Biology 11 (Fundamentals of Biology I)

ANIMALS: Form and Function

Lecturer: Adrian U. Luczon, M. Sci
IB, Room 146
adrian.Luczon@gmail.com
Main References:
(1) Biology by Campbell and Reece
(2) Integrated Principles of Zoology
by Hickman et al.
ANIMALS : Form and Function
A. Animal Cell Types and Tissues
B. Animal Systems and Processes
1. Support and Protection
2. Movement
3. Digestion and Nutrition
4. Gas Exchange
5. Transport/Circulation
6. Excretion and Osmoregulation
7. Regulatory Mechanisms
 ANIMALS : Form and Function

Anatomy - the study of the biological form of an

organism

Physiology - the study of the biological functions an

organism performs

The comparative study of animals reveals that form

and function are closely correlated
 Life is
characterized by
hierarchical
levels of
organization,
each with
emergent
properties.
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

1. Protoplasmic grade of organization

2. Cellular grade of organization

3. Cell-tissue grade of organization

4. Tissue-organ grade of organization

5. Organ-system grade of organization

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

1. Protoplasmic grade of organization

unicellular organisms
all life functions are confined within the boundaries
of a single cell
protoplasm is differentiated into organelles

Paramecium
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

2. Cellular grade of organization

aggregation of cells that are functionally
differentiated
a division of labor is evident

Volvox
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

3. Cell-tissue grade of organization

aggregation of similar cells into definite patterns of
layers, thus becoming a tissue
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

4. Tissue-organ grade of organization

an aggregation of tissues into organs

Planaria
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity

5. Organ-system grade of organization

organs work together to perform some function
systems are associated with basic body functions
 Structural Organization in Higher Forms

Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of

Unit Study
Organ Integumentary Respiratory Anatomy
System Muscular Reproductive
Skeletal Digestive
Nervous Endocrine
Circulatory Immune
Excretory
Organ oral cavity brain Anatomy
pharynx eye
esophagus liver
stomach kidney
pancreas lung
intestines anus
 Structural Organization in Higher Forms

Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of

Unit Study
Tissue A. Somatic B. Reproductive Histology
- epithelial - sperm
- connective - egg/oocyte
- muscular
- nervous
Cell same as in tissue Cytology/Cell
Biology
Animal Cell Types
Four main categories of animal tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

2. Connective Tissue

3. Muscular Tissue

4. Nervous Tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue

covers the outside of the body and lines organs

and cavities within the body
compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells

little intercellular substance

polarized
1. Epithelial Tissue

Apical or free surface

is exposed to air or fluid
structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia,
flagella

Basement
membrane
where the cells
at the base of
the barrier are
attached
also called basal
lamina
1. Epithelial Tissue

cells are closely joined

animals have 3 main types of intercellular links:
tight junctions
Desmosomes
gap junctions
1. Tight Junction

Tight junction

0.5 m
membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming
continuous belts around cells
prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of
epithelial cells
2. Desmosomes
fasten cells together into
strong sheets, much like
rivets

reinforced by intermediate
filaments of keratin

attach muscle cells to each

other in a muscle

Desmosome
1 m
3. Gap Junction

Gap junction

0.1 m

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other small

molecules can pass through channels
 1. Epithelial Tissue

Types according to layering:

1. simple epithelium
- Made up of a single
layer of cells
2. stratified epithelium
- Made up of many
layers of cells
3. pseudostratified epithelium
- Made up of a single
layer of cells but
appears stratified
 1. Epithelial Tissue

Types of epithelial cells according to shape:

1. Cuboidal like dice

2. Squamous flat like tiles

3. Columnar like
bricks on end
Simple squamous epithelium

composed of flattened cells

form a continuous delicate lining of blood
capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces

permits the passive diffusion of gases and tissue

fluids into and out of cavities
Stratified squamous epithelium

consists of 2 to many
layers of cells
adapted to withstand mild
mechanical abrasion
basal layers of cells
undergo continuous
mitotic divisions
lines the oral cavity,
esophagus, anal canal,
vagina of mammals, skin
Simple cuboidal epithelium

short, boxlike cells collecting duct in kidney

usually lines small ducts and tubules

may have active secretory and absorptive
functions
Simple columnar epithelium

roof of mouth of toad

like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller

found on highly absorptive surfaces such as
intestinal tract and female reproductive tract
in some organs, cells may be ciliated
Stratified columnar epithelium

salivary duct

consists of at least two layers of cells

found along some areas of the anorectal region
and salivary duct
Transitional epithelium

a type of pseudostratified
epithelium
specialized to accommodate
great stretching

found in the urinary tract and

bladder
 Glandular epithelia, absorb or secrete chemical
solutions
Types based on how products are released:
exocrine (unicellular or multicellular)
endocrine
mixed (e.g., pancreas)
Special terms of some epithelial tissues:
a. mesothelium squamous cells lining serous
cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and
lining of visceral organs

b. endothelium lining of blood and lymph

vessels
2. Connective Tissue

mechanical support
bind structures to preserve integrity of organization
exchange of metabolites between blood and
tissues
storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues
protection against infection
repair
2. Connective Tissue

paucity of cells; more intercellular substance

(fibers and ground substance)

the extracellular matrix generally consists of a

web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation
that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid
2. Connective Tissue

amorphous ground substance

- glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate
- permit diffusion of nutrients, substances, water,
gases, and wastes
- important in areas where small blood vessels are
absent
 2. Connective Tissue

Types of cells:
A. fixed
- fibroblast/fibrocyte
- mesenchymal
- adipose
- fixed macrophage
B. wandering (from blood)
- monocyte - plasma cell - mast cell
- lymphocyte - eosinophil
Three kinds of connective tissue fibers:
Collagenous fibers (white)
made of collagen
nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled
lengthwise
Elastic fibers (yellow)
long threads of elastin
elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality
Reticular fibers (branching)
very thin and branched
composed of collagen
they form a tightly woven fabric that joins
connective tissue to adjacent tissues
 Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue

37
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

A. Fibrous connective tissue

dense due to its large
number of collagenous
fibers
the fibers are organized into
parallel bundles
forms tendons and
ligaments
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

B. Loose connective tissue

binds epithelia to underlying tissues
functions as packing materials, holding organs in
place
has all three fiber types

two cell types

predominate in its
fibrous mesh
- fibroblasts
- macrophages
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

C. Adipose tissue
specialized form of loose
connective tissues that store fat
in adipose cells
pads and insulates the body
and stores fuel as fat molecules
each adipose cell contains a
large fat droplet that swells
when fat is stored and shrinks
when the body uses fat as fuel
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

D. Cartilage
has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in
a rubbery matrix made of a substance called
chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex
chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin
sulfate
Types:
1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Elastic cartilage
3. Fibrocartilage
1. Hyaline cartilage
bluish white, translucent, and homogenous
has significant proportion of collagen fibers
covers joint surfaces and rib ends
present in the nose, larynx, and trachea
skeletal cartilage in the embryos of all vertebrates
skeletal cartilage of adult sharks and rays
support and reinforcement
2. Elastic cartilage
contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic
fibers
external ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis
maintains a structures shape while allowing great
flexibility
3. Fibrocartilage
contains many large collagenous fibers
intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, disks of knee
joint, and pads between femur and tibia
absorbs compression shock

Collagen fiber

Chondrocyte in
lacuna
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

E. Bone
the skeleton supporting most vertebrates
mineralized connective tissue

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

E. Bone
Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a matrix of
collagen
then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
combine and harden within the matrix into the
mineral hydroxyapatite
the combination of hard mineral and flexible
collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without
being brittle

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

F. Blood
Made of:
1. Plasma (55%)
matrix consisting of water, salts, and a variety
of dissolved proteins

2. Formed elements (45%)

erythrocytes, leukocytes and cell fragments
called platelets

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Blood
Plasma (55 %)
1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N)
2. dissolved solids
a. proteins
fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver)
albumin (synthesized by the liver)
globulin
b. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like
substances, amino acids, salts)
c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies)
d. cellular waste products (urea, uric acid)
 Blood
Formed elements (45 %) produced by bone marrow
 Types of White Blood Cells
Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other
granule/cytoplasm features/
functions
A. granulocyte
1. neutrophil 60-75 2-5 or more thin lobes, fine; dont stain phagocytic
connected by slender well at neutral pH
chromatic threads with either acid or
basic stain
2. eosinophil 2-5 2 oval lobes linked by granules, coarse; against
thread-like chromatin stain pinkish red helminthic
with acid stain infections
3. basophil 0.5-2 nuclei stain very faintly, stain blue with inflammatory
often obscured by basic dye reaction
cytoplasmic granules; U
or J-shaped
 Types of White Blood Cells
Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other
granule/cytoplasm features/
functions
B. agranulocyte
1. lymphocyte 20-25 large, somewhat narrow rim of smallest;
spherical with some cytoplasm antibody
indentations and only production
slightly concentric
position
2. monocyte 3-8 nuclei vary slightly, large amount of biggest;
indented ovals to horse- cytoplasm becomes
shoe shaped structure macrophage;
phagocytic
3. Muscle Tissue

composed of long cells called muscle fibers that

are capable of contracting when stimulated by
nerve impulses

most abundant tissue in most animals

muscle contraction accounts for most of the

energy-consuming cellular work in active animals
Types of muscles tissue
Types of muscles tissue

1. skeletal muscle
has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple nuclei
(syncitial)
occurs in muscles attached to skeleton
single innervation by motor nerve
functions in voluntary movement of body
Types of muscles tissue
2. smooth muscle

spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus

cells have no striations
double innervation by parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system; involuntary
blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract
functions in movement of substances in lumens of
body
Types of muscles tissue

3. cardiac muscle
has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a
single nucleus
double innervation by parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system; involuntary
occurs in the wall of the heart
functions in the pumping of blood
4. Nervous Tissue

irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and

transmits signals from one part of the animal to
another
neuron functional unit of nervous tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

Neurons consists of a cell

body, dendrites and axons
Dendrite transmits
nerve impulses from their
tips toward the rest of the
neuron
Axon transmits impulses
toward another neuron or
toward an effector, such as
a muscle cell
4. Nervous Tissue

Types of neurons:
sensory (afferent)
motor (efferent)
interneuron
 Animal Body Plans

Symmetry
refers to balanced proportions
correspondence in size and shape of parts on
opposite sides of a median plane
Spherical Symmetry
any plane passing through
the center divides a body
into equivalent or mirrored
halves

found chiefly among some

unicellular forms
rare in animals
best suited for floating and
rolling
Radial Symmetry
body can be divided into
similar halves by more than
two planes passing through
the longitudinal axis

found in some sponges and

hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins
usually sessile, free floating
or weakly swimming
Biradial Symmetry
only two planes passing
through the longitudinal axis
produce mirrored halves
because of some part that is
single or paired

comb jellies
Bilateral Symmetry
body can be divided along a
sagittal plane into mirrored
portions right and left
halves
much better suited for
directional (forward)
movement
strongly associated with
cephalization
Segmentation

metamerism

serial repetition of
similar body segments
along the longitudinal
axis of the body

segment (metamere or
somite)