Wired or Bounded Media: These networking media

use cables and are limited by the physical

geography. Commonly used wired or bounded
media includes twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and
optical fiber cable. Each of these cables differs in
terms of transmission speed, effect of noise,
physical appearance, cost, etc.

Wireless or Unbounded Media: In contrast to the

wired or bounded media, this networking media
doesnt use any cables in transmitting data and is
not bounded by physical geography. Commonly
used wireless or unbounded media includes the
earth's atmosphere and outer space that can carry
electromagnetic signals as microwave and infrared light waves.

Bandwidth: Higher data rate is achieved by means of a greater signal bandwidth.

Transmission impairments: These limit the distance

travelled by a signal (e. g. attenuation).

Interference: Emanations from nearby cables cause

frequency bands to overlap and make signal
compete. This in turn, distorts or wipes out the signal.

Number of receivers: Data rate and distance are

limited by multiple attachments for each
attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line.

A serial transmission is a transmission, in which data with each bit lining up in a

series as the bits are sent over a single wire at a time (as opposed to parallel
transmission). This type of communication is used over the phone system because it
provides one wire for data in each direction. The general behavior of serial is that as the
length of the cable increases at around 150 meters or 10 times the
original standards, the supported bit rate decreases by half, which makes the
transmission slow. Though slow, this transmission ensures simplicity and reliability over
long distances because the next bit will not be transmitted until the current one has
arrived at its destination.

A parallel transmission is a transmission wherein group of bits is sent simultaneously,

but each uses a different channel. Though fast because all the bits are travelling at the
same time, it is less reliable because bits have a tendency to muddle up and may arrive
out of order.

The most widely used standards for serial data communications is the RS
(Recommended Standard)-232,
which is intended to operate over distances of up to 50 ft. (15 meters) and has a
communication speed that is equal to or less than 20Kbps. This serial interface standard
is still found on some computers and on many interfaces, often being used for
applications ranging from data acquisition to supplying a serial data communications
facility in general computer environments.

As the length of the RS-232 increases, care must be taken because stray pick up
becomes a problem. This can result in the data becoming corrupted even when slow
transmission speeds are used.

To enable high speed data to be transmitted, other serial standards that has a capability
to achieve greater transmission ranges, such as in the case of RS-422 and RS-485
standards was devised.

The RS-422 allows speeds of 10 M bits per second, but the distance over which data
can be transmitted at this rate is limited to 50 feet. The overall maximum distance over
which data can be transmitted is 4000 feet and for this length the data rate is limited to
100 kbps.

The RS-485, on the other hand, is a standard for the transmission of serial data long a
hard wired cable. The
system is defined under EIA/TIA-485 and it provides the ability for multi-drop cabling
and for speeds of up to 10 Mbps over short runs of up to 50 feet and slower
communications at speeds of 100 kbps at distances of 4000 feet. Although not widely
used in domestic environments, it is widely used for data acquisition applications.

The RS-422 and RS-485 standards are often supported by V.35 connectors that were
made obsolete during the late 1980s, but are still found and maintained today in
support of technologies such as Frame Relay and ATM.

Coaxial (Coax) Cable refers to two (2) conductors, enclosed by insulating protective
coating (e. g. rubber, Teflon, or plastic).

The copper wire (aka copper conductor or the inner conducting core located in the
center of the cable) of a
coaxial cable (which can be either solid or stranded) is responsible for carrying the
electronic signals that make up the data. Surrounding the copper wire, is the insulating
material that separates it from the woven or braided metal (a. k. a. the stranded metal
mesh outer conducting sheath/ copper shielding) which acts as a ground and plastic
outer coating that protects the core from electrical noise and crosstalk.

Dual shielded This refers to the cable that contains one (1) layer of foil insulation and
one (1) layer of braided metal shielding.

Quad shielded This refers to the cable that consists of two (2) layers of foil insulation
and two (2) layers of braided metal shielding. This is used in environments that are
subject to higher interference.
Impedance (symbol Z) is a measure of the overall resistance of a circuit to alternating
current that flows in a wire. It is measured in ohms, symbol (). RG is an acronym for
Radio Frequency government number.

It denotes a unique set of physical specifications which includes the following:

Wire gauge of the inner conductor

Thickness and type of the inner insulator
Construction of the shield
Size and type of the outer casing

The meanings of the other individual components of the designation are:

R G - 8 / U
Radio Government Government Universal Specification
assigned approval
number

If any of the letters A, B, or C appears before the slash (/), it indicates a specification-
modification or revision. As an example, RG 8/U is superseded by RG 8A/U.

Coaxial cable has been the most widely and often used network cabling for high-speed
local area network and for high-capacity long-distance trunk applications. The reasons
for its wide usage are the following:
It is relatively inexpensive.
It is light.
It is flexible.
It is easy to work with.

As a transmission medium, the coaxial cable comprises generally of two (2) standards
below:

Thin (Thinnet) Cable (also known as thin Ethernet or 10Base2): It is a flexible coaxial
cable at about 0.64
centimeters (0.25 inches) thick. This type was usually the media of choice for almost
any type of
network installation since it is flexible and easy to work with. In ThinNet networks,
computers
connect to the network via a British Naval Connector (BNC)-T cable connector attached
to the
computer's Network Interface Card (NIC). It can carry a signal for a distance of up to
approximately
185 meters (about 607 feet) per network segment before the signal starts to suffer from
attenuation.

Thick (Thicknet) Cable (also known as thickwire Ethernet, 10Base5 or IEEE 802.3-
1985): It is a relatively rigid coaxial cable at about 1.27 centimeters (0.5
inches) in diameter. It derives its nickname, which is a portmanteau of "Thick Ethernet,"
from the thick coaxial cable it uses. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), however, designates it as 10Base5 Ethernet since it is used to transmit Ethernet
frames data at a maximum rate of 10Mbps and is able to carry a signal for 500 meters
(about 1640 feet).

10 It denotes Thick Cables maximum data transmission rate of 10Mbps.

Base It is shorthand for "baseband transmission" which means it exclusively transmits
Ethernet signals.
5 It denotes Thick Cables capability to transmit data at a maximum length of 500
meters before it experiences signal degradation.

It is originally used to directly connect computers on older networks. However, due to its
ability to
support data transfer over longer distances, it eventually became popular
in backbone
implementations between local area networks. In Thicknet networks, computers connect
to the
network via a transceiver unit that was then connected to the computer's Network
Interface
Card (NIC) using an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) cable.

Thicknet connection composed of a transceiver (which is also known as Medium

Attachment Units [MAU]), an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) cable and a connector
known as a vampire tap, or a piercing tap.

The term "transceiver" is a portmanteau of "transmitter" and "receiver," meaning it

could both transmit and receive signals. Connection from the transceiver to the NIC is
made using a transceiver cable (drop cable) to connect to the Attachment Unit Interface
(AUI) port connector on the card.

An AUI port connector is also known as a DB-15 connector or as a Digital Intel Xerox
(DIX) connector (named after the three [3] companies that developed it and its related
standards).

It is used to connect a transceiver to a computer's network interface card (NIC).

A vampire tap or piercing tap (shown in Figure 3. 8) is called as such because it has
spikes that pierce
directly through the cable's outer jacket and into its center conductor. It is used with a
transceiver
attached to connect computers to the cable.

The choice of cable grade to use depends on the place where the cables will be laid. It
comes in two (2) grades:

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) grade: As the name implies, this coaxial cable grade is
made from polyvinyl chloride, which is better known as PVC or vinyl. PVC is a type of
plastic that becomes flexible enough to be used in cabling applications as a wire
insulator and cable jacket for most types of coaxial cable, due to plasticizers that are
added to it. Due to its flexibility, PVC coaxial cable grade is now easy to route through
the exposed areas of a certain building. However, when it burns, it gives off poisonous
gases.

Plenum grade: This coaxial cable grade contains materials that are certified to be fire
resistant and can be used in the plenum area and in vertical runs (e. g. in a wall)
without conduit. Plenum cabling however is more expensive and less flexible than PVC
cable.

Note: Plenum refers to a shallow space in many buildings between the false ceiling and
the floor; it is used to circulate warm and cold air through the building.

Twisted Pair Cable consists of two (2) insulated strands of copper wire that are
arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together and enclosed in a tough
protective sheath to form a cable. These are the least expensive and most widely used
wires or bounded medium for LAN. Wires are twisted with each other to decrease
electrical noise between adjacent pairs in a cable and from other sources such as
motors, relays, and transformers.

Twisted pair cable comes in two (2) varieties:

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
As the name implies, a UTP cable refers to a twisted pair cable that contains no
shielding. It has eight (8) individual copper wires (covered by an insulating material), in
which pairs of it are twisted around each other to form a four-pair color-coded wire
medium that are encased/enclosed in a flexible plastic sheath. This twisted-wire pairs
produce a magnetic field cancellation effect, which limits signal degradation caused by
interference from nearby twisted pair known as crosstalk shown in Figure 3.11, External
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).

Note: Electromagnetic interference (EMI) It refers to any undesirable

electromagnetic emission or any electrical /electronic disturbance, man-made or
natural, which causes an undesirable response, malfunctioning, or degradation in the
performance of electrical equipment.

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) It is a special class of EMI, which refers to any
undesirable electrical energy that is caused by broadcast signals from a radio or
television transmitter.

As the name implies, an STP cable refers to a twisted pair cable that combines the
techniques of twisting wires, cancellation, and shielding. Each pair of eight (8) individual
copper wires is twisted and then wrapped in a metallic foil. All four (4) pairs of wires are
wrapped again in an overall copper braid jacket or foil wrapping to protect the
transmitted data from outside Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI), which in turn has
better performance at higher transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.
The type of UTP cable that is to be used in a variety of building and wiring situations are
specified by 568A
Commercial Building Wiring Standard of the Electronic Industries Association and the
Telecommunications
Industries Association (EIA/TIA) to ensure consistency of products for customers. These
standards fall under the following UTP categories shown in Tables 3.3 to 3.6 below. Each
category provides specifications

Additional components are necessary to ensure proper installation of a twisted pair

cable network and these are:
RJ 45 telephone connector (shown in Figure 3.13):
It refers to a twisted pair cabling connection hardware that is almost similar to the RJ-11
telephone connectors except that the RJ-45 connector houses eight (8) cable
connections, while the RJ-11 houses only four (4). Aside from that, RJ-45 connector is
slightly larger and wont fit into the RJ-11 telephone jack.

Note: The letters RJ stand for Registered Jack and the number 45 refers to a specific
physical connector that has eight (8) conductors.

This serves as an extra room for cables where there isn't much floor space. Using them
is a good way to organize a network that has a lot of connections.

Expandable Patch Panel - It refers to an array of port mounted in the rack shelves. It
uses jumper cable known as patch cord used to interconnect computers within the area
of a Local Area Network (LAN) and the Internet or other wide area network (WAN).

Jack coupler - It serves as a connector between single or double RJ-45 jacks that are
snap into patch panels and wall plates.

Wall plate - It is used to support two (2) or more couplers.

Optical media uses light as a means of signal transmission as opposed to electrical

signals found with both Ethernet and coaxial media types.

Fiber Optic/Optical Fiber Cable refers to a bundle of extremely thin and cylindrically
shaped glass (or plastic) strands (or fibers) surrounded by a concentric layer of glass (or
plastic) coating that is capable of conducting modulated light transmissions. It is more
expensive compared to other networking media.

However, it is far less subjected to electromagnetic interference and it is capable of

high-capacity data
transmission. Unlike the conventional copper based cables that carry data in the form of
electronic signals, no electrical impulses are carried over the fiber optic cable. Instead,
data signals that represent bits are converted into modulated pulses of light guided in
the optical fiber. Hence, the fiber optic cable cannot be tapped and its data cannot be
stolen.

Core or the center of the fiber: It refers to the innermost section that consists of one
(1) or more
very thin strands or fibers made of glass or plastic. It allows light to pass through at very
high speeds
from the point of origin to the destination, with minimal loss in quality or data.

Cladding: It refers to an outer optical glass or plastic coating that surrounds and traps
the light in the
core by the principle of total internal reflection.

Coating (a. k. a. Buffer): It helps shield the core and cladding from damage.

Kevlar strand (a. k. a. Aramid Yarn): It provides strength in the fiber-optic connector
that is placed
between the two (2) cables. This prevents the fiber cable from being stretched when
installers pull it.

Jacket: It refers to an outermost layer that protects a buffer or a bundle of buffer-coated

fibers against
moisture (solvents), abrasion, crushing, and other environmental dangers.

ST Connector (Straight Tip connector) is used extensively both in the field and
indoor fiber optic
LAN applications. Its high-precision, ceramic ferrule allows its usage with both
multimode and single- mode fibers. Its bayonet style, keyed coupling mechanism
featuring push and turn locking of the connector, prevents over tightening and
damaging of the fiber end.

SC Connector (Subscriber Connector) is a general-purpose push/pull style

connector that has an advantage in keyed duplexibility to support send/receive
channels. It is mostly used in single- mode fiber optic telecom,analog CATV, and field
deployed links.

Listed below are the types of Fiber Optics/Optical fiber. Each of them is unique in terms
of components being used, their installation methods and testing procedures, but both
share many of the basic principles.

Single-mode fiber optic cable (also known as the mono-mode optical fiber, single-
mode fiber, single-
mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber): This fiber optic cable type allows light waves
to travel along
single path or in only one mode (wavelength = 1,300 to 1,550 nanometers). It
is used commonly for high speed transmission over long distances.

Its core has a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns (a relatively narrow diameter that limits
beams to a few angles, resulting in an almost horizontal beam).

Its small core and single light wave virtually eliminate any distortion which results from
overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest
transmission speeds of any fiber cable type.

Multimode fiber optic cable: This fiber optic cable type allows light waves to travel
into numerous
paths through the core of the fiber (wavelength = 850 to 1,300 nm) at
various angles. This mode is susceptible to attenuation as a result of dispersion of light
along
the optical medium, and therefore is not capable of supporting transmission over longer
distances.
Hence, it is often applied to local area networks which encompass a much smaller
transmission range.

The highest angle in which light is accepted into the core of the fiber defines the
Numerical Aperture (NA).

Note: Numerical Aperture (NA) or Acceptance angle measures the range of acceptance
of light into a
fiber. It is determined by the differences in the indices of refraction of the core and
cladding and
can be calculated by Snell's law.

Its core has a diameter of 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component, but in
US the most
common size is approximately 62.5 microns in diameter.

There are two (2) types of multimode fiber that exist and distinguished by the index
profile of their
cores and how light travel in them.

Multimode step-index fiber optic cable:

This fiber optic cable type has a core composed of one (1) type of glass and a uniform
index of refraction that changes suddenly at the core/cladding boundary. Since each
mode or angle of light travels a different path link (shown in Figure 3.24), a pulse of light
is dispersed while traveling through the fiber, limiting the bandwidth of step index fiber.

Multimode graded-index fiber optic cable:

This fiber optic cable type has a core composed of many different layers of glass and a
graded index of refraction. Since the light travels faster in lower index of refraction glass
(shown in Figure 3.25), the
light will travel faster as it approaches the outside of the core. Likewise, the light
traveling closest to the core center will travel the slowest.

However, multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end,
resulting in an
unclear and incomplete data transmission in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet
914.4 meters).
Due to this, designers call for a single mode fiber in new applications using Gigabit and
beyond.

As previously discussed, computers also facilitate information exchange and resource

sharing from one
location to another through waves (aka wireless signals) which act as physical paths
that carry current or series of electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies
(shown in Figure 3.26) between a transmitter and a receiver.

Figure 3.26 shows an electromagnetic spectrum, which refers to an entire range of

frequencies and wavelengths that are occupied by the electromagnetic radiation
(summarized in Tables 3.7 to 3.17 below). Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) refers to a
form of energy that is produced by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance, or by
the movement of electrically charged particles traveling through space at the
speed of light in a vacuum. EMR is regulated by Federal Communications Commission
(FCC).

Note: Frequencies for unregulated use are as follows:

902 928 MHz Cordless phones and remote controls.
2.4 GHz 2.4835 GHz IEEE 802.11b (with transmission capability up to 11
Mbps) and IEEE 802.11g (data rate up to 54 Mbps, interoperate with 802.11b)
5.72 GHz 5.85 GHz IEEE 802.11a (data rate up to 54 Mbps, incompatible with
802.11b)

Frequency refers to the number of waves created per second. Its unit is 1 divided by
time (1/seconds) and
scientists have given this frequency unit the name of Hertz (Hz).

Wavelength, on the other hand, refers to the distance of a wave from one point (1) to
the corresponding point on the next wave. Since wavelength is a distance, its unit is in
Meter (m) and is represented by the Greek letter Lambda ().

Frequency, wavelength, and speed of light which were discussed earlier are related by
the equation:
c=f
where:
c refers to the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
(lambda) refers to the wavelength in meters (m)
f refers to the frequency in Hertz (Hz)

The low frequency signals can travel in long distances through many obstacles but
cannot carry a high bandwidth of data. High frequency signals, on the other hand, can
travel in shorter distances through few obstacles and carry a narrow bandwidth.

Transmissions and receptions of EMR are achieved by means of an antenna shown in

Figure 3.27. An antenna,
which is also known as aerial, refers to a metallic structure that acts as a transducer
which converts electrical energy to electromagnetic energy (upon transmission of
signal) and vice versa (upon reception of signal).

Antenna works in two (2) main ways:

Directional antennas issue wireless signals along a single direction that employs high
frequencies at wider distances.

Omnidirectional antennas issue and receive 360-degree horizontal wireless signals

that propagates in all directions.

Radio Wave: It refers to a wireless medium that is used for multicast communications
(e. g. radio and TV broadcasting, wireless local loop, mobile communications, and
amateur radio) and paging systems over long distances. It functions with or without line
of sight since it utilizes the different types of propagation method

Note: Multicast communications It is a type of network communications, in which a

destination addresses a specific group of devices or clients; multicast clients must join
the multicast group to receive the information.

Line of Sight Propagation Method It is a method by which radio waves travel from
the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. In lieu of this, the receiving antenna
must be located within the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna. In other words,
the two (2) antennas mentioned above must "see" each other. The radio horizon is
actually about one-third farther than the line-of-sight or natural horizon. This is due to
slight refraction that occurs in electromagnetic waves, even when propagated through
the troposphere.

Ground Wave (Surface) Propagation Method It is a method by which radio waves

are radiated directly towards the earths surface. It is used for:
- Worldwide communications with a frequency that ranges from 3 to 30 KHz
and 30 to 300 KHz.

- Broadcasting with a frequency that ranges from 300 KHz to 3 MHz.

Sky Wave (Ionospheric) Propagation Method It is a method by which radio waves

radiate upwards from the
transmitting antenna of the earth into a direction towards the ionosphere. It is used for
long distance radio telephony and sound broadcasting with a frequency that ranges
from 3 MHz to 30 MHz.

Space Wave (Tropospheric) Propagation Method It is a method by which radio

waves radiation exceeds 30 MHz up to 300 GHz. It is used for sound/television
broadcasting for radio relay systems and for various mobile systems that operates in a
frequency that ranges from 30 to 300 MHz, 300 MHz to 3 GHz, and 3 to 30 GHz.

Microwave: It refers to a wireless medium that is used for unicast communication such
as wireless PAN (Bluetooth), broadband wireless access or wireless MAN (WiMAX),
wireless WAN (2G/3G cellular networks), satellite networks and radar, and wireless LANs
(Wi-Fi). In contrast to radio wave, it doesnt follow the curvature of the earth and
requires line of sight in order to work properly.

The distance coverable by microwave signals depends on the height of the antenna.
Height allows the signal to travel farther without being stopped by the curvature of the
planet and raises the signal above many surface obstacles, such as low hills and tall
buildings.

Note: Unicast communications It is a type of network communications in which a

frame is sent from one (1) host addressed to a specific destination there is just one (1)
sender and one (1) receiver. Unicast transmission is still the predominant form of
transmission on LANs and within the Internet.

Infrared: It refers to a wireless medium that is used for short-range communication (e.
g. remote control devices, intruder alarms, infra-red photography, and radiant heaters)
in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation. It is achieved using
transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate non-coherent infrared light.
Transceivers must be within the line of sight of each other either directly or via
reflection from a light-colored surface such as the ceiling of a room.

In our previous discussion, weve understood that physical information (such as voltage
wave, optical pulse, or microwave) passes through a networking media (copperbased,
optical fiber, and wireless) to get to its intended destination.

However, there are times that the inferior quality of the network cabling results in
network failures. Hence, we will study about the certain electrical and mathematical
concepts and terms, such as signal, wave, frequency, and noise to enable us to test and
measure the quality of the aforementioned medium.

SIGNAL
1. Means of communication: This refers to a sign or indication. Also, it is something
(as a sound, gesture, or an object) that conveys information (e. g. notice or
warning) about something or that tells someone to do something.
2. Communicated information: This refers to an event or act, which shows that
something exists or that gives information about something.
3. Incitement: This refers to something that incites action (e. g. a piece of
equipment with colored lights that is used on railways and roads to tell people
when to go, to slow down, or to stop).
4. Electronics transmitted information: This refers to a detectable physical quantity
or impulse (as a voltage, current, or magnetic field strength) by which messages
or information can be transmitted/conveyed via telegraphy, telephony, radio,
radar, or television.

Electrical signals (voltages and currents in a circuit)

Acoustic signals (audio or speech signals)
Video signals (intensity variations in an image, like in the CAT (Computed Axial
 Tomography) scan)
Note: "Computed Axial Tomography" is the process of using computers to generate a
three-dimensional image from flat (i.e, two-dimensional) x-ray pictures at one slice at a
time.

Biological signals (sequence of bases in a gene)

Noise (aka signal interference unwanted and undesired form of signal that
interferes or disturbs the wanted signal)

The main purpose of the signal is to ensure that the synchronization (or clocking)
between the sender and receiver over a physical medium is maintained, as well as
support transmission of the data signal in a form that can be interpreted by both the
sender and receiver.

Waves refer to disturbances that causes energy to travel through a medium from one
location to another. All waves have similar attributes such as the following:

Wavelength (represented by the Greek letter Lambda ) As mentioned in the

preceding discussion, it refers to the horizontal distance of a wave from a point to the
corresponding point on the next wave. This is measured in meters (m) in SI.

Amplitude (A) It refers to a vertical distance from a given point on the wave from the
horizontal axis. In laymans term, it is the height above and below the xaxis. This is
measured in volts, amperes, or watts, depending on the type of signal.

Phase It describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero; it is a

measurement of the delay of the wave relative to some fixed reference point or another
sine wave. It is measured in degrees or radians (360 degrees is 2 radians).

Frequency (F) It refers to the number of waves made per second or as cycles per
second. It is the reciprocal of the period of time to complete one (1) wave cycle. The
unit given is Hertz (Hz); 1 Hz means 1 cycle per second (cps).

Notes:
One (1) complete cycle is composed of two (2) alterations (positive [+] half cycle
and the negative [-] half cycle)
Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in a short span of
time means high frequency. Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

Period T This refers to the amount of time (expressed in seconds) required to

complete one (1) full cycle.

Information can be transmitted via one (1) of the two (2) general categories of
waves are as follows:
Analog (short for analogous) wave It is a wave in which both the amplitude and
time continuously varies over their respective intervals that results in a wavy
characteristic. Examples of this wave include human voice and music.

Digital wave It is a wave with several discrete (jumpy) states, such as high or low,
and on or off. It has fixed amplitude but its pulse width and frequency can be changed.
An example of this signal is the data stored in the memory of a computer in the form of
0s and 1s.

Transmission modes are defined in the form of the following, to determine the
behavior involved with the transmission of data over the physical medium.

Simplex Mode: It is a connection wherein data flows in one (1) direction only
(unidirectional). This type is either transmit-only or receive-only (e. g. connection from
computer to printer or from the mouse to computer).

Half-duplex Mode: It is a connection wherein data can flow in both directions, but not
simultaneous (both at the same time) over a shared physical medium in which a
collision domain exists; with it, CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection is required to detect for such collisions.

This type is either transmit-then-receive or receive-then-transmit operation (e.g. each

handset in CB radio system can either be set to receive mode or send mode), which is
why this type is also known an alternating connection or semi-duplex. If a collision is to
occur, transmission would cease, followed by initiation of a backoff algorithm to prevent
further transmissions until a random value timer expires, following which retransmission
can be reattempted.

Full-duplex Mode: It is a connection wherein data simultaneously flows in both

directions (e.g. both users in a telephone conversation can speak and be heard at the
same time) over dedicated point to point wire pairs, ensuring that there is no potential
for collisions to occur, and thus there is no requirement for CSMA/CD.

An important way of describing networking signals and noise in all communications

systems is a unit of measurement called the decibel (dB), which measures the loss or
gain of the power of a wave.

As mentioned in the preceding discussion, weve understood that crosstalk causes an

interference with the signals that may be present on the two (2) adjacent wire pairs in
cable. This happens when the adjacent wires in the cable (which acts like antennas)
receives the transmitted electromagnetic energy (generated from the changing of
voltages on a wire) that is radiated outward from the transmitting wire like a radio signal
from a transmitter. The transmitted energy interferes with data on those wires.

Near-end Crosstalk (NEXT) This occurs when two (2) wires are near each other and
untwisted. The energy from one (1) wire can wind up in an adjacent wire and vice versa.
This can cause noise at both ends of a terminated cable.
Far-end Crosstalk (FEXT) This is similar to the Near End Cross Talk (NEXT), except
that the signal is sent from the local end and crosstalk is measured at the far end. This
implies that the noise caused by FEXT still travels back to the source, but it is
attenuated as it returns. Due to attenuation, signals that induce FEXT creates less noise
on a cable than NEXT. Thus, FEXT is not a significant problem as NEXT.

Note: Attenuation (aka signal deterioration) refers to the decrease in signal strength as
it travels through cable or across a system. This is expressed in decibels (dB) using
negative numbers.

Power Sum NEXT (PSNEXT) This is derived from the summation of the individual
NEXT, which effects on each pair by the other three (3) pairs. The combined effect of
crosstalk from multiple simultaneous transmission sources can be very detrimental to
the signal.

The TIA/EIA-568-B standard (which has been encountered in 02 Laboratory Exercise 1)

specifies ten tests that a copper cable must pass if it will be used for modern, high-
speed Ethernet LANs. These 10 primary test parameters that must be verified for a
cable link to meet TIA/EIA standards are:

Wire map This is used to identify installation wiring errors; it insures that no
open or short circuits exist on the cable and also verifies that all eight (8) wires
are connected to the correct pins on both ends of the cable.
o An open circuit occurs if the wire does not attach properly at the
connector.
o A short circuit occurs if two (2) wires are connected to each other.
Insertion loss This measures the amount of energy that is lost as the signal
arrives at the receiving end of the cabling link. The insertion loss measurement
quantifies the effect of the resistance which the cabling link offers to the
transmission of the electrical signals.
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) This has been discussed above.
Power sum near-end crosstalk (PSNEXT) This has been discussed above.
Equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT) This is derived by subtracting the
attenuation of the disturbing pair from the Far End Crosstalk (FEXT); this pair
induces in an adjacent pair.
Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk (PSELFEXT) This is derived from
an algebraic summation of the individual ELFEXT effects on each pair by the
other three (3) pairs. There are four (4) PSELFEXT results for each end.
Return loss This is a measure in decibels of all reflections that are caused by
the impedance mismatches at all locations along the link.
Propagation delay, or delay This is a measurement of how long it takes for a
signal to travel along the cable being tested. Delay is measured in nanoseconds
(nS). Typical delay for category 5e UTP is a bit less than 5 nS per meter (worst
case allowed is 5.7 nS/m).
Cable length This refers to the physical or sheath length of the cable; it is in
contrast to electrical or helical length, which is the length of the copper
conductors. Physical length will always be slightly less than electrical length due
to the twisting of the conductors.
 Delay skew This refers to the delay difference between the fastest and slowest
pairs in a UTP cable.

LAN Technologies
For LAN to function properly, the physical layer medium must meet the industry
standards specified for the data rate used to transmit signals over the Ethernet (10,
100, 1000, or 10,000 Mbps).

In lieu of this, during our previous discussion in Topic 2 Networking Fundamentals,

weve understood that the IEEE developed or standardized most of the widely used LAN
protocols (such as the Ethernet (802.3), Token-Ring (802.5), and Wireless LANs
(802.11)) through the IEEE 802 Committee. The Project 802 further divided OSIs Data-
Link Layer into sub-layers: the LLC (Logical Link Control) Sub-layer and the MAC (Media
Access Control) Sub-layer to accommodate multiple LAN access methods.

Figure 4.11 shows the Layer 1 and 2 of the OSI Reference Model and their corresponding
LAN specifications which are explained as follows:
IEEE 802.1 (Higher layer LAN protocols) The IEEE committee defines the
relationship between the IEEE 802 standards and the ISO Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model. It provides for LAN management and
bridging standards.
IEEE 802.2 (Logical link control) This is a Data Link layer standard that is used
with IEEE 802.3, 802.4, and 802.5 standards.
IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) This is a Physical layer standard that specifies a linear
bus LAN with a CSMA/CD access method commonly associated with Ethernet and
Fast Ethernet.
o The 802.3 Specifications for 10 Mbps Ethernet are as follows:
10Base-2 This is the IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10
Mbps over thin coaxial cable to a maximum distance of 185 m
(607 feet).
10Base-5 This is the IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10
Mbps over coaxial trunk and AUI (Attachment Unit Interface)
twisted-pair cable to a maximum distance of 500 m (1640 feet).
10Base-T This is the IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10
Mbps over unshielded twisted-pair following a star horizontal
cabling topology, with a maximum distance of 100 meters (328
feet) from the station to the hub.
10Base-F This is the IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at 10
Mbps over optical fiber to a maximum distance of two (2)
kilometers (1.25 miles).

o The 802.3u Specifications for 100Mbps (Fast) Ethernet are as follows:

100Base-TX This is the IEEE
standard for baseband Ethernet at
100 Mbps over two (2) twisted- pairs: either two-
pair Category 5 UTP or two-pair STP cabling.
100Base-FX This is the IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at
100 Mbps over a two-fiber 62.5/125 m optical fiber cabling
 system.
o The 802.3z Specifications for 1000Mbps (Gigabit) Ethernet are as follows:
1000Base-T This is the IEEE standard for baseband Ethernet at
1000 Mbps over four (4) pairs of Category 5 unshielded twisted pair
cables.

IEEE 802.4 (Token bus) This is a Physical layer standard that specifies a token-
passing access method on a bus topology. It is used by the Manufacturing
Automation Protocol (MAP), developed by General Motors, and by ARCnet.

IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) This is a Physical layer standard that specifies a token-
passing access method on a ring topology

IEEE 802.6 (Metropolitan Area Networks) This describes a topology known as

Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB), which consists of two (2) parallel runs of
cable to link devices over a metropolitan (city-sized) area. The transmission
medium is usually optical fiber and transmission speed in the range of 100 Mbps.

IEEE 802.7 (Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable) This is the IEEE technical
advisory group for broadband LANs. This committee provides technical advice to
other subcommittees on broadband networking techniques.

IEEE 802.8 (Fiber Optic TAG) This is the IEEE technical advisory group for optical
fiber LANs. This committee provides technical advice to other subcommittees on
optical fiber networks as alternatives to existing copper-based networks.

IEEE 802.9 (Integrated Services LAN) This is the IEEE committee working on the
integration of voice, data, and video traffic over other 802 LANs.

IEEE 802.10 (Interoperable LAN Security) This is the IEEE technical advisory
group for security. This group is working on the definition of a standard security
model that will operate over a variety of networks. It incorporates both
authentication and encryption methods.