PAVEMENT

Definition:

A pavement is a smooth surface metalled structure built to carry the traffic load under all climatic
conditions.

A pavement structure is needed for two reasons:

(i) natural earth surface cannot support the modern heavy wheel loads

(ii) natural earth surface cannot provide an adequate smooth wearing surface.

Therefore a constructed pavement distributes the wheel load sufficiently and provides a
necessary smooth wearing surface.

SCOPE OF STUDY OF PAVEMENT DESIGN

(i) Foundation soils (knowledge of Soil Mechanics is needed)

(ii) Paving materials (grading and their strength)

(iii) Behaviour of above materials under traffic load

(iv) Design of pavement to carry the above loads.

(v) Construction, maintenance, evaluation and rehabilitation

PAVEMENT TYPES

Two types:

(1) Flexible Pavement

Main components: Subbase, base and wearing surface

(2) Rigid or Concrete Pavement

Main components: Subbase, Portland cement concrete,

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 PAVEMENT COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTION

Flexible pavements

Surfacing:
Normally consists of bituminous surface dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material.
Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing course and the
base course (or binder course).

The functions of the surfacing are to

(i) provide a smooth wearing surface

(ii) reduces the dust, the dust affects the visibility and increases chances of accident

(iii) provide a sealing surface so that water should not go into the subgrade.

Base:
Normally consists of highest quality crushed stone or gravel, or of gravelly soils, decomposed
rock, sands and sand-clays stabilized with cement, lime or bitumen.

This is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It reduces the vertical compressive
stress induced by traffic in the subbase and the subgrade to a level at which no unacceptable
deformation will occur in these layers.

Unbound bases perform their function solely by virtue of their thickness and state of
compaction. Bound bases perform the same function by a combination of thickness and
stiffness.

The base courses are generally extended about 1 ft beyond the edge of the pavement in order to
support the loads applied at the edge of the pavement.

Subbase:
Normally consists of materials of lower quality than that used in the road base such as
unprocessed natural gravel, gravel sand, or gravel-sand-clay. It has the following functions:

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(i) It is a secondary load-spreading layer underlying the road base. It enables the traffic
stresses to be reduced to a level acceptable in the subgrade. It can accept greater
compressive stresses than the subgrade, and thus reduces the deformation of the
pavement under traffic loading.

(ii) It provides a working platform over which the construction plant can operate without the
formation of rutting when the layer above is being placed. It is noted that rutting to a depth
of 40 mm can be reshaped and compacted efficiently.

(iii) If thick enough, it prevents frost from penetrating into frost susceptible subgrades.

(iv) Under special circumstances, it may also act as a filter or a drainage layer.

(v) Prevents the clay working up into the base.

(vi) Prevents swelling of subgrade soil.

(vii) Its material being cheaper than that for base, total cost for the road construction may
reduce.

Capping Layer: (selected or improved subgrade):

A capping layer is sometimes provided above the natural subgrade where very weak subgrade
(CBR < 4%) is encountered. It consists of better quality subgrade material imported from
elsewhere or existing subgrade material improved by mechanical or chemical stabilization.

Subgrade:
This is the upper layer of the natural soil which may be undisturbed local material or may be soil
excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. In either case it is compacted during construction to give
added strength. The surface of the subgrade is termed the formation level.

Rigid Pavements

Concrete Slab:
It acts as a wearing surface and provides the major portion of the structural capacity. Therefore
structural strength of concrete is the main consideration. For this reason, minor variations in
subgrade strength have little influence upon the structural capacity of the pavement.

Concrete pavements may be reinforced with steel mesh or they may be unreinforced.
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Under heavy traffic loading, wearing surface is provided by a bituminous carpet, the concrete slab
then becomes the base and only has to distribute the load. This is called a composite pavement.

Subbase:
Subbase lends some structural capacity to the pavement; however, its contribution to the total
load carrying capacity is relatively minor. It may be used under the concrete slab for various
reasons, including

(i) control of pumping

(ii) control of frost action

(iii) drainage

(iv) control of shrink and swell of subgrade

(v) expedition of construction

LOAD DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS

A rigid pavement, because of its rigidity and high modulus of elasticity, tends to distribute the load
over a relatively wider area of soil. If there is some permanent set in the subgrade soil, the slab
will deflect under the wheel load. If the mobilized elasticity is less than that of the concrete slab,
the slab will move to its original position. However, if the mobilized elasticity is more i.e.
settlement under the wheel load is more than the elastic limit, the slab will fail, cracks will be
pronounced in the slab.

The load carrying capacity of flexible pavements is brought about by the load distribution
characteristics of the layered system. Since there is no rigid connection between the various
constituent particles, any permanent set in the subgrade will move upto the top layer.

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 THE DESIGN PROCESS

Three main steps in designing a new road pavement:

(i) estimate the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles that will use
the road over the selected design life.

(ii) Assess the strength of the subgrade soil over which the road is to be built

(iii) Select the most economical combination of pavement materials and layer thicknesses that will
provide satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement.

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 The Pavement Design Process

MAIN ACTIVITY SUB-ACTIVITY

Assess geotechnical problems Usually

carried
SURVEY POSSIBLE out as
Search for sources of material
ROUTES part of
Choose route feasibility
study

Measure traffic volume by class

ASSESS TRAFFIC Measure axle load

(Assign traffic class)
Choose design life

Calculate total traffic

Assign climate regime

MEASURE SUBGRADE
Test soils
STRENGTH
(Assign subgrade classes)
Define uniform sections

Design earth works

Locate sources

SELECT PAVEMENT Test properties

MATERIALS
Accept, reject or modify

Assess severe sites

Cost analysis

Review local experience

SELECT STRUCTURE
Risk analysis (or full appraisal)

Design drainage

BUILD

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 FACTOR WHICH AFFECT PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE

A. Rigid and Flexible (applies to both)

1. Traffic
a. Gross load and tyre pressure
b. Properties of subgrade and paving materials
c. Repetition of load
d. Radius of load influence
e. Speed
f. Axle and wheel configuration
2. Climate
a. Rainfall
b. Frost heave
c. Spring breakup
d. Shrinkage and swell
e. Freeze-thaw and wet-dry
3. Geometry
a. Traffic distribution across pavement
4. Position
a. Cut-and-fill sections
b. Depth to water table
c. Landslides and related problems
d. Deep soft deposits

B. Rigid Pavements
1. Climate
a. Rainfall (pumping and blowing)
b. Daily variation of temperature
2. Construction and maintenance
a. Faulty installation and maintenance of joints
b. Improper leveling course
c. Dry subgrade
d. Dirty aggregate (bond and bending important)
e. Durability of aggregate
f. Poor compaction of subgrade and base

C. Flexible Pavements
1. Climate
a. Seasonal variation of temperature
2. Construction and maintenance
a. Compaction of subgrade and base
b. Improper heating of pavement materials
c. Rutting base and subgrade
d. Stripping

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 AXLE LOAD/WHEEL LOAD

Highways

AASHTO has specified 18,000 lbs. (18-kips, 8165 kg, 8.0 tonnes) as the standard single axle load. Since an
axle has two ends, the maximum wheel load can be taken as half of 18-kips i.e. 9-kips (4083 kg).

Airfields

The design gear load will be that of the heaviest plane which will utilize the field. Gear loads (load on one
set of wheels) generally range between about 8 kips and up to as high as 200 kips.

For different configurations of wheels and axles of highway vehicles and aircraft see the attached sheets.

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 EQUIVALNT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD (ESWL)

If there is single wheel on either end of an axle, there is no problem in ascertaining single wheel load. But
now-a-days practically all the commercial vehicles have dual wheels fixed at both the ends of the rear axle.
Hence it is important to determine the equivalent single wheel for use in the design of pavements.

Referring to Figure 1, the effect of dual wheel depends in part upon pavement thickness. The depth at
which stresses in the pavement resulting from dual wheels are equal to those of a single wheel depends
upon the spacing of the wheels. Near the surface of the wheels act independently; at greater depths the
stresses overlap but becomes smaller as depth increases, until a point is reached where the overlap of
stresses is negligible. At a depth of approximately d/2 the wheels ceases to act independently, and
pavement stresses result from the combined effects of the two wheels. At a depth of about 2S the overlap of
stresses becomes negligible.

ESWL can be computed either on the basis of equivalent deflection or equivalent stress. Mostly equivalent
deflection criterion is adopted as it is more reliable. Assume, for example, that the maximum deflection
which occurs under a set of dual wheels is known. A single wheel that results in a deflection of the same
amount is said to be equivalent to these duals. The same can be said, but with less reliability, about equal
stresses.

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 S

Wheel d
Approximate point
of overlap

d/2

2S

Figure 1 Influence of multiple wheels on stresses

Equivalent single-wheel load (log scale)

2P B

P1

A
P

Design single wheel Design single wheel

equal to P equal to 2P

z = d/2 z1 z = 2B
Depth z (log scale)

Figure 2 Method of determining equivalent single wheel for any dual wheel (flexibel pavement)

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Figure 2 indicates a method of determining ESWLs for any dual wheels. Depth of pavement is plotted on a
horizontal scale, and the point having the coordinates (P, d/2) is plotted. Likewise, at a depth of 2S and a
wheel load of 2P, the point represents the depth at which overlap of stresses is negligible. A straight line
drawn between a and b results in the locus of points where any single-wheel load is equivalent to a certain
dual wheel. The equivalent single-wheel load corresponding to the dual-wheel configuration used in
plotting points a and b is found by entering the chart at any depth z, and then proceeding vertically to line
ab and horizontally to the y-axis.

To utilize the above procedure, it is necessary first to make an estimate of the design thickness of the
pavement. Next, the ESWL can be found and the thickness of pavement (based upon a single wheel)
determined. These values are then checked against the assumed thickness and the process repeated until the
calculated ESWL is compatible with design thickness.

The method described above can also be used for converting dual-tandem loads to single-wheel loads. The
distance d is equal to the clear distance between dual tyres, but the distance S is taken as the diagonal
distance between the centres of the dual-tandem tyres. For example, considering a dual-tandem gear with
the centre spacing between dual tyres equal to 30 inches and the centre-to-centre spacing of tandem axles
equal to 61 inches; the distance S is 68 inches. For this case, the distance d is about equal to 18 inches. The
depth to which the wheels act independently of each other is 9 inches, whereas the depth at which the
overlap of stresses becomes negligible is 136 inches.

Points to note:
1. ESWL increases as the pavement thickness increases.
2. ESWL increases as the pavement layer becomes stiffer.
3. ESWL increases as the multiple gear spacing becomes small.

EQUIVALENCE FACTORS

The damaging effect of the passage of an axle of any load can be represented by equivalence factor. The
equivalence factor or the damaging effect of any axle loading is expressed by the following equation:
n
Actual load
Equivalence factor =
Standard load

n = 4 (according to AASHTO Guide) but depends on some other factors as well.

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 = 4.5 (according to Road Note 31).

The equivalence factor for the standard axle load is unity. The equivalence factors for other axle loads are
given in the table below:

EQUIVALENCE FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT AXLE LOADS (Overseas Road Note 31)
Wheel load (single & dual) Axle load Equivalence Factor
(103 kg) (103 kg)
1.5 3.0 0.01
2.0 4.0 0.04
2.5 5.0 0.11
3.0 6.0 0.25
3.5 7.0 0.50
4.0 8.0 0.91
4.5 9.0 1.55
5.0 10.0 2.50
5.5 11.0 3.83
6.0 12.0 5.67
6.5 13.0 8.13
7.0 14.0 11.3
7.5 15.0 15.5
8.0 16.0 20.7
8.5 17.0 27.2
9.0 18.0 35.2
9.5 19.0 44.9
10.0 20.0 56.5
4.5
Axle load (kg)
Equivalence factor =
8160

The equivalence factor of 0.01 for the 3000 kg axle load means that 100 passes of such an axle would do
the same damage as one pass of a standard axle. And the equivalence factor of 56.5 for the 20,000 kg axle

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means that one pass of this axle load would do as much damage as 57 passes of a standard axle. Therefore,
only the effect of heavy vehicles is likely to be of significance in design.

In order to determine the equivalence factors for vehicle axles, the factors for the axles are totalled to give
the equivalence factor for each of the vehicles.

CUMULATIVE EQUIVALENT STANDARD AXLES

The damage that vehicles do to a road depends very strongly on the axle loads of the vehicles. In order to
determine the cumulative axle load damage that a pavement will sustain during its design life, it is
necessary to express the total number of heavy vehicles that will use the road over this period in terms of
the cumulative number of standard axles (esa).

Axle load surveys must be carried out to determine the axle load distribution of a sample of the heavy
vehicles using the road. Data collected from these surveys are used to calculate the mean number of
equivalent standard axles for a typical vehicle in each class. These values are then used in conjunction with
traffic forecasts to determine the predicted cumulative equivalent standard axles that the road will carry
over its design life.

For purposes of pavement structure design, it is necessary to estimate the cumulative number of 18-kips
equivalent standard (or single) axle loads (ESALs) for the design (performance) period. According to RN
31, the following procedure is followed for this purpose.

1. Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of vehicle weighed using the results of the traffic survey
and any other recent traffic count information that is available.

2. Determine the average one-directional traffic flow for each class of vehicles.

3. Make a forecast of the one-directional traffic flow for each class of vehicle to determine the total traffic
in each class that will travel over each lane during the design life.

4. Determine the mean equivalence factor for each class of vehicle and for each direction from the results
of this axle load survey and any other surveys that have recently been carried out.

5. The product of the cumulative one-directional traffic flows for each class of vehicle over the design life
of the road and the mean equivalence factor for that class should then be calculated and added together

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to give the cumulative equivalent standard axle loading for each direction. The higher of the two
directional values should be used for design.

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 EQUIVALENCE FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT AXLE LOADS
(Overseas Road Note 31)

Wheel load (single Axle load Equivalence Factor

& dual) (103 kg) (103 kg)
1.5 3.0 0.01
2.0 4.0 0.04
2.5 5.0 0.11
3.0 6.0 0.25
3.5 7.0 0.50
4.0 8.0 0.91
4.5 9.0 1.55
5.0 10.0 2.50
5.5 11.0 3.83
6.0 12.0 5.67
6.5 13.0 8.13
7.0 14.0 11.3
7.5 15.0 15.5
8.0 16.0 20.7
8.5 17.0 27.2
9.0 18.0 35.2
9.5 19.0 44.9
10.0 20.0 56.5
4.5
Axle load (kg)
Equivalence factor =
8160

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 Distribution of Truck Factors for Different Classes of Highways and
Vehicles in the United States
Highway System Type
Vehicle Type Rural Urban
Interstate Minor Arterial Interstate Minor Arterial
Single-unit trucks
Two-axle, four tyres 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.006
Two-axle, six tyres 0.21 0.28 0.17 0.23
Three-axle or more 0.61 1.06 0.61 0.76

Tractor-semitrailors
Four-axle or less 0.62 0.62 0.98 0.46
Five-axle 1.09 1.05 1.07 0.77
Six-axle or more 1.23 1.04 1.05 0.64

Typical Load-Equivalence Factors

Gross Axle Load

(kN) (lb) Single Axle Tandem Axles Tridem Axles
26.7 6,000 0.01043 0.001 0.0003
44.5 10,000 0.0877 0.007 0.002
53.4 12,000 0.189 0.014 0.003
62.3 14,000 0.360 0.027 0.006
71.2 16,000 0.623 0.047 0.011
80.0 18,000 1.000 0.077 0.017
89.0 20,000 1.51 0.121 0.027
97.9 22,000 2.18 0.180 0.040
106.8 24,000 3.03 0.260 0.057
115.6 26,000 4.09 0.364 0.080
133.4 30,000 6.97 0.658 0.145
151.2 34,000 11.18 1.095 0.246
178.0 40,000 21.08 2.08 0.487
222.4 50,000 52.88 4.86 1.22
267.0 60,000 9.59 2.51
311.5 70,000 17.19 4.52
356.0 80,000 29.0 7.45
400.3 90,000 46.8 11.6
th
Source: Thickness Design - Asphalt Pavements for Highways and Streets, 9 ed., Manual Series
No.1, Asphalt Institute, Lexington, KY (1999).

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 TRAFFIC CLASSES (for RN 31)

Traffic classes Range (106 esa)

T1 < 0.3
T2 0.3 0.7
T3 0.7 1.5
T4 1.5 3.0
T5 3.0 6.0
T6 6.0 10
T7 10 17
T8 17 30

(Annual) Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

The ADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by 365.

It is usually obtained by recording actual traffic flow over a shorter period from which the ADT is then
estimated.

Directional distribution factor (DD)

It is a factor expressed as a ratio, that accounts for the distribution of ESAL units by direction. It is
generally 0.5 (50%) for most roadways, there are instances where more weights may be moving in one
direction than the other. Thus, the side with heavier vehicles should be designed for a greater number of
ESAL units. DD may vary from 0.3 to 0.7 depending upon which direction is loaded and which is unloaded.

Lane Distribution factor (DL)

Also expressed as a ratio that accounts for distribution of traffic when two or more lanes are available in
one direction.

Number of lanes in each direction Percent of 18-kips ESAL in design lane

1 100
2 80 100
3 60 80
4 50 75

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Example: Computation of Equivalent Standard Axles (esa) for Lahore-Islamabad Motorway (sector-1, km
0 to 100)

Direction factor, DD = 0.5

Lane factor, DL = 0.7

A. ANNUAL COMMERCIAL VEHICLES IN DESIGN LANE (1995)

Type of commercial ADT (1995) Annual traffic in design lane

vehicle (ADTDDDL365)
Buses 937 119702
Truck 2 axles 2757 352207
Trailers 259 33087

B. ANNUAL EQUIVALENT STANDARD AXLES IN DESIGN LANE (1995)

Type of commercial vehicle Total No. Axle Factor Equivalent Standard Axles
Buses 119702 0.68 81,469
Truck 2 axles 352207 3.97 1,398,262
Trailers 33087 7.92 262,049

C. PROJECTION OF 18-kips EQUIVALENT STANDARD AXLES.

Year Buses Trucks Trailers Annual Cumulative

(2 axles) ESAL annual ESAL
1995 81469 1398262 262049 1741780
1996 84940 1456150 279842 1820932 1820932
1997 88558 1516434 298843 1903835 3724767
1998 92331 1579215 319135 1990681 5715448
1999 95895 1633698 337613 2067206 7782654
2000 99596 1690060 357161 2146817 9929471
2001 103441 1748367 377840 2229648 12159119
2002 107434 1808686 399717 2315837 14474956
2003 111580 1871086 422861 2405527 16880483
2004 115296 1933954 443962 2493212 19373695
2005 119135 1998935 466115 2584185 21957880

No. of equivalent standard axles for 10 years design life (ESAL) = 21.96 millions.

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