = CE + 2BC
BC = (OA sin x/2) tan x/2
= [(0.1808p + 0.2682p). sin 23 45] X tan 23 45 = 0.0378p
Hence upper limit for best wire size = 0.5465p + 0.0378p = 0.5843p and lower limit for
best wire size = 0.5465p 0.0378p = 0.5087p.
Two corrections applied in the measurement of effective diameter by the method of

wires
The two corrections applied are : i) Rake correction, and ii) Compression correction.
i) Rake Correction : The rake correction becomes necessary because in the

determination of formula for effective diameter by three wires method, a plane axial
section of the thread had been considered and it is assumed that the wore touches each

flank of the thread in this plane. This assumption is true for angular grooves with zero
helix angle, but not for screw threads which have a helix; and in the later case wire lies
on parallel to the helix at the radius of the point of contact. The points of contact on
opposite flanks will lie on opposite sides of the mean axial plane. As a result of this, the
wire lies slightly father from the thread axis than what has been assumed and a
correction has to be applied to the effective diameter as measured and calculate. This
correction is different effective diameters being measured.
A general formula for calculating rake correction is
cosx/2cotx/2 l2 2
C= A (1 + A sin x / 2 + A2 sin 2 X / 2)
2p 2
d
Where C = Rake correction, X/2 = Half the included angle of thread, l=Lead of thread,
D = diameter of wire A= Constant
d
Constant
T+d
Where T = Diameter under the wires.
This correction is always subtracted from the measured diameter.
ii) Compression Correction: As the micrometer exerts some force on the wires while
measuring the effective diameter of threads, some degree of comparison takes place and
as a result the diameter observed is less. This correction, is therefore added to the value
of diameter obtained. This correction is more pronounced on fine threads and those
whose included angle is small e.g B,A threads, for measuring forces upto about 350gm.
The correction is within 0.0025mm for thread diameter down to about 3.5mm and only
0.005mm at 1 mm diameter for larger threads, for the some measuring force, the
compression is less and can be ignored.
Formula for determining compression correction is

E 2/3
=0.001 1/3 mm.
E
Various errors in gears.
Gear errors. Various possible types of error on spur, helical, bevel and worm gears are
described below:
(i) Adjacent pitch error Actual pitch design pitch.

(ii) Cumulative pitch error Actual length between corresponding flanks of teeth
not adjacent to each other-design length.
(iii) Profile error The maximum distance of any point on the tooth
profile form and normal to the design profile when the
two coincide at the
reference circle.
(iv) The tooth to tooth The range of difference composite error single flanks
between the displacement
(Refer Fig. 15.13a) at the pitch circle of a gear and that of a master gear
meshed with it at fixed centre when moved through a
distance corresponding to one pitch with only the
driving and driven flanks in contact.
(v) The total composite The range of difference errors single flank
between the displacement at the pitch circle of a gear
and that of a master gear meshed with it at fixed centre
distance when moved through one revolution with it at
fixed centre distance when moved through one
revolution with only the driving and driven banks in
contact (Refer Fig.15.3a).
(vi) The tooth to tooth The range of variation in composite error double
the minimum centre flank distance between a gear
and a master gear when rotated through a distance
corresponding to the pitch of the teeth (Refer Fig.
15.13a)
(vii)The total composite The range of variation in error-double flank. The
minimum centre distance between gear and a master
gear when the gear is rotated through one revolution
(Refer Fig.15.13b)
(viii) The tooth thickness error Actual tooth thickness measured along the surface of
the reference cylinder design tooth thickness.
(ix) Cyclic error An error occurring during each revolution of the
element under consideration.
(x) Periodic error An error occurring at regular intervals not necessarily
corresponding to one revolution of the component.
(xi) Run out It is the total range of reading of a fixed indicator with
the contact point applied to a surface rotated, without
axial movement about a fixed axis.
(xii) Radial run out It is the run out measured along a perpendicular to

the axis of ration.

(xiii) Eccentricity It is half the radial run-out.
(xiv) Axial run-out (wobble) It is the run- out measured parallel to the axis of
rotation, at a specified distance from the axis.
(xv) Undulation A periodical departure of the actual tooth surface from
the design surface (Refer Fig. 15.13b).
(xvi) Undulation height The normal distance between two surface from the
design surface (Refer Fig. 15.13c)
(xvii) Wave length of an The distance between two undulation adjacent
crests of an undulation (Refer Fig. 15.13c)
(xviii) Tooth alignment error The distance of any point on a tooth trace from the
design tooth trace passing through a selected reference
point on that tooth (Refer Fig.15.13c)
The presence of these errors caused interference in efficient

Operation of gears. These result in non-smooth and noisy
Operation which ultimately affect the working life.
Various Gear Measurements.
For proper inspection of gear, it is essential to pay attention to the raw material,
each process in the production cycle, machining the blanks, heat treatment, the cutting
and surface finish of the teeth.
The gear blank should be tested for dimensional accuracy (face width, bore, hub,
length, and outside diameter), and eccentricity As outside diameter forms the datum
from where the tooth thickness is measured, it forms an important item to be controlled.
Concentricity of the blanks is also essential and the side faces should be true to the bore.
On very precise gears details like tip radius, shape of root provided and surface finish
are also measured.
Concentricity of teeth is an important item and should be checked to ensure that the set
up and equipment is in good order. If teeth are not concentric then fluctuating velocity
will be noticed on the pitch line while transmitting motion. This also leads to inaccuracy
of parts when being used for indexing purposes. Tooth concentricity can be checked by
(i) mounting the gear between the bench centres, placing a standard roller in each tooth
space and then using a dial indicator, (ii) using a projector in which case the teeth are
brought against a stop and each image of tooth on screen should coincide with a line on
the screen (iii) using a gear testing fixture fitted with a spring loaded slide and dial

indicator, in which case the spring exerts a constant pressure on the mating teeth and
the movement of the dial indicator, in which case the spring exerts a constant pressure
on the mating teeth and the movement of the dial indicator gives the measure of the
eccentricity of teeth.
Good alignment of each tooth on a gear is essential, as otherwise the load will not be
distributed evenly over its face. If teeth of a gear be machined poorly, it is quite
probable that the load may be carried by one edge only introducing high bearing
stresses. Tooth alignment can be checked by placing a standard roller in the tooth space
and checking for parallelism off a surface plat. In the other method, the teeth on one
gear are lightly marked with Prussian blue and mounted in a testing machine having a
master gear. The contacts made on the mating gear give good idea of tooth alignment.
Hardness of gear tooth should be tested to ensure that heat treatment is proper and that
the desired harness due to provision of adequate thickness and grain size have been
attained.
The method employed for measuring and testing of gears depends upon various
factors, such as the precision of gears, method of manufacturing equipment available
etc.
The accuracy of any gear mainly depends upon the cutter accuracy and the
setting of the machine. Thus for most of the gears, optical projection and rolling tests
will suffice. But in manufacture of high precision gear, it is necessary to determine the
accuracy of individual elements e.g., tooth thickness, pitch of teeth and form of teeth
etc.
Accuracy of measurement. While the accuracy of measuring of gear depends upon the
measuring equipment available, it must be emphasized that there are some in-built
limitations in the gear itself, such as the inability of a gear to its own axis of rotation.
Thus if the reference circle of gear is eccentric, it would be reflected in pitch error.
Similarly the errors in tooth surface finish such as undulation would jeopardize the
validity of a signal point measurement on a tooth flank.
The inspection of gear is mainly of two types (a) Analytical, and (b) functional.
By analytical inspection of gears we mean that all the individual elements of the gear
teeth are checked. This method is slow and tedious and not of much use for industry.
The discrete error values of pitch, tooth profile etc. cant give a true overall assessment
of the accuracy of a gear. It is not easy to asses accurately how these elemental values
combine in practice to give a prescribed performance under operational conditions.

How ever this method is of great understanding of the subject to student. Nevertheless
it may be stressed that all errors in pitch profile cause variations in the uniformity of
rotary motion and the errors in tooth alignment or helix angle result in the
concentration at small areas instead of being distributed uniformly.
The analytical inspection of the gears consists in determination of the following

teeth elements in which the errors are caused due to manufacturing errors.
(A) Profile. (B) Spacing. (C) Pitch (D) Run out or eccentricity or concentricity.
(E) Thickness of tooth (F) Lead. (G) Backlash.
The functional type of inspection consists of carrying out the running test of gear
with another gear which is more accurate and is known as control gear or master gear,
to determine composite vibration, noise level, or variation in action. If a pair of gears
work together at the designed speed and under load with little noise, they are
considered satisfactory for many purposes. If drive is noisy, then individual elements
have to be measured. However master gear has to be measured on elemental basis
only.
Rolling Tests
This is the most commonly used test under production conditions. This
consumes much less time and gives quite accurate results. In rolling test, the gear to be
tested is actually compared with a hardened and ground master gear. This test is
generally performed on a most commonly used machine Parson Gear Tester. This test
reveals any errors in tooth form, pitch and concentricity if pitch line, When two gears
are in mesh with each other, then any of the above errors will cause the variation of
centre distance. This fact is utilized for testing the errors in gear by this machine.
It essentially consists of a base. Two carriages, one fixed and the other movable
are mounted on the base. The position of the fixed carriage can be adjusted in order to
accommodate a wide range of diameters. While in use, this fixed carriage is locked in
one position. The movable carriage is spring loaded towards the fixed carriage. Two
spindles are mounted in a parallel plane on each carriage and these are made to suit the
bore of the gears.
The distance between the centre of two spindles is adjusted to be equal to the

centre distance by slip gauges. A dial gauge is made to rest against the movable
carriage and its reading is adjusted at zero at this time. The master gear is mounted on
the spindle on fixed carriage and gear to be tested on the movable carriage. The gears
when in mesh are then rotated by hand and the variations in the dial gauge readings are
observed. If it falls outside the set limits, then gear is rejected. The variations might
also be recorded by some electrical pick up in which the movement of carriage is first
converted into electrical impulse which is magnified further and trace of variation
obtained on a graph paper. The trace obtained will be depicting the compound errors
i.e., all errors like eccentricity and tooth form errors etc., which occur together and the
trace will be as shown in Fig.15.8.
The machine could also be used to carried out more complex tests by suitable
modification in its operation, e.g., by locking the movable carriage at the running centre
distance of the gears, and by fixing the master gear, the black flash can be determined
by setting a dial gauge at the pitch line of the production gear. It is also possible to
check the gears for smooth running at this setting and this is very essential for gears.
This is judged by the noise produced.
For these tests, if master gear is not available, then any two mating gears are
mounted on the spindle and they are tested twice at relative angular positions of 180 0 to
each other so that any compensating errors in one angular position in gears are also
revealed.
Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth Vernier method.
Measurement of tooth thickness. The permissible error or the tolerance on

thickness of tooth is the variation of actual thickness of tooth from its theoretical value.
The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and is therefore, the pitch line
thickness o tooth. It may be mentioned that the tooth thickness is d as the length of an
arc, which is difficult to measure directly. In most of the cases, it is sufficient to
measure the chordal thickness i.e., the chord joining the intersection of the tooth profile
with the pitch circle,. Also the difference between chordal tooth thickness and circular
tooth thickness is very small for gear of small pitch. The thickness measurement is the

most important measurement because most of the gears manufactured may not
undergo checking of all other parameters, but thickness measurement is a must for all
gears. There are various methods of measuring the gear tooth thickness.
(i) Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth venire caliper. (ii) Constant
chord method. (iii) Base tangent method. (iv) Measurement by dimension over pins.
The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by a gear tooth venire.
Since the gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, the
instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified position on
the tooth. Further this is possible only when there is some arrangement to fix that
position where the measurement is to be taken. The tooth thickness is generally
measured at pitch circle and is, therefore, referred to as pitch-line thickness of tooth.
The gear tooth vernier has two vernier scales and they are set for the width (w) of the
tooth and the depth (d) from the top, at which w occurs.
Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical of values of w and d can be found out
which may be verified by the instrument. In Fig. 15.14, it may be noted that w is a
chord ADB, but tooth thickness is specified as an arc distance AEB. Also the distance d
adjusted on instrument is slightly greater than the addendum CE, w is therefore called
chordal thickness and d is called the chordal addendum.
In Fig.15.14, w = AB = 2AD
Now, AOD = q = 3600/4N, where N is the number of teeth,

W = 2AD = 2xAO Sin q = 2R Sin 360/4N (N = pitch circle radius)
P.C.D 2R N .m.
Module m = = , \R =
No. of teeth N 2

Nm 360 90
\ w=2 Sin = N .m.Sin ---- (1)
2 4N N
Also from Fig 15.14, d = OC OD

But OC = OE + addendum = R + m = (Nm/2) + m
Nm 90
and OD = RCosq = Cos
2 N
Nm Nm 90 Nm 2 90
\d = +m= Cos = 1 + - Cos --- (2)
2 2 N 2 N N
Any error in the outside diameter of the gear must be allowed for when
measuring tooth thickness.
In the case of helical gears, the above expressions have to be modified to take
into account the change in curvature along the pitch line. The virtual number of teeth
Nv for helical gear = N/cos3
Hence in Eqs. (1) and (2), N can be replaced by N/cos3 and m by mn (normal
module).
Nmn 90
\w = Sin Cos 3 , and
Cos
3
N
Nmn 2Cos 3 90
= 1+ - Cos Cos 3
Cos
3
N N
these formulae apply when backlash is ignores. On mating gears having equal tooth
thickness and without addendum modifications, the circular tooth thickness equals half
the circular pitch minus half the backlash.
Gear Tooth Caliper.
It is used to measure the thickness of gear teeth at the pitch line or chordal
thickness of teeth and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. The thickness of
a tooth at pitch line and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. The thickness
of a tooth at pitch line and the addendum is measured by an adjustable tongue, each of
which is adjusted independently by adjusting screw on
graduated bars. The effect of zero errors should be taken

into consideration.
This method is simple and inexpensive. However it needs different setting for a
variation in number of teeth for a given pitch and accuracy is limited by the least count
of instrument. Since the wear during use is jaws, the caliper has to be calibrated at
regular intervals to maintain the accuracy of measurement.
The constant chord method and Base pitch method of measuring gear tooth
thickness.
Constant Chord Method. In the above method, it is seen that both the chordal
thickness and chodral addendum are dependent upon the number of teeth. Hence for
measuring a large number of gears for se, each having different number of teeth would
involve separate calculations. Thus the procedure becomes laborious and time
consuming one.
The constant chord method does away with these difficulties. Constant chord of
a gear is measured where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic rack. Are straight
and inclined to their centre line at the pressure angle as shown in Fig. 15.16.
Also to pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear and, by
definition, the tooth thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the are tooth
thickness of the gear round its pitch circle. Now, since the gear tooth and rack space are
in contact in the symmetrical position at the points of contact of the flanks, the chord is

constant at this position irrespective of the gear of the system in mesh with rack. This is
the property utilized in the constant chord method of the gear measurement.
The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem for
all number of teeth. If an involutes tooth is considered symmetrically in close mesh
with a basic rack form, then it will be observed that regardless of the number of teeth
for a given size of tooth (same module), the contact always occurs at two fixed point A
and B. AB is known as constant chord. The constant chord is d as the chord joining
those points, on opposite faces of the tooth, which make contact with the mating teeth
when the centre line of the tooth lie on the line of the gear centers. The value of AB and
its depth from the tip, where it occurs can be calculated mathematically and then
verified by an instrument, The advantage of the constant chord method is that for all
number of teeth (of same module) value of constant for all gears of the meshing system.
Secondly it readily lends itself to a form of comparator which is more sensitive than the
gear tooth venire.
1 p P >C > D >

In Fig 15.16, PD = PF = are PF = circular pitch = = 1/ 4 p m
4 N
Since line AP is the line of action, i.e.it is tangential to the base circle,
CAP=
in right angled APD,=PDcos= ( /4 ) mcos
in triangle PAC,AC=APcos= ( /4 ) mcos 2
c=constant chord=2AC= ( /2 ) mcos 2
where F is the pressure angle (from Fig.15.16)

For helical gear, constant chord = ( p / 2 ) m cos 2 F n
Where mn = normal module i.e. module of cutter used and F n=normal pressure angle.

mcossin=m 1- cossin ( 4 )
4 4 .......
Now PC = m -

For helical gear,d=mn 1- 4 cos n sin n

pm pm
Also height of AB above pitch line = PC= sin F cos F = sin 2F......... ( 5)
4 8
Base pitch. This is d as the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base circle. In
Fig.15.17,AB represents the portion of a gear base circle, CD and EF the sides of two

teeth, FD being the base pitch. From the property of involutes if any line as GH is
drawn to cut the involutes and tangential to the base circle, the GH=FD.
Thus base pitch could also be d as equal to the linear distance between a pair of
involutes measured along a common generator.
2p RB
Base circumference =
\ Basepitch = 2p RB / N
If F is the pressure angle, then

cos F = ( P.C.D./ 2 ) cos F
RB = P.C.R.
\ Basepitch = (2p N ) ( P > C > D > / 2 ) cos F
= p m cos F
This is the distance between tangents to the curved portions of any two adjacent
teeth and can be measured either with a height gauge or on an enlarged projected
image of the teeth. This principle is utilized in David Brown tangent comparator and
it is the most commonly used
method.
Base pitch measuring instrument. This instrument has three tips. One is the fixed
measuring tip, other one is the sensitive tip whose position can be adjusted by a screw
and the further movement of it is transmitted through a leverage system to the dial
indicator.; and the third tip is the supplementary adjustable stop which is meant for the

stability of the instrument and its position can also be adjusted by a screw. The distance
between the fixed and sensitive tip is set to the equivalent to the base pitch of the gear
with the help of slip gauges. The properly set-up instrument is applied to the gear so
that all the three tips contact the tooth profile. The reading on dial indicator is the error
in the base pitch.
Base tangent method.
The Base Tangent Method. (David Brown tangent comparator). In this method, the
span of a convenient number of teeth is measured with the help of the tangent
comparator. This uses a single venires caliper and has, therefore the following
advantages over gear tooth venires scales:
(i) The measurements do not depend on two venires readings, each being function
of the other.
(ii) The measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the face.
Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a base
circle (Fig.15.19). Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A2 AA1 and C2 CC1
respectively. Thus the measurements made across these opposed involutes by span
gauging will be constant (i.e. AC = A1C1=A2 C2 = A0 C0) and equal to the are length of the
base circle between the origins of involutes.
Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as they are parallel
and on an opposed pair of the true involutes. As the tooth from is most likely to
conform to a true involutes at the pitch point of the gear, it is always preferable to

choose a number of teeth such that the measurements is made approximately at the
pitch circle of the gear.
The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the dimension over
parallel faces is equal to the distance round the base circle between the points where the
corresponding tooth flanks cut i.e. ABC in fig.15.19. It can be derived mathematically as
follows:
The angle between the points A and C on the pitch circle where the flanks of the
opposed involutes teeth of the gear cut this circle can be easily calculated.
Let us say that the gear has got N Number of teeth and AC on pitch circle
corresponds to S number of teeth. (Fig.15.20); \ Distance AC = (S )pitches
\ Angle subtended by AC = ( S -1/ 2) 2p / N radians.

Angles of arcs BE and B D.
In volute function of pressure angle = d = tan F - F
1 2p
\ AngleofarcBD = S + 2 ( tan F - F )
2 N
\ BD = Angle of arc BD Rb
1 2p
S - 2 N + 2 ( tan F - F ) RP cos F [becauseRb = RP cos F ]

mN 1 2p mN
= cos F S - + ( tan F - F ) becauseRP =
2 2 N 2
p S p
= Nm cos F - + tan F - F
N 2N
As already d, length of arc BD = distance between two opposed involutes and thus it is.
p pS
= Nm cos F tan F - F - +
2 N N
It may be noted that when backlash allowance is specified normal to the tooth
flanks this must be simply subtracted from this derived value.
Tables are also available which directly give this value for the given values of S,N and
m.

This distance is first calculated and then set in the David Brown tangent
comparator (Fig.1521) with the help of slip gauges. The instrument essentially consists
of a fixed anvil and a movable anvil. There is a micrometer on the moving anvil side
and this has a very limited movement on either side of the setting. The distance is
adjusted by setting the fixed anvil at desired place with the help of looking ring and
setting tubes.
Composite Method of Gear Checking.
Composite testing of gears consists in measuring the variation in centre distance

when a gear is rolled in tight mesh (double flank contact) with a specified or mast gear.
In composite gear checking two types of checkings are made :
(a) Total Composite Variation, (b) Tooth to Tooth Composite Variation.
Total composite variation is the centre distance variation in one complete revolution
of the gear being inspected; whereas tooth to tooth composite variation is the centre
distance variation as the gear is rotated through any increment of 360/N.A uniform
tooth to tooth variation shows profile variation whereas a sudden jump indicates the
pitch variations.
Composite type of checking takes care of all the errors in the gears. It is specially
very much suited for large gears as it also ensures control over the tooth spacing. The
composite method of checking is very much suitable for checking worn gears.
Tolerance for Composite Errors. The following table gives the tolerance on total
composite errors and tooth to tooth composite error.
Here factor F = M + 0.25 D
Master Gears. Master gears are made with sufficient accuracy capable of being
used as the basis for comparing the accuracy of other gears. These are mostly used in
composite errors determination in which the master gears are rotated in close mesh
(double flank) or in single contact with the gears under test. These can also be used for
calibration of gear checking instruments used in shop-floor Master gears are generally
of two types; i.e. Master gears type A used for checking precision gears of accuracy class
up to 7and type B master gears used for checking gears from 8 to 12. Master gears are
made from chromium manganese tool steel or good quality gauge steel and are
hardened to 62HRC These are properly stabilized to relieve internal stresses. The master
gears should preferably have lower module values because with coarse pitches the

master gear would have either a very few teeth or else it will be quite big making it
difficult to handle
besides high-
Tooth or Tooth
Class or Grade of Total Composite
Composite Errors in
Gear Error in Microns
Microns
1 4+0.32F 2+0.16F
2 6+0.30F 3+0.224F
3 10+0.08F 4+0.32 F
4 16+1.25F 6+0.45 F
5 25+2.0 F 9+0.56 F
6 40+3.2 F 12+0.90F
7 56+4.5 F 16+1.25F
8 71+5.6 F 22+1.8F
9 90+7.1 F 28+2.24F
10 112+9.0F 36+2.8F
11 140+11.2F 45+3.55F
12 180+14.0F 56+4.50F
production cost.
Parkinson Gear Tester. The principle of this device is to mount a standard gear on a
fixed vertical spindle and the gear to be tested on another similar spindle mounted on a

sliding carriage, maintaining the gears in mesh by spring pressure. Movement of the
sliding carriage as the gears are rotated are indicated by a dial indicator, and these
variations are a measure of any irregularities in the form of a waxed circular chart and
records made of the gear variation in accuracy of mech.
Fig. shows a gear tester for testing spur gears. (Testers are available for bevel, helical
and worm gears also)The gears are mounted on the two mandrels, so that they are free
to rotate without measurable clearance. The left spindle can be moved along the table
and clamped in any desired position. The right mandrel slide is free to move, running
on steel balls, against sprint pressure and it has a limited movement. The two mandrels
can be adjusted so that their axial distance is equal to the designed gear. Centre
distance. The spring pressure can be regulated. There are also screws for limiting the
movement of the sliding carriage. A scale is attached to one carriage and a vernier to the
other; this enables centre distances to be measured to within 0.025mm. The dial
indicator on the right contacts the right end of the sliding carriage and therefore
indicates any radial variations of the gear under test as the gears are rotated.
When the waxed paper recorder is fitted, the chart makes a revolution for each
one of the gears mounted on the sliding carriage. As the char moves or rotates, the line
traced records the movements of the floating carriage, a circle is drawn at the same time
as the record. The figures shown in Fig. 15.28 are reproduction of a few typical charts
with a reduced scale and the radial errors magnified about 50 times. The gear shown by
No.1 record is a fully satisfactory one, that at No.2 is a moderate gear at No.3 is an
unsatisfactory one.
It may be noted that the method described above is dual flank method, i.e., both
tooth flanks come in contact which is seldom the case in actual practice. The chart

records obtained by this test do not give a clear indication of true cumulative pitch
error. This test is an expedient test for accepting or rejecting a gear but not for finding
out detailed causes for rejection. It is used mainly to detect poor tooth form caused by
worn or inaccurate cutting tool, and pitch circle eccentricity arising from inaccurate
centering of the gear blank prior to tooth cutting, etc.
Technically more correct method of mesh testing is single flank method in

which, instead of measuring centre distance variation the angular variation is
measured. The mesh tester is a complex system and more costly. The simplest machine
of this type consist of two shafts each carrying a gear and a plain disc having diameter
equal to the nominal pitch diameter of the gear. One shaft has a rotary joint between
the gear and its associated pitch disc. An indicator is used to measure angular variation
between the gear and disc on this shaft. In use, the two discs are brought into frictional
contact so that one can drive the other without slip. This method is not popular because
it requires these manufacture of two very accurate pitch discs for every gear pair of
different size. Present days single flank mesh testers do not require different pitch
discs. The two shafts carrying the gears are fitted with radial gratings having angular
band of accurately spaced clear radial lines (one line for one minute of arc). When two
such gratings (inclined at very small angle ) rotate in close proximity, interference
bands known as Moire fringes are formed moving in radial direction which generate
electric pulses. These pulse trains are continuously phase compared to provide a
detailed chart record of gear transmission errors.

Fig. Gear testing centre.

Base circle dia. Range 0.550mm
Max. outside dia. Of gear 600mm
Module range(DP) 0.2-20
Helix angle range 0-90
Max gear width 150mm
Additional vertical probe travel 150mm
Setting accuracy of base circle 1m
Adjustable error magnification

Of electronic printer 100x,200x,500x,1000x,2000x
Steady Centre Attachment

Center distance 20-570mm
Throat depth 300mm
Calculation of the dimension of the maximum chord over four teeth when the gear
under inspection has the following specifications:
No. of teeth = 32; module =4, Pressure angle = 20

Shift of the tool into the gear to provide back flash = 0.25mm.
Solution. In this case the cutting tool is moving into the blank by o.25mm more, so the
tooth thickness will get reduced. Hence, the correction needed on one side of tooth is
= 0.25tan F = 0.25tan 200 - 0.6010mm
and distance over 4 teeth for theoretical gear is

p pS
cos F tan F - F - +
2 N N
p 20 p p 3
N.m. = 32 4 cos 20 tan 20 - - +
180 2 32 32
= 42.42
And distance for the actual gear
=42.42-2 0.0190=42.382mm.
21. Calculation of the dimension over pins in the following case. Also indicate the
diameter of the pins to be used. N=31,m=3, F =20.
Solution. Best in diameter
= p / 2.m cos F = p / 2 3 cos 200 = 4.426mm

From Fig.15.34,P>C>D.=mN=AC=3 31=93mm
360
q= = 5.80 ,\a = 5.8/ 2 = 2.90 , andangleCBA = 900
And 2 31
CB = AC cos a = 93 cos 2.9 = 92.87
\ Dimension over pin =92.87+4.426=97.296mm.
Construction and working principle of Tomlinson Surface meter.
The Tomlinson Surface Meter. This instrument was designed by Dr. Tomlinson. This
instrument uses mechanical cum-optical means for magnification (Fig.11.8).
The diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is held by spring pressure
against the surface of a lapped steel cylinder. The stylus is also attached to the body of
the instrument by a lead spring and its height is adjustable to enable the diamond to be
positioned conveniently. The lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the stylus and
on the other side by two fixed rollers as shown in Fig. 11.
The stylus is restrained from all motions except the vertical one by the tensions in
coil and leaf spring. The tensile forces in these two springs also keep the lapped steel
cylinder in position between the stylus and a pair of fixed rollers. A light spring steel
arm is attached to the horizontal lapped steel cylinder and it carries at its tip a diamond
scriber which bears against a smoked glass.
When measuring surface finish, body is traversed across the surface by a screw
rotated by a synchronous motor. Any vertical movement of the stylus caused by the
surface irregularities, causes the horizontal lapped steel cylinder to

roll. By its rolling, the light arm attached to its end provides a magnified movement on
a smoked glass plate. This vertical movement coupled with the horizontal movement
produces a trace on the glass magnified in vertical direction and there being no
magnification in horizontal direction. The smoke glass trace is the, further projected at
50or 100 magnification for examination. This instrument is comparatively cheap one
and gives reliable results.
The Taylor-Hobson Talysurf.
The talysurf is an electronic instrument working on carrier modulating principle.

This instrument also gives the same information as the previous one records the static
displacement of the stylus and is dynamic instrument like profilometer.
The measuring head of this instrument consists of a diamond stylus of about

0.002mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a
motorized driving unit (gearbox), which provides three motorized speeds giving
respectively 20and 100 horizontal magnification and a speed suitable for average
reading. A natural position in which the pick-up can be traversed manually is also
provided. In this case the arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about
the centre piece of E- shaped stamping as shown in Fig. 11.9 On two legs of (outer pole
pieces ) the E-shaped stamping there are coils carrying an a.c. current. These two coils
with other two resistances form an oscillator.; As the armature. Is pivoted about the

central leg any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary and thus the
amplitude of the original a. c. current flowing in the coils is modulated. The output, of
the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown in Fig. 11.9 This is further
demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the vertical
displacement of the stylus only.
The demodulated output is caused to operate a pen recorder to produce a

permanent record and a meter to give a numerical assessment directly. In recorder of
this statement the marking medium is an electric discharge through a specially treated
paper which blackens at the point of the stylus, so this has no distortion due to drag and
the record strictly rectilinear one.
Now-a-days microprocessors have made available complete statistical multi-
trace systems measuring several places over a given area and can provide standard
deviations and average over area-type readings and complete surface characterization.
These systems lend themselves to research applications where specialized
programming can achieve auto correlation, power spectrum analysis and peak
curvature.
Various methods of analysis of surface traces.
Analysis of Surface Traces.

A numerical assessment is assigned to indicate the degree of smoothness

(roughness) a number of ways. In practice three roughness measures have shown
themselves to be particularly useful.
1. Maximum Peak to Valley Height of Roughness. This is obviously the most

common measure of roughness but is not by any means a complete definition of
roughness, e.g. the two cases in fig11.13peak to valley height is same, but frequencies of
irregularities are different and second surface is more rough in comparison to first one
but since, this is a relatively simple method of analysis, this will be a satisfactory
measure there it is desired to control the cost of finishing for checking the rough
machining. This method is also very advantageous in cases where the condition of
surface is likely to exert an important influence on such properties as fatigue resistance
and it is intended to clear the surface of the irregularities left by a previous operation.
2. Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S. Value). This measure was in use previously and
now a- days superseded by Centre Line Average measure, as latter has the properties
of bring easily measured. R.M. S. blue is d as the square lot of the mean of the squares
the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line.
Referring to Fig. 11.14, be selected length L is divided to n equal parts. Ordinates

corrected at the points 1,2, 3,4,,n, whose heights are (by)
h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 ,......., hn
h1 + h22 + h32 + ...... + hn2
thenhr ,m,s. =
n

3. Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A. Value). This is d as the average height from a
mean line of all ordinates of the surface regardless of the sign.
h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + .......hn
Thus referring to Fig.11.14, C.L.A. =
n
But of find C.L.A. value like this will be laborious job. Also by this method,
spacing chosen may be such that important ordinates are likely to be missed.
Things can be much simplified by using a plain meter which can find out the
area of any curve. Referring to Fig. 11.15, let us say that somehow or other the mean line
is exactly known. The C.L.A. value
A1 + A2 + A3 + ....... SA
= =
L L
One has to take care of units carefully to find the C.L.A. value in micron.
How to determine Mean Line. For it first the mean line is estimated by eye-judgement.
Then total area above and below the assumed mean line are measured and a correction
is applied to the assumed mean line to get the correct mean line. Error [( S A (above) -
S A (below)]/L is applied to the assumed mean line to get the correct, mean line. Thus
in Fig.11.16,xy is assumed mean line.

( A1+ A3 + A5 + A7 ) - ( A2 + A4 + A6 + A8 )
Thencorrection = and this correction added to the
L
assumed line algebraically gives the actual mean line. The C.L.A. value can be found
out as described previously.
Talysurf has got built in arrangement for integrating the areas and the average
value is directly given.
C.L.A. value does not give any idea regarding the greatest extent and the nature
of the surface irregularities It is likely to give identical values for surface of vastly
different characteristics. So this is the main disadvantage of C.L.A value, but when the
characteristics of a surface have been found out to be satisfactory and such conditions
are produced which do not allow the surface to change radically in manufacturing, then
C.L.A. value provides a workable control.
The procedure for determing flatness.

Procedure for determining flatness (Fig.7.5). The procedure for determining flatness is
as follows:
(1) Carry out the straightness test already described on all the lines AB,BC,AC etc.,
and tabulate the readings up to the cumulative error column.
(2) Let a plane passing through the points A,B and D be assumed to be an arbitrary
plane, relative to which the heights of all other points may be determined. For it, the
ends of lines AB, AD and BD are corrected to zero and thus the height of points A, B
and D are zero.
(3) The height of point I is determined relative to the arbitrary plane ABD=000. As I
is the mid-point of line AC also, all the points on AC can be fixed relative to the
arbitrary plane by assuming A=0 and correcting Ion AC to coincide with the mid-
point. A hint could be taken here that Cis twice as far from A as the mid-point, the
correction for C will be double that of I.
(4) Point C is now fixed relative to the arbitrary plane and points Band Dare set at
zero, all intermediate points on BC and DC can be corrected accordingly.
(5) The positions of Hand G, E and F are known, so it is now possible to fit in lines
HG and EF. This also provides a check on previous evaluation since the mid-point of
these lines should coincide with the known position of mid-point I.

In this way, the height of all the points on

the surface relative to the arbitrary plane
ABD are known.
One thing to be noted here is

that according to definition of flatness
error, departure from flatness is
determined by the minimum
separation of a pair of parallel planes
which will just contain all the points on
the surface. Here it is possible to
determine two points at either extreme of the reference plane to the separation but the
reference plane chosen may not be the best plane. Therefore, in order to determine the
minimum separation some correction has to be made. The calculation for a final
correction to determine for a final correction to determine the minimum separation of a
pair of parallel planes which just contain all the points on the surface is made by
graphical method as given below.
The various points on the surface have been determined with reference to ABD
as reference plane as described previously. Two points on opposite sides having
maximum positive and maximum negative values are selected and jointed together by a
line xx. Let these points in Fig.7.6 be R and. Draw a line yy parallel to xx to represent
the plane ABD as shown in fig 7.6 set of to scale the height of all points relative to YY by
taking projections from all the points on the surface.

In fig 7.6, Projections from all points have not been shown for the sake of clarity.
Next by inspection, draw a closest pair of parallel lines zz, which will contain all of the
points. It may be noted that one line will have two points on it, and the other line, one
point only. The distance between these two lines is a measure of the error in flatness.
Although it is not exact value but for practical purpose it gives sufficiently accurate
results.
The optical flatness testing method for very flat and polished surface has already
been discussed in the chapter of interferometry.
Devices used for measurement of roundness.
Devices for measurement of roundness. The most commonly used devices for
measurement of roundness are:
(1) Diametral. (2) Circumferential confining gauge shaft is confined in a ring gauge
and rotated against a set indicator probe. (3) Rotating on centres. (4) V-Block.(5)
Three-point probe (120 spacing )Accurate spindle.
(a) Part fixed, exterior spindle with probe rotates, (b) probe fixed, Part rotates
with spindle.
1.Diametral Method. In this method, the measuring plungers are located 180 apart
and the diameter is measured at several places. This method is suitable only when the
specimen is elliptical or has an even number of lobes. Diametral check does not
necessarily disclose effective size or roundness. This method is unreliable in
determining roundness.
2.Circumferential confining Gauge. Fig. 7.35 shows the principle of this method. It is
useful for inspection of roundness in production. How ever, this method requires a
separate highly accurate master for each size part to be measured. The clearance
between part and gauge is critical to reliability. This technique does not allow for the
measurement of other related geometric characteristics, such as concentricity, flatness
of shoulders, etc. The values obtained are dependent on the shape of the specimen.

3. Rotating on centres. (Refer Fig.7.36). Some parts, (such as shafts ) may be inspected
for roundness while mounted on centres. In this case, reliability is dependent on many
factors like angles of centres, alignment of centres, roundness and surface condition of
the centres and centre holes, and run out of piece. Out-of-straightness of the part will
cause a doubling run out effect and appear to be roundness error.
Any or all of these factors may combine, creating a high degree of uncertainty as to
exact nature of the error.
For workshop purpose, the V-block method is quite accurate as it is capable of

indicating normal requirements of accuracy. However for very precise job where more
reliable and more accurate results are desired, the second method is recommended
which is quicker and also eliminates the effects of angle of the block and the number of
lobes on part, but of course, is a very costly
one.
4. Assessment using a V-block. The set up employed for assessing the circularity error
(lobing) by using a V-block is shown in Fig.7.37, i.e., the vee-block is placed on a surface
plate and the work to be checked is placed upon it. A sensitive dial indicator is firmly
fixed in a stand and its feeler made to rest against the surface of the work. The work is
rotated to measure the rise and fall of the work-piece. For determining the number of
lobes on the work piece is first tested in a 60V-block and then in a 90 V-block. The
number of lobes is then equal to the number of times the indicator pointer deflects

during rotation of the work piece through 360. The idea of testing the work piece in
two V-blocks is that when an elliptically shaped part is rotated on a V-block is that
when an elliptically shaped part is rotated on a V-block of angle 60, no change in
reading is indicated, whereas if the same part is rotated on a90 angle Vee block, two
maximum and two minimum readings are indicated on the indicator.
The method of determination of the circularity error by V-block has certain

limitations and, therefore, the following points should be born in mind.
(a)The error of circularity measured on a V-block is greatly affected by the following

factors:
(i) Angle of V-block very much influences in the determination of circularity error, i.e. if
the circularity error is say e, then it is possible that the indicator shows no variation, or
same as e, or twice e ,or thrice e, or some other value for each position of the
instrument when V-blocks of different, angles are used, This is because of the fact that
as the angle of V changes the place where the workpiece rests also changes, Ultimately
it will be noted that the same work piece rests at higher place in V-block of smaller
angle and at lower place in V-block of larger angle and thus the indicator will show
different readings for same work-piece kept in same position on different angle V-
blocks.
(ii) Position of the instrument, i.e. whether measured from top or bottom.
(iii) Number of lobes on the rotating part (e.g., elliptical, triangular, quadrilateral,
pentagonal etc.)
(b) The instruments position should be in the same vertical plane as the point of
contact of the part with the V-block. If the error is measured at a point far from the V-
block, The error of circularity will be influenced by the radial run out of the part.
(c) A leaf spring should always be kept below the indicator plunger and the surface
of the part, otherwise readings are likely to be affected by minute undulations of the
surface, such as surface roughness.

It is obvious that with different angle of V-blocks, dial indicator shows different
readings for the same work-piece placed in the same position. If this problem is studied
further by analyzing an elliptical work piece on different angle V-blocks, it will be
found that some solution can be arrived at. Let us consider an elliptical work piece
whose major axis if 2more than the minor axis as shown in Fig.7.38.
We will place this work piece on different angle V-blocks first with major axis
placed along the direction of dial movement and then with minor axis along the
direction of dial movement. This is so because the work-piece has two number of
lobes.

It may be noted that it is possible to take dial readings both from top as well as
bottom. Consider the case when work-piece is placed at flat. Surface in two positions as
shown in Fig.7.39. It will be noted that the error of circularity when measured from top
= 2 and when measured from bottom =0, whereas the actual error of circularity in the
work-piece =.
Similarly, if the work-piece is placed on a V-block of angle 120 it will be found
by calculation or otherwise that the error of circularity in this case when measured from
bottom =0.42.
In the same way, it will be found that when work-piece is tested on the 108 V-
block, the circularity error measurement when measured from top=1.38 and 0.62 if
measured from bottom. The corresponding values for 90 and 60 V-block will be ,
and 0, 2 respectively.
Thus for an elliptical work-piece which has got 2 numbers of lobes, the ratio of
circularity error measurement by dial indicator on different V-blocks and the actual
error is as given below
Measured value of error of circularity

such values of the constant k=
Actual value of error of circularity
can be determined for different shapes of work pieces, i.e. having different number of
lobes.
V-Block. (a) Fixed angle. Depending on the number of lobes on a part, the following
angles of V-blocks are recommended for measurement of correct roundness by V-block

method.
Lobes Angle of V-block

Three-point out of roundness 60
Five lobed part 180

Seven lobed part 128 34
(b) Adjustable V-Block. It is usually difficult to ascertain the number of lobes of a

part and have large number of fixed angle V-Blocks. V-block which can be adjusted to
correct angle to show out-of roundness is better choice.
V-Block method is limited in the determination of roundness of part because it is

suitable only when the number of lobes is known and is uniformly arranged, which is
never the case.
Various terms used in screw threads.
Screw thread terminology.
1. Screw Thread. A screw thread is a continuous helical groove of specified cross-

section produced on the external or internal surface of a cylinder or a cone.
2. Multiple Start Thread. This is produced by forming two or more helical grooves,
equally spaced and similarly formed in an axial section on a cylinder. This gives a
quick traverse without sacrificing core strength.
3. Crest. Crest is the prominent part of thread i.e. top surface joining the two sides of
thread.
4. Root. Root is the bottom of the groove between the sides of two adjacent threads.
5. Flank. The straight surface between the crest and root (which connects the
corresponding point on the next (adjacent) thread is called pitch of the thread.
6. Pitch. The distance measured parallel to the axial from a point on a thread to the
corresponding point on the next (adjacent) threads is called pitch of the thread.
7. Lead. Lead is the distance through which a screw advances axially in one complete
revolution. For a single start thread. It can also be d as a distance measured radically
between the major and minor diameters.
8. Depth of thread. It is the distance between the crest and root of the thread measured
perpendicular to the axis of the thread. It can also be d as a distance measured
radially between the major and minor diameters.

9. Thread Angle (included angle). It is the angle included between the flanks or slopes
of a thread measured in an axial plane.
10. Flank angle. The angle made by the flank of a thread with the perpendicular to the
thread axis is called flank angle. It is equal to half the thread angle.
11. Lead Angle. On a straight thread, lead angle is the angle made by the helix of the
thread at the pitch line with plane perpendicular to the axis.
12. Helix Angle. On a straight thread, the helix angle is the angle made by the helix of
the thread at the pitch line with the axis.
13. Major diameter. It is the diameter of an imaginary c0-axial cylinder which would
touch the crests of an external thread or roots of an internal thread. It is also called as
external diameter, core diameter, outside diameter or full diameter of external
threads.
14. Minot diameter (Core diameter or root diameter). It is the diameter of an imaginary
co-axial cylinder which would touch the roots of an external thread or crests of an
internal thread.
15. Effective diameter (pitch diameter). It is the diameter of an imaginary co-axial which
intersects the flanks of the threads such that the width of the threads (metal) and
widths of the spaces between the threads are equal, each being half the pitch.
16. Virus effective diameter (functional diameter). The functional diameter of an
external thread is the pitch diameter of the enveloping thread of perfect thread
elements having full depth of engagement but clear at crests and roots, and of
specified length.
When added to (for external threads) the pitch diameter, the cumulative effects of
deviations from specified profile for a specified length of engagement gives the
functional diameter.
Various methods of radius measurement.
To find out the Radius of Circle of any job having a portion of a Circle:
This method requires the use of surface plate, Vernier Caliper, C-clamp and two
pins of equal size. This method could be best applied to jobs like cap of a bearing. The
job is first clamped to surface plate with the help of C-clamp. It should be clamped in
such a way that central position of the circular part is in contact with the surface plate as
far as possible. Then two pins of equal diameter are placed on each side of the work as
shown in figure and the reading over the balls is taken with the Vernier caliper. Let the
reading be / let the diameter of pins be d and radius of job R.

Let O be the assumed centre of the circle. Then in rt. d DOAB. In figure
OB2 = OA2 + AB2

2 2 2
d d 1- d
or R+ = R - +
2 2 2
d2 d (1 - d)2
or R 2 + + Rd = R + 2 - Rd +
4 2 4
1
or 2Rd= (1 - d)2
4
(1-d)2 (1 - d)2
and R = =
4 2d 8d
To find out the Radius of a Concave surface
i) When the edges are well-d

ii) When the edges are rounded up.
iii) When the edges are well-d, his method is applicable to those parts which have
large radius to curvature. This required the use of a surface plate, angle plate,
height gauge, depth micrometer, slip gauges and a C-clamp.
The part to be tested is kept one surface plate and with the help of a depth
micrometer the maximum depth of the cavity is determined. Let is be h. Next the part is
kept in such a way that cavity is resting against an angle plate and the part is then
clamped in this position. The hole is then measured from edge to edge with a height
gauge having a sharp scribing arm. Let the maximum dreading, i.e. diameter of the
hold be d (fig).

Let O be the assumed centre of the cavity and R the radius of curvature.
Then in rt. d DOAB,

OA2 = AB + BO2
2
d
or R = + (R - h)2
2
2
d2
= + R2 + h2 - 2Rh
4
2
d
or 2Rh = + h2
2
2
d
2 +h
2
d2 h
R= = + .
2h 8h 2
ii) When he edges are rounded up. When the edges of the cavity are rounded up, then
the radius of curvature can be measured by a depth micrometer and slip gages. The
width of the depth micrometer base is measured with the help of slip gauges. Let is be
d, then it is placed in the cavity ill it fully rests in the cavity, its frame touching all the
sides of cavity (fig). The measuring tip is then lowered down till it touches the base. The
reading is then noted on the thimble and let it be h. now the case is similar to previous
one and the radius of curvature R
can be found out be the same formula.

Other method to note down d and h is by using a heavy steel block, a steel ball
and slip gauges as shown in figure in this method, the steel ball is placed in the cavity
and the heavy steel block also put into the cavity. The space between the block and ball
is filled up by a suitable length of slip gauges so that L lock is just touching the sides of
cavity.
Here length of block is d and length of slip gauges and diameter of ball constitute
h. The formula for finding the radius of curvature remains the same.
Working principle of profilometer
Profilometer: Profilometer is an indicating and recording instrument used to measure

roughness in microns. The principle of the instrument is similar to gramophone pick
up. It consists of two principal units: a tracer and an amplifier. Tracer is a finely pointed
stylus. It is mounted in the pick up unit which consists of an induction coil located in
the field of a permanent magnet. When the tracer is moved across the surface to be
tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to the surface irregularities. This
causes the induction coil to move in the field of the permanent magnet and induces a
voltage. The induced voltage is amplified and recorded.
This instrument is best sited of measuring sauce finish of deep bores.
Straightness and the various methods of measurement of straightness.
The tolerance on the straightness of a line is d as the maximum deviation in

relation to the reference straight line going the two extremities of the line under
examination.

A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the distance of its points from
two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the generation direction of the
line remains within the specified tolerance limits.
The straightness error of a line is d as the distance e between two lines drawn
parallel to the mean true line and enveloping the actual contour by passing through the
highest and lowest points on the measured line as shown in figure.
The mean true line should be chosen such that it passes through the maximum
number of points measured and the sum of the areas above it must be equal to the sum
of areas below it.
The maximum straightness error can then the graphically determined by

measuring the normal distance (e) between the two straight lines drawn parallel to the
mean true line, enveloping all measured points.
For measuring the straightness of a line and its error, the following instruments
are used.
(i) Straight edge

(ii) Spirit level
(iii) Auto-collimator
Measurement of straightness

(i) By using a spirit level. The most convenient method of testing straightness of a
surface of any length to a high degree of accuracy is by using spirit level or auto-
collimator.
A straight line is drawn on the surface whose straightness is to be checked. A

sensitive spirit level. Fitted with two feet at a convenient distance apart is moved along
this line in steps equal to the pitch distance between centre lines of the feet. For each
position, the reading is noted. Variations in the bubble position represent angular
variations in the surface and these are converted into differences in high of the feet
above or below the starting point.
(ii) Auto collimator method. The main principle of this method is same as that of the
spirit level method. In this method a block fitted with feet at convenient distance apart
and carrying a plane reflector is moved along the surface in steps equal to the pitch of
the feet. Angular variations at each position are used to plot the graph of errors.
When testing vertical surface an optical square may be interposed so that auto
collimator can be used in the horizontal position. This is usually more convenient that
arrange the instrument with its axis vertical.
A particular feature of this method is that it can be used for vertical side of
horizontal slide ways where the level cannot be used.
(ii) Straight edge method. This is simplest method of testing straightness of a surface. A
straight edge of know accuracy is applied to the surface to be tested and degree of
contact is determined by marking, feelers or light gap. The more accurate method of
measuring straightness by a straight edge is wedge method.
A straight edge is supported at the points for minimum deflection on two

unequal piles of slip gauges so that it is at a slight inclination to the surface to be tested.
The distance between the supports is divided into number of equal parts and marked
on the straight edge. If both straight edge and surface are perfectly straight, the gap at
each point will very uniformly.

Assume that the slip gauges used have values 10mm and 10.1 mm as shown in
the figure. Let the distance between the slip values be divided into 5 numbers of equal
parts. The gap at each
CMM
It is a three dimensional measurements for various components. These machines

have precise movement is x-y-z co-ordinates which can be easily controlled and
measured. Each slide in three directions is equipped with a precision linear
measurement transducer which gives digital display and sense positive and negative
direction.
Position accuracy.
It is s as difference between positions read out of machine along an individual axis

and value of a reference length measuring system. Three parameters are needed for
position accuracy. Position accuracy of x axis, y axis and z axis are measured.
Axial length measuring accuracy and volumetric length measuring accuracy.
Axial length measuring accuracy:
It Is d as difference between the reference length of gauges aligned with a machine axis
and the corresponding measurement results from the machine.
Volumetric length measuring accuracy:
It is s as difference between the reference length of gauges, freely in space and the
corresponding measured results from the machine.
Types of co-ordinate measuring machine.
Cantilever type : easy to load and unload, but mechanical error may occur due to sag or
deflection.
Bridge type : More difficult to load but mechanical errors are less.

Horizontal bore mill : It is used for large and heavy work pieces.
Vertical bore mill : It is very slow to operate but highly accurate.
Spherical co-ordinate measuring machine : Both linear and rotary axes are
incorporated. It can be used to measure various features of parts like cane, cylinder,
hemisphere etc.
CNC, CMM
A numerical control system can be used with CMM to do calculations while
measuring complex parts. Error can be stored in memory while doing calculations. For
automatic calibration of probe, determination of co-ordinate system, calculation,
evaluation and recording etc. special software are incorporated.
CMM software.
Measurement of diameter, center distance, and length can be measured as follows.
i) Measurement of plane and spatial curves

ii) Minimize CNC programme
i) Data communications
ii) Digital input and output command
iii) Interface to CAD software
Machine vision.
Machine vision can be d as a means of simulating the image recognition and analysis
capabilities of the human system with electronic and electromechanical techniques.
Four basic types of machine vision system
i) Image formation
ii) Processing of image
iii) Analyzing the image
iv) Interpretation of image
Advantages of machine vision system.
i) Reduction of tooling and fixture cash

ii) Elimination of need for precise part location

iii) Integrated automation of dimensional verification
iv) Defect detection
Gray scale analysis.
In these techniques, discrete areas or windows are formed around only the portions
of the image to be inspected. For determining if brackets are present, high intensity
lighting is positions so that a bracket, when the bracket is missing no shadow will be
cash. When the bracket is present, a large number of darker pixels can be observed in
the window due to the cast shadow then when a bracket is missing. A contrast
threshold between the dark and light pixel value area can be set. This type of discrete
area analysis is a powerful tool can be used for inspection of absence, currant part
assembly, orientation, part, integrity etc.
Advantages of CMM.
I. The inspection rate is increased

II. Accuracy is reduced
III. Operators error can be minimized. Skill of the
IV. operator is reduced.
V. Reduction in calculating, recording and set up time
VI. No need of GO / NOGO gauges
VII. Reduction of scrap and good part rejection.
Mention the disadvantages of CMM.
I. The table and probe may not be perfect alignment

II. The stylus may have run out
III. The stylus moving in z-axis may have some perpendicularity errors
IV. Stylus while moving in x and y direction may not be square to each other
V. There may be errors in digital system
Mention the application of CMM.
I. CMMs to find application in automobile, machine tool, electronics, space and many
other large companies
II. These are best suited for the test and inspection of test equipment, gauges and tools

III. For aircraft and space vehicles of hundred percent inspections is carried out by
using CMM
IV. CMM can be used for determining dimensional accuracy of the component
V. CMM can also be used for sorting tasks to achieve optimum pacing of components
within tolerance limit.
Past process metrology incorporated CNC machines
The process of measuring the work pieces during machining and automatically
updating the machine tool offsets in the control system to maintain the dimensional
quality of the work piece machined without any manual intervention is called post
process metrology. The post process metrology set up can reduce the cost and time of
production.
Features of a flexible inspection system.
i)A powerful computer serves as a real time processor to handle part dimensional data
and as a multi programming system to perform such tasks as manufacturing process
control.
ii)The terminal provides interactive communications with personal computer where the
programmes are stored.
iii)Input devices microprocessor based gauges and other inspection devices are used in
CMM.
i) Co-ordinate measuring machine equipped with a laser probe ii) Virtual measuring
system.
i)A CMM equipped with a laser probe can convert a part of physical model into a
digitize file. Such a file can be compared with other file and can be manipulated by
designers to improve quality. Manufactures can verify that each finished part measures
exactly as designed.
ii)Virtual measuring system uses a microscope system to examine as electronic replica
of the surface texture of part. Such a system is non-contact 3-D surface measurement
system and provide image of the surface. The images are processed on a PC using
vertical scanning interferometer and vision analysis software to produce 2D-profuile, 3-
D plots and counter plots

It generates statistics for average roughness, average profile height, reduced peak
height, cares roughness depth, reduced valley depth and a number of other parameters.
It also determines the depth, spacing and angle of groove in a hared surface optical
probe of a cylinder bore can be rotated 360 degrees and moved vertically along the
cylinder wall.
Three important field of machine vision system.
1. Inspection : It is the ability of an automated vision system to recognize well d

pattern and if these pattern match these stored in the system, makes machine vision
ideal for inspection of raw materials, parts, assemblies etc.
2.Part Identification : It is the ability of part recognition provides positive

identifications of an object for decision making purposes.
3.Guidance and control : Machine vision systems are used to provide sensor feedback
for real time guidance and control ranging from visual serving of industrial robots and
weld seam tracking to calculation of geometric off sets for part processing and assembly
operations.
Application of machine vision system.
I. This can be used to replace, machine for applications like welding, machining to
maintain relationship between tool and work.
II. Machine vision systems are used for printed circuit board
III. These are used for weld seam tracking, robot guidance and control, inspection of
microelectronic devices and tooling, on line inspection in machining operation,
online inspection of a assembling maintaining high speed packaging.
IV. This is for the recognition of object from its image
V. Achieve 100% accuracy.
Steps involved in producing software for engineering metrology
i)Precise and detailed definition of geometrical form

ii) Specification of the measurement procedure
iii) Mathematical modeling of the measurement
Measuring machine.

It is a machine which is used for measurement of length over the other faces of
length bar or any other long member with end, that may be rounded, or flat and
parallel.
Measuring machine
Length bar measuring machine, new all measuring machine, universal

measuring machine, optical projection comparator, microscopes, optimeter, co-ordinate
measuring machine, optical probe, and etc.
Co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM)
Computerization in manufacturing has become so common that the introduction

of computerized co-ordinate machiners has revolutionized quality control in metal
working.
A Co-ordinate measuring machine consists, in essence of a mean of moving a

probe within a 3-D rectangular Co-ordinate systems. This probe provides on electrical
signal when contact with the manufactured component in established, enabling the
special Co-ordinates of selected contact points to be accurately recorded.
Advantages of Co-ordinate measuring machines.
Flexibility :
CMM are flexible in that use, in the sense that they are not designed for any
single or particular task. Speed of measurement.
Component alignment and the establishment of appropriate reference points are

very time consuming with conventional inspection techniques, these procedures are
greatly simplified with computer assisted / controlled CMM's.
Improved accuracy:
All measurements on a CMM are taken from a common geometrically fixed

measuring system, eliminating the introduction of errors that can result from set up
changes.
Reduced operator influence:

The use of digital readouts eliminates the subjective interpretation of reading

common with dial or vernier type measuring devices. Further more, operator "feel" ins
avoided with tough-trigger prober.
In this manner, computer assisted / controlled CMMS have effectively deskilled
the measurement aspect of quality assurance.
Method by which the plate can be produced if the dimensions are produced using
polar co-ordinates.
The operation is that of boring the six holes.

Using the Co-ordinate method, it would be necessary for calculate of dimensions,
A, B, C, D, E, F, and G in Fig.
If the machine is filled with a circular table, the note may be bored from the
centre of the circle, and the only dimension required will be the diameter of the pitch
circle H of the holes and the angular spacing between them is 60 degree. It is
recommended that the central note J in provided for setting purpose, which in known
as a reference note and simplifies checking of the jig after manufacture. For checking
the chord K should be given as this proves useful whatever method of boring in
employed.
Electronic gauging.
It is a transducer equipment using non-contracting sensors or probes to cover

many engineering problems of precision measurement. The operation relies on the
electrical capacitance, between the sensor and test surface, and one, two or six channels
can be provided.
Component checked by Electronic gauging system.
This is essentially a differential measurement one sensor monitoring a shaft

position which will provide a changing datum should the shaft be warped. The second
sensor responds to the combined eccentricities due to the shaft and the disc. The
measuring instrument, can be arranged to read the differences between these two
quantities.
CMM

CMM- Co-ordinate measuring machine It can be utilised to measure length and

diameters of both plain and the readed work tapers and the pitch of the screw the reads
to a high degree of accuracy.
Optical projection comparator (or) machine
It is a measuring instrument, which projects an enlarged image or shadow of the

components being measured on the screen, where it is compared to a master drawing.
By this device, complicated shaped parts can be easily checked.
Essential elements of an optical projection comparator
1) Source of light, 2) Collimating or Condensing lens, 3) Projection lens 4) Screen
Type of optical projection comparator
Horizontal projector, vertical projector, cabinet projector, Bausch and comp

projector, and societe Genevoise projector.
Optical measuring instrument and types
It is a measuring equipment, where the lever in amplified by using light beam.
1. Vertical optimeter
2. Horizontal optimeter
3. Tool maker's microscope
Accuracy specification in CMM
There are two type of accuracies d in connection with CMM
a. Geometrical accuracy :
It is determined by independent measurement because they make major

contribution to overall accuracy of machine. It concerns the straightness, squareness of
axis, and position accuracy.
b. Total Measuring accuracy:

It is determined by utilising the entire machine system as applied to master

gauges. It concerns with the axis measuring accuracy and volumetric length measuring
accuracy.
Machine vision system.
It can be d as a means of simulating the image recognizion and analysis

capabilities of the human eye\brain system with electronic and electro-mechanical
techniques.
Human vision system.
In human vision system, eye senses the image and brain analysis the information
and takes action on the basis of analysis.
Basic steps in machine vision system
There are four basic steps in machine vision system.
a. Image formation
b. Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer.
c. Interpretation of image and decision making.
Machine vision systems.
The machine vision system could be used for Inspection, part identification, guidance
and control.
Inspection
The ability of an automated vision system to recognise well d patterns and

determine if third pattern match those stored in the system makes machine vision ideal
for inspection of raw material, parts assemblies and etc.
Application of machine vision system.

Machine vision system can be used to replace human vision for applications like
welding, machining to ensure correct relationship in maintained between tool and
workpiece, assembly of parts to analys the position of parts so that other parts can be
correctly aligned for insertion or some other form of mating.
It is frequency used for printed circuit board inspection to ensure minimum

conductor width and spacing between conductor and many other features. These are
used for weld seam tracking, robot guidance and control, inspection of micro-electronic
devices and tooling, on-line inspection in machining operation, on-line inspection in
machining operation, on-line inspection of assemblies, monitoring high speed
packaging equipment etc.
Application of computer in metrology.
Computers can be advantageously applied in the field of engg. metrology for

tasks like processing of acquired data, control of calibration equipment, in co-ordinate
measuring machine, etc.
Computer find extensive applications in the field of roundness measurement,

form and surface texture measurement.
Advantages of computer for processing of acquired data and control
I. A particular measurement sequence is strictly adhered to since computer accepts

the information in a sequential manner and also provides necessary guidance to
operator in this regard.
II. Inspection time in reduced, considerably.
III. Calculation of final result in available immediately on completion of the last
measurement.
IV. Rejected readings can be repeated.
V. Scope for copying and calculation errors is virtually eliminated.
VI. The checking of the result in made much more simple.
VII. Time for calibration is reduced considerably.
VIII. New operator can be trained quickly and they need not be highly qualified.
Different methods of dimensional measurement using layer.
Laser techniques are used for measurement of dimensions in the following ways.

a. Scanning laser gauges.

b. Photo diode array imaging
c. Diffraction pattern system.
d. Laser triangulation sensors
e. Interferometers.
f. Holography
Advantages and disadvantages of analog image sensors
Advantages :
Resolution, low lighting, contrast, sensitivity, capability to preprocess cost.
Disadvantages :
Poor linearity image drift and image burn.
Working principle and the steps involved machine vision system.
The machine vision system involves following four basic steps.
Image formation
Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer
Defining and analysing the characteristics of image
Interpretation of image and decision making.
We will now discuss these four steps in more details.
Image formation. For formation of image suitable light source is required. It may
consist of incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber-optic bundle, arc lamp, or strobe
light. Laser beam is used for triangulation system for measuring distance. Polarised
or ultraviolet light is used to reduce glare or increase contrast. It is important that light
source is placed correctly since it influences the contrast of the image. Selection of
proper illumination technique, (viz, back lighting, front lighting-diffused or directed
bright field, or directed dark field, or polarised, structured light) is important. Back
lighting is suited when a simple silhouette image is required to obtain maximum
image contrast.
Front lighting is used when certain key features on the surface of the object are to be
inspected.

If a three-dimensional feature is being inspected, side lighting or structured lighting

may be required.
The proper orientation and fixturing of part also deserve full attention.
An image sensor like vidicon camera, CCD or CID camera is used to generate the
electronic signal representing the image. The image sensor collects light from the scene
through a lens and using a photosensitive target, converts it into electronic signal. Most
image sensors generate signals representing two-dimensional arrays (scans of the entire
image).
Vidicon Camera used in closed circuit television systems can be used for
machine vision systems. IN it, an image is formed by focussing the income light
through a series of lenses onto the photoconductive face plate of the vidicon tube. An
electron beam within the tube scans the ph to conductive surface and produces an
analog output voltage proportional to the variations in light intensity for each scan line
of the original scene.
It provides a great deal of information of a scene at very fast speeds. However

they tend to distort the image due to their construction and are subject to image burn-in
on the photo conductive surface. These are also susceptible to damage by shock and
vibration.
Solid State Cameras. These are commonly used in machine vision systems.
These employ charge coupled device (CCD) or change injected device (CID) image
sensors. They contain matrix or linear array of small, accurately spaced photo sensitive
elements fabricated on silicon chips using integrated circuit technology, Each detector
converts the light falling on it, through the camera lens, into analog electrical signal
corresponding to light intensity. The entire image is thus broken down into an array of
individual picture elements (pixels).
Typical matrix array solid state cameras may have 256 x 256 detector elements
per array. Solid-state cameras are smaller, rugged and their sensors do not wear out
with use. They exhibit less image distortion because of accurate placement of the
photodetectors. CCD and CID differ primarily in how the voltages are extracted from
the sensors.

ii) Image processing : The series of voltage levels available on detectors

representing light intensities over the area of the image need processing for
presentation to the microcomputer in a format suitable for analysis. A camera may
typically from an image 30 times per sec i.e. At 33 m sec intervals. At each time interval
the entire image has to be captured and forzen for processing by an image processor.
An analog to digital converter is used to convert analog voltage of each detector into
digital value.
If voltage level for each pixel is given either 0 or 1 value depending on some
threshold value, it is called Binary System. On the other hand gray scale system assigns
upto 256 different values depending on intensity to each pixel. Thus in addition to
black and white, many different shades of gray can be distinguished. This thus permits
comparison of objects on the basis of surface characteristics like texture, color,
orientation, etc. All of which produce subtle variations in light intensity distributions.
Gray scale systems are used in applications requiring higher degree of image
refinement. For simple inspection tasks, silhoutte images are adequate and binary
system may serve the purpose. It may be appreciated that gray-scale system requires
huge storage processing capability because a 256 x 256 pixel image array with upto 256
different pixel values will require over 65000-8 bit storage locations for analysis, at a
speed of 30 images per second. The data processing requirements can thus be
visualised. It is, therefore, essential that some means be used to reduce the amount of
data to be processed. Various techniques in this direction are :
a) Windowing. This technique is used to concentrate the processing in the desired area
of interest and ignoring other non-interested part of image. An electronic mask is
created around a small area of an image to be studied.
Thus only the pixels that are not blocked out will be analysed by the computer.
a) Image Restoration. This involves preparation of an image in more suitable

form during the pre-processing stage by removing the degradation suffered. The image
may be degraded (blurring of lines/ boundaries; poor contrast between image regions,
presence of background noise, etc.) due to motion of camera / object during image
formation, poor illumination /poor placement, variation in sensor response, poor
contrast on surface, etc.).
The quality may be improved, ( i ) by improving the contrast by constant

brightness addition,( ii ) by increasing the relative contrast between high and low

intensity elements by making light pixels lighter and dark pixels darker (contrast
stretching ) or ( iii ) by fourier domain processing.
Other techniques to reduce processing are edge detection and run length
encoding. In former technique, the edges are clearly found and d and rather than
storing the entire image, only the edges are stored. In run-length encoding, each line of
the image is scanned, and transition points form black to white or vice versa are noted,
along with the number of pixels between transitions. These data are then stored instead
of the original image, and serve as the starting point for image analysis.
iii) Image Analysis. Digital image of the object formed is analysed in the central
processing unit of the system to draw conclusions and make decisions. Analysis is
done by describing and measuring the properties of several image features which may
belong to either regions of the image or the image as a whole. Process of image
interpretation starts with analysis of simple features and then more complicated
features are added to it completely. Analysis is carried for describing the position of
the object, its geometric configuration, distribution of light intensity over its visible
surface, etc.
Three important taks performed by machine vision systems are measuring the
distance of an object from a vision system camera, determining object orientation, and
defining object position.
The distance of an object from a vision system camera can be determined by

stadimetry (direct imaging technique, in which distance is judged by the apparent size
of an object in the field of view of camera after accurate focussing), or by triangulation
technique, or by stereo vision (binocular vision technique using the principle of
parallax).
The object orientation can be determined by the methods of equivalent ellipse

(by calculating an ellipse of same area as the image of object in two- dimensional plane,
and orientation of object being d by the major axis of the ellipse), the connecting of three
points (defining orientation by measuring the apparent relative position of three points
of image), light intensity distribution (determining orientation based on relative light
intensity), structured light method (in which the workpiece is illuminated by the
structured light and the three dimensional shape and the orientation of the part are
determined by the way in which the pattern is distored by the part).

Image can be interpreted by analysis of the fundamental geometric properties of

two-dimensional images. Usually parts tend to have distinct shapes that can be
recognized on the basis of elementary features. For complex three-dimensional objects,
additional geometric properties need to be determined, including descriptions of
various image segments (process being known as feature extraction). In this method
the boundary locations are determined and the image is segment into distinct regions
and their geometric properties determined. Then these image regions are organised in
a structure describing their relationship.
An image can also be interpreted on the basis of difference in intensity of light in

different regions. Analysis of subtle changes in shadings over the image can add a great
deal of information about the three-dimensional nature of the object.
Advantages and Limitations of computer in processing
The advantages of using computer for processing of acquired data and control are as
under :
A particular measurement sequence is strictly adhered to since computer accepts

the information in a sequential manner and also provides necessary guidance to
operator in this regard.
Inspection time is reduced considerably
The calculation of final result in available immediately on completion of the last
measurement.
Rejected readings can be repeated straight away, before the set up is disturbed.
Scope for copying and calculation errors is virtually eliminated.
The checking of the result is made much more simple.
Time for calibration is reduced considerably.
New Operation can be trained quickly and they need not be highly qualified.
The limitations on use of computers for this application could be :

Computer adheres to a given criteria rigorously and thus all the qualifying
requirements and ability of operator in accepting / rejecting a reading need to be
told to computer clearly without any ambiguity.
Sometimes a number may be entered incorrectly due to transposing error or key-
bounce.
Strict control is needed over the use, amendment and copying of programme tapes
to ensure that unauthorised modifications are not made.
Checking procedure to ensure correct loading of program from tape needs to be
followed.
Measurement process gets remote from the operator.
It is difficult to locate the source of problem by normal operator.
While the effects of drifts, environment influences are hidden or not noticed; but
operator may not get that confidence.
While human eye and memory are extremely good at detecting drifts and
averaging high frequency noise on signals, careful programming has to be
undertaken to give a computer a similar facility.
Co ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM) Principle.
These machine have precise movements in x-y-z coordinates which can be easily
controlled and measured. Each slide in three directions is equipped with a precision
linear measurement transducer which gives digital display and sense +vd/ -ve direction.
These are manufactured in both manual and computer-controlled models and come in a
wide range of sizes to accommodate a variety of applications. The measuring head
incorporates a probe tip, which can be of different kinds like taper tip, ball tip etc.
Various type of CMMs are shown in Fig. 17.11. The cantilever type is easiest to load
and unload, but is most susceptible to mechanical error because of sag or deflection in y
-axis beam. Bridge type is more difficult to load but less sensitive to mechanical errors.
Horizontal boring mill type is best sited for large heavy workpieces. Vertical bore mill
type is highly accurate but usually slower to operate. A floating bridge type machine is
also available in which the complete bridge can slide in y-direction on the slides. It has
the compromises of both cantilever and bridge type, and is thus fast to operate, simple
in alignment, and rugged construction affords consistent accuracy.
For measuring the distance between two holes, the workpiece is clamped to the
worktable and aligned with the machine's three mutually perpendicular x, y and z
measuring slides. The tapered-probe tip is then seated in first datum hole and the
probe position digital readout is set to zero. The probe is then moved to successive

holes, at each of which the digital readout represents the coordinate part print hole
location with respect to the datum hole. Machine is also equipped with automatic
recording and data processing units which are essential when complex geometric and
statistical analysis is to be carried out. In fact, in modern machines, automatic on -line
processing of measurement data is possible when the part is still on the worktable.
In a special coordinate measuring machine, both linear ( x and z axes) and rotary
axes are incorporated. The machines can measure various features of parts whose
shapes are objects of revolutions like cones, cylinders and hemispheres.
R-0 machines having motions of their measuring head in R, 0 and direction

are used for inspecting parts that are basically spherical.
As it is impossible to manufacture a mechanically perfect machine it is important

to be able to analysee the geometry errors associated with each individual CMM and
determine their effects on the machine's measurement accuracy. The result of such
analyses can be used to compensate for these effects and thus provide a high degree of
accuracy that could not otherwise be achieved.
The prime advantage of co-ordinate measuring machine is the quicker inspection

coupled with accurate measurements.
The co-ordinate measuring machine with mechanical gauge makes use of two-
axis X and Y positioning tables to bring the work to the probe that engages the holes to
be inspected.
Some machines are equipped with an optical comparator as well as travel dial
indicator.
Present day co-ordinate measuring machines are three-axis digital read-out type
and work up with an accuracy of 10 microns and resolution of 5 microns. These utilise
a measuring element called inductory data element which uses inductive coupling
between conductors separated by a small air gap. As this element is not subjected to
wear, it does not develop inaccuracy. It does not require reference standards or any
other external device for its operation. The workpiece is aligned by a probe and by a
switching adjustment on the worktable.
Many machines utilize More fringe concept for measurement.

Some coordinate measuring machines are available with accessories like optical
viewing screen, (optical comparator), microscope attachment for the inspection of thin,
soft, or delicate workpieces, and automatic print out. Some machines, it addition to
measuring in three axes, are also designed to permit the checking of angularity,
roundness, taper, and concentricity. Provision of rotary table makes such co-ordinate
measuring machine more versatile because setting of a part need not be changed and all
areas can be approached due to positioning of rotary table. The errors likely to occur in
multiple set-ups are thus avoided.
Some co-ordinate measuring machines utilise electronic indicator probe

(mounted on the end of the spindle) which can reach over and under the workpiece to
check squareness in a single set up. Some machines are provided with linear air
bearings on the horizontal slide motions to achieve finer slide position resolution.
Important Features of Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)
In order to meet the requirement of faster machines with higher accuracies, the
stiffness to weight ratio has to be high in order to reduce dynamic forces. To give
maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight, all the moving members, the
bridge structure, Z- axis carriage, and Z column are made of hollow box contraction.
Principles of kinematic design are used in the three master guide ways and probe
location. Even whole machine with its massive granite worktable is supported on a
three-point suspension.
A map of systematic errors in machine is build up and fed into the computer
system so that error compensation is built up into the software.
All machines are provided with their own computers with interactive dialogue
facility and friendly software.
Thermocouples are incorporated throughout the machine and interfaced with the
computer to be used for compensation of temperature gradients and thus provide
increased accuracy and repeatability.

With the advent of three-axis programming, computers enable CMM to measure

three-dimensionally object from variable datums.
The real benefit of today's CMM is its total flexibility and programmability,
which makes it capable of handling virtually any measuring requirement within its
physical size limit, thus rendering dedicated or specially designed gauging
unnecessary.
Design improvements allied to a rapid growth in software for 3 and 4 axis

movements enable CMMS to measure straight line relationships between basic features,
i.e., hole centre distances, etc. and also a variety of form measurements, such as turbine
blades, cam profiles etc.
Accuracy Specification for Co-ordinate Measuring Machines.
Two types of accuracies are d in connection with coordinate measuring

machines; viz geometrical accuracy (determined by independent measurement because
they make major contribution to overall accuracy of machine)and ii) total measuring
accuracy (determined by utilising the entire measuring machine system as applied to
master gauges ).
Geometrical accuracy concerns the straightness of axes, squareness of axes, and

position accuracy. Total measuring accuracy concern s axial length measuring
accuracy, and volumetric length measuring accuracy.
Straightness of axes : Straightness of axes is d as deviation from a straight line

in two orthogonal planes for each axis of movement, and thus following six
measurement parameters need to be considered : Straightness of x-axis measured in y
and z direction ; of y -axis in x and z direction; of z-axis in x and y directions.
Measurement is effected against a suitable straightness reference e.g. Laser beam and
taking at least 10 readings at different points in each direction over full travel of each
axis. Straightness is d as the distance A (deviation bandwidth) between the two
parallel lines containing the two graphs (Refer Fig. 17.13).
Squareness of axes: It is d as deviation from 90o of the straightness bandwidth

lines of two orthogonal axis movements. Three measurement parameters (squareness
between x and y axes, between y and z axes, and between x and z axes). Measurement
is effected against a suitable squareness reference, e.g. Laser beam, taking at least 10
measurements over full travel of each axis. Squareness is then d as the deviation from

90o of the angle between the straightness bandwidth lines of two axes and is given as an
absolute value in arc seconds (Refer Fig. 17 .14).
Position accuracy : It is d as difference between position readout of machine

along an individual axis and value of a reference length measuring system. Following
three measurement parameters are needed for position accuracy. Position accuracy of x
axis, of y axis, and of z axis. Measurement is effected along one measuring line for each
machine axis located approximately at centre of measuring travel of remaining two
axes. For this purpose, a suitable reference length measuring system, e.g. Laser
interferometer, is aligned to each machine axis within a permissible deviation of 1 arc
minute (minimum 20 points measured over full travel of each axis). Fig. 17.15 shows a
typical deviation record in which position accuracy F is d as the distance between the
two parallel lines containing the two graphs for the two directions.
Axial Length Measuring Accuracy : It is d as difference between the reference length of

gauges, freely oriented in space, and the corresponding measured results from the
machine. Three reference gauges are measured, their lengths corresponding to
approximately 1/3, 1/2 and of full travel of respective axis (upto a maximum of 1000
mm). Length measuring accuracy G is d as the absolute value of the difference between
the calibrated length of the gauge block and the actual measured value.
Volumetric Length Measuring Accuracy : It is d as difference between the reference

length of gauges, freely oriented in space, and the corresponding measured results from
the machine. Three reference gauges are measured, their lengths corresponding to
approximately 1/3, and of the full travel of the longest axes (upto maximum of 100
mm). Volumetric length measuring accuracy M is d as the absolute value of the
difference between the calibrated length of the gauge block and the actual measured
values.
Performance of CMM.
In evaluating the performance of a coordiante measuring machine, the following major

aspects need consideration.
1.Definition and measurements of "geometrical accuracies", such as positioning
accuracy, straightness and squareness.
2.Master gauge measurement methods to "total measuring accuracy" in terms of
"axial length measuring accuracy, volumetric length measuring accuracy, and
length measuring repeatability, i.e., the coordianted measuring machine has to
be tested as complete system. Measuring systems can be characterised by the

combination of "mode of operation" and probe type. Modes include free

floating manual, driven manual, and direct computer controlled. Probe types
are passive, switching, proportional and nulling. The CMM is tested in the
mode and with the probe that is commonly used.
3.Since environmental effects have great influence, explicit specification on
environmental conditions for the accuracy testing, including thermal
parameters, vibrations and relative humidity are required.
It is usually difficult to establish a quantitative relationship between any

particular environmental specification and the effect in machine's performance. Thus it
is better to what level of environmental enfluence is acceptable, and maintain those
conditions.
The thermal effects dominate the environmental influences affecting a CMM.

The sources of thermally induced errors include deviations of surrounding air
temperature from 20oC, temperature gradients, radiant energy (e.g. Sunlight), utility air
temperature, and self-heating in machines with drive motors. Thermal effects may take
the form of differential expansion between the workpiece and the machine scale system,
drift between a workpiece origin and the machine scale system origin, and distortion of
the machine structure leading to significant changes in the calibration and adjustment
of the machine. The dominant effect of vibration is to degrade the repeatability of a
machine. If the indicated relative motion between the machine table and the ram
exceeds 50% of the working tolerance for repeatability, the vibration environment is
deemed unacceptable.
It is important that suitable performance tests capable of testing the machine as a

complete system are performed. It may be mentioned that use of parametric testing
(straightness, squareness, angular motion) does not test the system performance test is
carried out by measuring a mechanical artifact which provides some similarity between
the machine testing and actual measurement of workpieces. Such testing must sample
throughout the work zone. For performance test, linear displacement accuracy is
checked by a step bar or a laser interferometer. These measurements are made along
three orthogonal lines through the centre of the work zone to provide a thorough
sampling of many combinations of x, y, and z errors that occur throughout the work
zone of a machine.
Using the socketed ball bar provides a means of sweeping out the surface of a
(nearly) perfect hemispheres with a physical object (ball). The CMM is used to measure
the location of the centre of this ball at many locations on the hemisphere. The actual
measurement data is compared to an ideal hemisphere simply by recording the range

of the length of the ball bar computed from the data. The procedure calls for moving
the socket defining the centre of the hemisphere to several locations in the work zone
and repeating the measurements. Three different lengths of the bar also are used. The
performance is specified independently for the different lengths.
Three Dimensional Measuring Machine
3-D measuring machines are very useful in modern sophisticated industry.

These machines are designed for 3-dimensional calibration of certifiable accuracy. Fig.
17.16 shows the schematic diagram of such a machine. Such a machine is adaptable for
computer control. Laser interferometers are provided as scales. A cooling system is
incorporated to reduce the temperature rise when the machine is in operation. The
workpiece (gauge) is mounted on the table which moves to provide the x-
measurement. y-motion is obtained by movement of the large carriage (carrying probe
on z-slide) across the bridge. z slide mounted on y-carriage moves vertically up and
down. Axes movement is controlled by stepping motors attached to lead-screws. The
three carriages are mounted upon double-V ways, the x and y slides with roller
bearings and the z-slide with plain ways.
Fig. 17.16 shows a typical y-z measuring machine. The axi-symmetric part is
centered upon the rotary table or the "c" axis. The rotary table is mounted on the
horizontal (y) slide. The electronic gauge stylus is typically a ball-tipped, single axis,
linear varible displacement transducer (LVDT) carried and positioned by the vertical (z)
slide. The axis of the LVDT is typically mounted at a 45 degree angle with respect to
the y and z axes. A correction is provided for the cosine error introduced when the
direction of travel of LVDT is not normal to the part surface.
Displacement accuracy is achieved by laser interferometers operating in helium

shielded pathways. The interferometers are located in strict accordance with the Abbe
principle, i.e., the extension of the laser interferometer axis passes through the centre of
the stylus ball at its null position (the centre of stylus ball being "functional point").
Refer Fig. 17.17.
On the y-axis slide, two laser interferometers suitably separated are provided.
The difference in readings between these two lasers is used as a servo input to drive a
piezoelectric crystal that supports one end of the y-axis table, thereby correcting the
angular motion or pitch of the table.

Straightness accuracy is achieved by mounting straight edges parallel to each

slide to measure and correct for slide way straightness errors. For instance any error in
the straightness of travel of z-slide will cause unwanted movement in the y direction.
The LVDT gauge head that contacts the straight edge detects this movement and
corrects it by zero shifting the y-slide. Similarly when nonstraighness of y-slide travel is
detected, the z-axis is zero shifted in the proper direction to correct the travel.
However stiff a machine may be made, it deflects and distorts owing to the
effects of changing and moving loads on the structure. The metrology system must
therefore be made independent of the machine base, i.e., the external forces upon the
metrology system must be constant. The metrology base is thus designed so as not to
be influenced by the machine base (Refer Fings. 17.17 & 17.18). The frame is supported
on kinematic mounts inside the machine base. The plane of the supports is coincident
with the bending neutral axis of the machine base, and its influence on the metrology
frame is thereby minimised. The metrology frame houses the laser, laser pathways and
remote interferometers and also supports the two straight edges.
Because of low coefficient of expansion of granite, it is chosen for building the

machine base. The base is supported on three pneumatic isolators. The metrology
frame is built of steel because temperature controlled oil shower is included.
For stability of the laser ( which depends on the stability of the medium in the
pathways ), helium at a pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure ( Maintained at
constant value by a regulator ) is provided in path ways. The effect of helium pressure
change on the laser wavelength is taken into account.
y-axis and z-axis slides ride on and are guided by hydrostatic bearings. A
portion of each bearing is evacuated and the evacuated section acts like a vacuum chuck
to hold the bearing against the way (similar to preloading the bearing). The balance of
the bearings are externally compensated to enhance the stiffness. The slide drive
system (Fig. 17.19) can be considered as a rack and pinion drive without gear teeth. The
capstan is connected directly to the drive motor. The steel traction bar is squeezed
between the capstan and the idler roller. One end of the traction bar is fastened to the
slide with spherical bearing. A coil spring supports the weight of the bar at the
opposite end. Both the capstan and the idler are supported on hydrostatic bearings.

This type of drive system has minimum cost, minimum heat generation,
maximum stiffness, minimum sliding friction, maximum linearity of displacement, no
backlash, high reliability, compactness and minimum influence on slide straightness.
The thermal environment of the measuring machine and the part is controlled by
showering adequate quantity of oil controlled at 25oC. The shower is carefully
sculptured to maintain machine temperature and to minimise splash. The primary
advantages of liquid shower are its greater heat removal capability and the fact it is
easily directed to the critical areas of the machine and workpiece surfaces. Liquids also
have higher heat capacity than gases and accordingly it is possible to remove heat with
corresponding lower temperature differences.
Tool Makers Microscope :-
The tool makers microscope is a versatile instrument that measure by optical means with no
pressure being involved, thus very useful for measurement on small and delicate parts. It is
designed for:
a) Measurement on parts of complex form e.g. - profile of external thread, tool,

templates, gauges, etc.
b) Measuring centre to centre distance of holes in any plane.
c) A variety of linear measurements.
d) Accurate angular measurements.
e)

fig. Tool Makers Microscope
Tool makers microscope is shown in fig. The optical head can be moved up or down the
vertical column and can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw. The table which
is mounted on the base of the instrument can be moved in two mutually perpendicular horizontal
directions (longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate micrometer screw having thimble scale
and venires.
Principle of measurement: -
fig. Principle of operation.
A ray of light from a light source fig. b is reflected by a mirror through 90 It then passes
through a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts may be placed ). A shadow image of the
outline or counter of the workspaces passes through the objective of the optical head and is
projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen. Observations are made through
an eyepiece. Measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the ground glass
screen. The screen can be rotated through 360; the angle of rotation is read through an auxiliary
eyepiece.

Procedure: -
A) Pitch Measurement: -
1) Take the hacksaw blade and mount on the moving blade of tool makers
Microscope in horizontal position.
2) Focus the microscope on the blade.
3) Make the cross line in the microscope coincided with one of the edge of the
blade.
4) Take a reading on ground glass screen, this is the initial reading.
5) The table is again moved until the next edge of the blade coincides with the
cross-line on the screen and the final reading takes.
6) the difference between initial and final reading gives pitch of the blade.
B) Teeth Angle :-
1) Place the blade on the table in same position.

2) Rotate the screen until a line on the angle of screen rotation is noted.
3) Take the angular reading, the initial one.
4) Again rotate the screen until the same line coincides with the other flank of the
tooth.
5) Take the final angular reading.
6) The teeth angle of blade in the difference between the two angular
readings.

Observation Table:-
For
Sr No. Initial reading Final reading Difference Mean
Measurement
PITCH 2
1
TEETH
2
ANGLE
3
A profile projector is an optical measurement tool that

magnifies a samples surface features to allow
measurement on a linear/circular scale. A profile projector
is also referred to as an optical comparator, or even known
as a shadowgraph. A profile projector projects a magnified
profile image of an area or feature of a work piece onto a
screen most commonly using diascopic illumination.
Dimensions can be measured directly on the screen or
compared to a standard reference at the correct
magnification. For accuracy, it is important that the
magnification does not change with perspective, i.e. its
position or the view point of the operator. Telecentric
lenses are, therefore, highly desirable. The screen often
has a grid and this grid can often be rotated through 360
degrees to align with an edge as displayed on the screen.
Point positions, measurements, and calculations may also

be performed using a simple digital read out device. A

computer may be added to a profile projector system for
edge detection, thereby eliminating some human error.

Profile projectors are robust measuring tools commonly used in machine shops, quality
assurance departments and occasionally on assembly shop floors. They are suitable for
measuring and quality control for a wide range of size and weights of objects. The most basic use
of a profile projector is to identify a point or edge on the shadow and from this point to calculate
a length. By magnifying the image, the operator is less likely to make a mistake when deciding
where the edge or point starts. Profile images can also be used to make simple stop / go decision
by, for example, matching an image against a standard to determine whether a part has been
made correctly.
Preparing for work:-
There are three basic requirements for perfect working of Profile Projector is
A clean optical system
Accurately centered lighting
Careful focusing of the image
All optical parts must be perfectly clean otherwise the projected image will appear dull without
sharpness. Never touch the glass of episcopic lighting mirror with the fingers as they are

extremely sensitive.

UNIT III SPRX1003 METROLOGY &
INSTRUMENTATION
1. Centering the lighting

The filament of lamp must be in the optical axis, i.e. must be set into the focus of the main
condenser. The centering has to be done whenever the lamp is change. A badly centered light
beam comes oblique to the optical axis and this gives rise to various problems.
2. Centering the Diascopic Lamp
a. Draw the diagonals accurately with a pencil on a tranpaper.
b. Remove the objective and condenser lens.
c. Switch the regulator to half brilliance.
d. Slacken clamp screw to enable the lamp socket to be moved in direction B-B and C-C.
e. Slacken grub screw to enable the lamp socket to be moved in direction A-A.
f. Move lamp socket in direction A-A / B-B and C-C until the image of the filament is
sharp and central on the screen. The filament image must not be move than 2 to 3mm out
of the center of the diagonals.
g. Tighten the clamp screw and grub screw.
h. Mount objective and condenser lens at its position.
3. Filters
Filters can be fitted in the condenser mount by screwing the filter mount. In principle only white
lisght is used for episcopic projection, in order to obtain maximum brightness.
Green filters gives an image richer in contrast and allows uninterrupted working since the eyes
become less tired with green light.
4. Surface Illumination (Episcopic Lighting)
With episcopic projection, the light reflected from the object is thrown on to the screen. Light
angles can be adjusted by tilting the mirror by unscrewing the knurled nut. With this appear not
only the profile but also all the details of the surface such as engravings, machining marks,
scratches and surface defects.
Centering the Episcopic Lamp :
a. Insert the 10x objective lens mount.
b. Place a workpiece of white transpaper on the objective glass plate, draw a cross line on
the paper.
c. Switch on the diascopic lighting and adjust work table vertically by operating drive until
the cross line of paper appears in the center of screen.
d. Switch off Diascopic lamp again.
e. Switch on Episcopic Lamp and adjust the light on mirrors
f. Untighten the grub screw, move lamp socket until the filament appear on the middle of
the longitudinal axis on the paper marked with cross line then tighten the grub screw.
g. Slacken the knurled screw of lamp so that it can be moved in direction H-H, tighten the
knurled screw.
h. Setting up the surface illumination :
Mount the required lens 10x, 20x, 25x

UNIT III SPRX1003 METROLOGY &
INSTRUMENTATION
Bring the proper height of light beam. Now place a transparent paper on the
object table, switch on the diascopic light and adjust vertically till the image of
the paper is sharp on the screen, then switch off the diascopic light.
Switch on the episcopic light, will be noticed that half the light beam should be
reflected by one mirror and half by other mirror. Moving mirrors centrally on one
illuminated surface should bring reflected beam together again.
Replace the piece of the paper with the object to be inspected and the clarity of
certain details can sometimes be improved by the mirror.
5. Check the magnification with the transparent master scale, lay this scale on the objective
glass table and measure its image on image screen by means of work scale.
Observation Table:-
SN Pitch Width (W) Depth (T)
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Calculate Teeth Angle using formula - Tan = T/W

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UNIT IV SPRX1003 METROLOGY & INSTRUMENTATION

Major diameter, Minor diameter, Effective diameter, pitch, thread form

Following in relation to screw threads.

Standards do not specify tolerance on pitch

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 1

Reason for using three wire.

The pitch of a screw thread.

The pitch of a thread is d as the distance between corresponding points on the

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 2

The rake correction becomes necessary because in the determination of the

A general formula for calculating rake correction is,

Cos x / 2 l2 A 2 (l + A sin x/2+A 2Sin2 x)

T = Diameter under the wire.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 3

The classification of Thread gauges.

Thread gauges are mainly classified in to two groups.

It is used to check the product as it is being manufactured and the inspection

The various forms of thread gauges

1. Plug screw gauges

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 4

The various method of specifying the pitch of a gear

Three different methods for specifying the pitch of a gear are

1. base pitch 2. circular pitch 3. Diameter pitch.

Base pitch = circular pitch x Cosine of pressure angle.

The base pitch of a spur gear is so important

Base pitch is of importance in the case of interchangeable gears as all gears

It is the Chordal tooth thickness at the base circle. It is denoted by "M".

Merits and Demerits :

The chordal thickness element is simple to understand, easy to measure and is

Involutes gears the base pitch, its merit and demerits

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 5

The tooth thickness in the case of a simple spur gear.

Some special features of a gear tooth Vernier Caliper.

Accuracy of gear tooth vernier in the vanity of 0.05mm.

A gear tooth vernier actually measure the d tooth thickness.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 6

Gear tooth thickness

Expected order of accuracy in a gear tooth Vernier

The expected order of accuracy in a gear tooth vernier is in the vicinity of

The various methods for determining the gear tooth thickness

1. The Chordal thickness

The gear manufacturing methods.

Gears are generally made by one of the following two methods.

The sources of error in manufacturing of gears

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 7

1. Error in the manufactured certify tool

The Classification of gears.

1) High speed gears

The possible type of error in gears

Disadvantages of the stylus type of instrument.

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 8

The roughness statement should include the following informations.

1. Range of "Ra" value (or) "N" values

Surface finish differs from surface integrity

The basis of selecting a sampling length

Hence, the sampling length also varies.

"AARH" as applied to surface texture

Average Arithmetic Roughness Height. Its significance is same as C.L.A. or Ra

It is the Surface prescribed by the design or by the process of manufacture

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University Page 9

It is the close representation of real surface obtained by instrumental means.

Flows are irregularities which occurs at one place or at relatively infrequent or

The methods of measuring surface finish