Asia-Pacific Edu Res
DOI 10.1007/s40299-016-0293-2
REGULAR ARTICLE
The Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Environment on Student
Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Yu-Li Chen1
 De La Salle University 2016
Abstract Virtual reality (VR) has brought about numer-
ous alternative learning opportunities in the last decade, and
with modern products such as Oculus Rift and other wear-
able Virtual Reality technologies being introduced into
society, VR will promisingly continue to provide yet unseen
opportunities in the next few decades and therefore is a
technology that deserves serious consideration and study. In
an attempt to better understand how virtual worlds posi-
tively affect student learning, this study used an online 3D
VR English language learning platform and conducted an
experiment to evaluate the student learning effectiveness
based on Blooms cognitive complexity level. t test analysis
was used to determine the effectiveness of the learning
platform, while structural equation modeling (SEM) anal-
ysis was used to determine the learning model behind the
pedagogy. Participants were 448 students at a science and
technology university in Taiwan. Results show that students
improved their phonological, morphological, grammar and
syntax knowledge, and virtual world learning assisted in the
development of a more complex and higher level of
thinking. The SEM analysis results indicated the virtual
learning environment with unique features of immersion
and ease of use, together with help-seeking positively
affected student language cognition.
Keywords Virtual reality
Blooms Taxonomy

EFL
& Yu-Li Chen
ylchen@mail.lhu.edu.tw
1
Department of Applied Foreign Languages and Language
Center, Graduate Program of Applied Foreign Language in
Tourism and MICE Industry, Lunghwa University of Science
and Technology, 300, Section 1, Wanshou Road, Guishan
Township, Taoyuan County 33306, Taiwan, ROC
Introduction
The educational potential of virtual worlds (VWs) has been
recognized by educators as a possible alternative peda-
gogical opportunity and immersive space for student
learning (Savin-Baden 2010; Peterson 2006). Virtual
learning environments (VLEs) provide authentic context in
which students create and share virtual assets and develop
their scope of learning (Lin and Kuo 2005) and are per-
ceived as more meaningful for contemporary net genera-
tion students (Sandars and Morrison 2007).Virtual worlds
have great educational advantages and potential impact on
language learning (Peterson 2006) and are very useful
arenas for language learning tasks. They offer students
opportunities to interact in the target language and provide
location-specific and socially interactive learning oppor-
tunities such as virtual field trips, virtual city tours, role
playing, and creative construction work via collaboration
with others. Most learning tasks can be language intensive
and involve opportunities for negotiation of meaning,
particularly collaborative construction work. Svensson
(2003) claims that virtual simulations often become more
realistic than ones carried out in the classroom.
Bell and Fogler (1995) designed virtual environments
for chemical reaction engineering course students to get
more deeply immersed in the computer simulations. The
strength of virtual reality (VR) is the ability to visualize
situations and concepts that other mediums cannot display.
The study addressed educational learning objectives and
learning styles and used Blooms Taxonomy to identify
skills to be practiced. Thorsteinsson and Page (2008) used
SmartVR platform in an online course for constructivist
learning. Cognitive conflicts and disequilibrium can be
created through interactions in VLEs, which can lead
learners to question their understanding and try out new
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ideas. They concluded that the only way to evaluate the
effectiveness of VLEs supporting the development of
learning skills and in-service teachers education is through
academic research.
Hew and Cheung (2010) reviewed 480 research studies
on the use of 3D immersive virtual worlds in K-12 and
higher education settings and found that 455 were opinion
and conceptual papers, non-empirical studies, and non
K-12 and higher education related. Only 7 % empirically
studied language learning. Studies on instruction using 3D
virtual worlds to stimulate higher order thinking in learning
a foreign language are relatively few. Therefore, the pur-
pose of this study is to examine whether virtual world
English learning enhanced student linguistic ability and
higher order thinking based on Blooms Taxonomy of
learning objectives.
Literature Review
Virtual Worlds in Education
VWs provide an online immersive learning environment
where students construct their knowledge through partici-
pation, exploration, and interaction while having fun at the
same time (Dreher et al. 2009). With increasing amounts of
studies conducted on the impact of virtual environments
(Inman et al. 2010; Jarmon et al. 2009), the value and
implications of VR learning environments should definitely
be investigated. Technological advances have allowed the
employment of new educational techniques with one of the
more innovative tools being VR as it offers three-dimen-
sional environments that feature interaction. Such a
teaching tool stimulates student motivation and maintains
their attention during the learning process (Clark 2006).
Virtual reality is characterized by three basic ideas:
immersion, interaction, and involvement (Pinho et al.
2009). Wang and Braman (2009) stated that the immersive
nature of a virtual environment provides students with a
sense of reality and allows them to actively explore the
environment for comprehension of the content instead of
sitting through a lecture in a traditional classroom situation.
According to Sherman and Craig (2003), immersion is
classified into mental immersion and physical (sensory)
immersion. Both are critical in creating a successful
experience within a VR. Users interpret visual, auditory,
and haptic cues to gather information while using their
proprioceptive systems to navigate and control objects in a
synthetic environment to accomplish physical immersion.
Mental immersion refers to the state of being deeply
engaged within a VR environment.
Ward (2010) designed activities in second life (SL)
aimed at introducing the concept of avatar-based marketing
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Y. Chen
and having students evaluate the potential of SL as a
marketing communication tool. These students enjoyed the
new approach of using SL for learning and felt it helped
them understand the lessons. Since modern VR products,
such as Oculus Rift and Google Cardboard, have been
introduced into society, VR has gained status and impor-
tance in modern technology development and is likely to be
significant in the information technology industry for years.
3D Virtual Worlds for Language Learning
Since Linden Lab launched SL in 2003, it has been used
and recommended as an appropriate platform for the
development of language proficiency and collaborative and
intercultural learning contexts. Falloon (2010) explored the
potential of virtual environments to act as powerful com-
munication mediums for students to engage in the devel-
opment of higher order thinking skills. Results showed that
students demonstrated the full range of thinking skills of
Blooms Taxonomy, from lower recall to higher order
evaluation, knowledge construction, and communication.
Antonacci and Modaress study (2005) on the educational
possibilities of massively multiplayer virtual worlds in SL
indicates that student engagement in virtual environments
can assist the development of higher order thinking skills
such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation and problem-
solving (p. 3). Antonacci et al. (2008) suggested SL sites
for student learning activities including English or History
role play. They claim that VWs allow social interaction and
collaboration. Through the activities in SL, students inter-
acted with one another simultaneously and developed
higher levels of cognitive functioning such as interpreting,
analyzing, discovering, evaluating, acting and problem
solving (p. 4).
Cognitive Complexity Level
The alignment of the objectives of learning activities and
content with both the standard and the assessment is crucial
so that teachers will know what they should do for their
course plan. Benjamin S. Blooms Taxonomy model has
been widely used in educational settings when teachers
intended to guide students through a learning process.
According to cognitive complexity level, Bloom classifies
human thinking into six levels: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. During the
1990s, Lorin Anderson and other cognitive psychologists
brought up an updated version changing from nouns to
verbs to describe the taxonomy and reflecting relevance to
the activities in the 21st century (Anderson and Sosniak
1994). These are remembering, understanding, applying,
analyzing, and evaluating and creating. It is a helpful tool
for educators to guide and elevate student thinking into
The Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Environment on Student Cognitive and Linguistic

higher levels and it has been a valid benchmark to measure
students level of learning (Krathwohl 2002). Paul (1985)
defined Blooms Taxonomy as a method of classifying
educational objectives, educational experiences, learning
processes, and evaluation questions and problems (p. 39).
It has brought about educational concepts of higher level
thinking and is connected with other concepts such as
creative and critical thinking, problem solving skills, and
multiple intelligences (Noble 2004). Recently, it has been
closely linked with technology integration (Forehand
2005). Huang et al. (2010) claim that VR is especially
helpful when it comes to address issues that require
imagination creativity and high problem solving ability
(p. 2).
Contextual Learning
The role of context in learning reaches far beyond the sole
aspect of content to a great extent. It emphasizes further
aspects of context where the content can assist in guiding
the learners to develop insights through balanced, organic
and successful environments, and strategies (de Figueiredo
2005). De Figueiredo defined context as the set of cir-
cumstances that are relevant for the learner to build her
knowledge (p. 5). A virtual environment offering learning
activities is also a learning context (Bailenson et al. 2008).
Although content is essential in learning, the context with
VR learning scenario is crucial for excellence. Contextual
learning has long been discussed and learning should
always take place in context. For example, the meaning of
a word does not lie in itself, instead its use. The specific
features of VR contextual learning have brought the edu-
cational potential that the traditional classroom would
never have (Huang et al. 2010).
ability and enables comprehension in reading and listening
(Sthr 2009).
The methodology followed a quasi-experimental design.
A pre- and post-test was given to the participants so as to
examine their learning in the virtual world. Four facets of
vocabulary knowledge learning using different cognitive
levels of Blooms Taxonomy as the framework were
included in the test items: phonology, morphology,
semantics, and syntax. A questionnaire was conducted after
the experiment to build a 3D VR English learning model.
Participants
The sampling method is purposeful. Participants are 448
first-year students taking a Basic English course in a
technological university in Taiwan. Their average age is
19 years. The number of male students (240 or 53.6 %)
was slightly higher than the female students (208 or
46.4 %). Participants VR material experiences were
never (136 or 30.4 %); seldom (260 or 58 %); and
occasionally (50 or 11.2 %); and often (2 or 4 %).
Instruments
The pre-and post-test was aimed to examine whether VW
English learning enhanced student linguistic ability and
higher order thinking using Blooms taxonomy of learning
objectives as the framework. Blooms action words in the
different levels of taxonomy of learning domains were

Methodology

Research Design

This study is primarily designed as an action research

study. After the planning and design of the 3D VR learning
system and modules, the implementation stage was to
initially conduct a pilot study in which modification of the
learning materials followed by reflecting upon these
actions and experiences. In the second cycle, experiments
followed using the improved materials to evaluate the
effectiveness of student learning and to build a 3D VR
learning model. The setting was at a department store with
a total of six modules, represented by the six floors in the
department store (Figs. 1, 2). The VRLE is designed to
enhance student linguistic ability, mainly on vocabulary
knowledge learning as it is a major factor in linguistic Fig. 1 Bookstore scene

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Fig. 2 Front desk scene
demonstrated. Test results demonstrated their different
cognitive levels of learning and in different aspects of
language learning.
A questionnaire was developed based on Chuang and
Tsai (2004)s and Maor (1999)s constructivist multimedia
learning environment surveys, Davis (1989) technology
acceptance model (TAM), and Goodhue and Thompson
(1995)s Task-technology Fit survey. Constructivist peda-
gogy aligns itself closely with Blooms Taxonomy as it
encourages higher order thinking skills such as thinking
and analyzing instead of accumulating or memorizing
(Kaya 2015). The TAM theory is regarded as the most
influential for depicting an individuals acceptance of
technology. It continues to be the most widely applied
model in the information system field since its introduction
in 1986 (Lee et al. 2003). The TTF theory considers that IT
can have a positive effect on individual performance if its
capabilities match the tasks that the user has to perform.
The Experiments
The experiments were held in the computer labs so that
their problems with the computer could be solved. The
average estimated time spent on each module was 25 min.
Some students failed and started over so it took longer for
them. Before the first module, there was an explanation of
the direction and purpose of the experiment. Six modules
were produced and students completed all of them in one
semester. The design concept of the virtual environment
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Y. Chen
was entirely game and scenario based. Each unit had a
different task that students had to accomplish in order to
move onto the next learning level. These students did a pre-
test before they were assigned to learn English in a 3D
virtual world. A post-test and an adapted virtual world
learning (VWL) questionnaire were done afterward.
Results and Discussion
In an attempt to better understand how virtual worlds
positively affect student learning, an independent sample
t test was performed to compare the scores of the pre-test
before using the system and that of the post-test after
engaging in its use. The questionnaire was given to the
student participants at the end of the study. Both explora-
tory factor analysis (EFA) and structural equation model-
ing (SEM) analysis were used to explore and establish a
model of the relationships among a set of latent variables.
Results of the Pre-and Post-tests
The Cronbachs Alpha value for test reliability is .86. A
significant difference was discovered between the scores of
the pre- (M = 34.07, SD = 13.21) and post-tests
(M = 41.57, SD = 13.28) at p value \.000, suggesting
that the students made progress after using the system
(Table 1). Table 2 indicates the learning objectives and
student cognitive development in the language learning. It
would be a long test if four facets of vocabulary knowledge
learning were tested applying all levels of Blooms Tax-
onomy. Hence, the levels for each facet were decided based
on the appropriate types of questions.
Phonological Knowledge Learning
The section on phonology included both Remembering and
Analyzing levels of the revised Blooms cognitive domain.
Results revealed a significant difference between the scores
of the pre-and post-tests: listening (pre-test M = 4.13,
SD = 2.49/post-test M = 5.73, SD = 2.61); syllables
M = 4.25, SD = 3.69/M = 5.44, SD = 3.51); and stress
M = .73, SD = 1.25/M = 1.28, SD = 1.63), indicating
that most students were able to recognize words from lis-
tening and distinguish the syllables and the stress of words
from the VR learning system. Students increased their
phonological knowledge and became more aware of the
phonological structure or sound structure of words.
Compared to placing the stress, the students were better
at distinguishing the sound of the words. Both the pre-and
post-test scores on distinguishing between heavy and light
syllables are the lowest among the three linguistic items.
Students needed to pronounce the words while placing the
The Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Environment on Student Cognitive and Linguistic

Table 1 Paired Sample t-test for Pre- and Post- Test Scores
No. Linguistics category Blooms Taxonomy level Pre-test post-test Correlation Sig. p value
Mean SD Mean SD

1 Phonology Remembering 4.13 2.49 5.73 2.61 .696 .000

2 Analyzing 4.25 3.69 5.44 3.51 .693 .000
3 Analyzing .73 1.25 1.28 1.63 .587 .000
4 Vocabulary knowledge in context Understanding 5.36 2.73 6.03 2.65 .752 .000
5 Vocabulary Understanding 3.26 3.04 3.99 3.29 .758 .000
6 knowledge without context Evaluating 3.74 3.23 4.73 3.15 .617 .000
7 Morphology Understanding/applying analyzing 7.27 2.05 7.66 1.80 .624 .000
8 Understanding 2.85 1.23 3.27 1.14 .432 .000
9 Grammar and syntax knowledge Analyzing .29 .52 .80 .86 .146 .006
10 Creating/applying 2.21 1.64 2.70 1.54 .696 .000
Total 34.07 13.21 41.57 13.28 .850 .000

Table 2 Learning in the VRLE

Revised Blooms Taxonomy Learning in the VRLE

Remembering To exhibit memory of learned materials by recalling vocabulary

The ability to recognize or recall knowledge or
concepts
Understanding To understand information by identifying, confirming and matching vocabulary to
The ability to grasp the meaning of the material sentence using context clues
To demonstrate understanding by choosing and matching word to definition
To differentiate prefix, root, and suffix by matching or inferring the meaning of
morphemes
Applying To infer, apply, and differentiate prefix, root, and suffix by applying morphological
The ability to use learned material in new and concrete knowledge
situations
Analyzing To make judgments about information and validity of ideas by selecting the correct
The ability to draw connections among ideas and definition and differentiating and deciding parts of speech
separate a whole into component parts To distinguish and reorganize pragmatic word order
Evaluating To making judgments about information and validity of ideas by selecting the correct
The ability to make judgment and justify decision definition and differentiating and deciding parts of speech
Creating To create and make up new sentences by using the components of language
The ability to put parts together and producing new or
original work

stress of the words. With a similar result, Su (2006) also
proposed that Taiwanese students receptive skills of
English were better than productive ones. This implied that
in the future, we should ponder the issue of assisting stu-
dents in developing their productive phonological ability in
virtual language learning.
To sum up, handling stress was still difficult for these
students; however, students indicated vocabulary growth
and displayed various phonological processing skills. They
had an ability to distinguish and manipulate phonemes and
developed phonemic awareness. Students did suggest that
something could be added for them to help distinguish the
difference between the light and heavy sounds; however,
increasing student phonological awareness through visu-
alization in the VR environment was still recommended.
Vocabulary Learning
A significant difference was identified in the scores of
using context clues between the pre-test (M = 5.36,

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SD = 2.73) and the post-test (M = 6.03, SD = 2.65). This
relates to the cognitive level of Understanding in which
students were more able to identify and match vocabulary
to sentences. As for vocabulary learning without context
clues, there was a significant difference in the scores of
definition and parts of speech between the pre-test
(M = 3.26, SD = 3.04) and the post-test (M = 3.99,
SD = 3.29). This is connected to the level of Under-
standing and Analyzing in which most students have
improved their ability to match the words correctly to the
definition and differentiate the parts of speech.
It can be inferred from the present study that with the
facilitation of VW learning, EFL learners were able to
strengthen and widen the range of their vocabulary power,
which alone, might provide enough evidence to support
using such an online virtual system in EFL contexts.
Holding a slightly different view from the present study,
Kastoudi (2012) concluded that 3D virtual quest games
were more beneficial for EFL learner interaction, negotia-
tion, and communicative competence and less for vocab-
ulary acquisition. Although the results of Kastoudis
research were not necessarily the same as that of this study,
one of the implications offered from it was applicable. That
is, according to Kastoudi, for any EFL contexts, the real
challenge is not just introducing a new technology to a
school, but instead, to change the way the school thinks
about how students learn. Consequently, to create a more
facilitative learning environment where students learn as
much as they are able to, educators are encouraged to
engage in different forms of learning in the classroom.
Morphological Knowledge Learning
Results showed that students increased their ability in
morphological structure awareness and morpheme iden-
tification. A significant difference was found in the
scores of affixes for the pre-test (M = 7.27, SD = 2.05)
and the post-test (M = 7.66, SD = 1.80). This relates to
the levels of Understanding, Applying, and Analyzing,
which indicate that most students did not find it difficult
to infer and differentiate what the affixes were, and
apply the knowledge in choosing the correct answer.
Likewise, a significant difference was identified on the
meaning of affixes for the pre-test (M = 2.85,
SD = 1.23) and the post-test (M = 3.27, SD = 1.14).
This relates to the level of Understanding. We may
assume that students improved their ability to infer the
meaning of the affixes based on the entire word and
forwardly select the correct definition. Virtual worlds
allow identification, analysis, and description of the
structure of language morphemes and other linguistic
units such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, into-
nation, and stress or implied context.
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Y. Chen
Grammar and Syntax Knowledge Learning
For pragmatic word order, there was a significant differ-
ence in the scores of sentence reorganization for the pre-
test (M = .29, SD = .52) and the post-test (M = .80,
SD = .86). This relates to the level of Analyzing. These
students did not perform very well even though they were
more capable of distinguishing the various parts of a sen-
tence and correctly reorganize them into a complete sen-
tence. There was also a significant difference in the scores
of sentence writing for the pre-test (M = 2.21, SD = 1.64)
and the post-test (M = 2.70, SD = 1.54). This section is
relevant to the level of Applying and Creating. Results
inferred that students made progress in writing complete
and coherent sentences with the given phrases and were
able to create and make up new sentences using the com-
ponents of language. To sum up, student listening scores
visibly improved on the post-test, suggesting that they were
actively looking for, or were more aware of the words they
heard than in the pre-test. The least obvious improvement
was in the sentence structure section due to the need for
more explanation and practice in English grammar; how-
ever, VW learning did assist in developing more complex
cognitive levels of thinking.
Structural Equation Modeling Analysis
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) applying principal
axis factoring was used to identify a large set of underlying
variables as the researcher has no priori hypothesis about
factors or patterns of measured variables. A structural
equation modeling (SEM) analysis was used to establish a
model of the relationships among a set of latent variables
resulted from the EFA: Immersion, Ease of Use, Help
Seeking, and Perceived Cognitive Benefits (see Fig. 3). The
standardized effect of the VLE has an effect on Perceived
Cognitive Benefits, which is .94. LISREL software was used
for statistical analysis.
Researchers (e.g., Hu and Bentler 1999) recommended
relying on fit indices that have different measurement prop-
erties. Maruyama (1998) distinguished between several types
of fit indices: absolute fit indices, relative fit indices, parsi-
mony fit indices, and those based on the noncentrality
parameter. In general, if the vast majority of the indexes
indicate a good fit, then there probably is a good fit. The
absolute fit measures include v2 value, GFI, RMA, SRMR,
and RMSEA. Goodness of fit index (GFI) is .93; the suggested
value exceeds .90. The critical root mean square residual
(RMR) value to accept a model is .05 or less. The RMR value
is .018 while the SRMR is .021, denoting an acceptable model.
The comparative fit measures include a normed fit
index (NFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), incremental fit
index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and a relative fit
The Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Environment on Student Cognitive and Linguistic

CB 1 .19

CB 2 .18

.90 CB 3 .21
.34 Immersion
.91
.81 .89 CB 4 .21
Perceived .89
.15 Ease of use .92 VLE .94 Cognive .87
benets CB 5 .24
.86
.91
.87 CB 6 .26
Help .81
.18
seeking
CB 7 .25

CB 8 .35

Chi-square=182.33, df=43, p-value<.001

Fig. 3 SEM analysis of virtual learning

index (RFI). A favorable value for these indices would be
greater than .9 (Thompson 2000). The resulting model had
values of .99 for NFI, NNFI, IFI, and CFI. RFI has a value
of .98. The parsimonious fit measures include a parsimo-
nious normed fit index (PNFI), parsimonious goodness of
fit index (PGFI), and Hoelters critical N (CN). The
resulting model had a PNFI value of .77 and a PGFI value
of .61, which are larger than the favorable value of .50
indicating a good fit (Table 3).
Discussion
The SEM analysis results indicate that the VLE with
unique features of immersion and ease of use, together with
help seeking positively affected student perceived cogni-
tion. Ease of use, one of the significant factors in Davis
TAM (1989), is influential in the success of this VR
learning. Easy to locate learning units, clear instruction,
and easy operation are the key elements. Virtual reality
enhanced student understanding as its simulated environ-
ment is realistic and immersive. The realism and the
smooth change of the 3D image made students feel con-
centrated more while learning and it also made learning
more motivating and interesting. Students felt having the
ability to change the view position of an avatar allowed
them to learn better.
Another factor, help seeking, plays a crucial role in this
VR learning experience. The TA provided appropriate,
timely help and advice to help solve their technical prob-
lems and in their English learning. There was good com-
munication between the learners and the TA. Students
perceived cognitive benefits in their learning process.
Using this 3D virtual learning program, students gained a
good understanding of the basic concepts of the units and
learned a lot of factual information in the topics. They
learned to identify the main and important issues of the
topics and they were able to summarize what they learned.
The students were more interested in learning the topics
and were stimulated to learn more. They believed they can
apply the content of the materials in a real-world context.
As evidenced from the study, Blooms Taxonomy has
provided a basis for learning a foreign language in a VR
environment. Blooms Taxonomy of cognitive learning is
helpful in structuring the learning process of vocabulary
knowledge that includes the components of a language:
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmat-
ics. Although the learning process for each facet is not
necessarily moving from the lowest remembering to the
higher levels of creating; the full range of thinking skills
was demonstrated in different linguistic items, students
made progress, and improved cognitive development that is
consistent with Buck and Stuckis study (2000). The VLE

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Table 3 The overall model fit measures
Absolute Value Comparative Value Parsimonious Value
fit fit measures fit measures
measures
v2 182.33** NFI .99 PNFI
GFI .93 NNFI .99 PGFI
AGFI .90 CFI .99 CN 157.52
RMR .018 IFI .99
SRMR .021 RFI .98
RMSEA .085
Maruyama (1998)
was designed to move students up the taxonomy as they
progressed with their acquisition of knowledge: the higher
levels of learning were incorporated into the lesson units
and tests, therefore the learners were stimulated to be
thinkers instead of individuals simply recalling
information.
Linguistic context plays a pivotal part in vocabulary
acquisition. On one hand, teachers are keenly aware of the
fact that words are best learned when they occur in cor-
responding context; on the other hand, they have to
struggle to provide sentential or conversational contexts to
warrant better teaching effects. Virtual world learning
suggested in this study intends to propose a solution to this
dilemma. It aims to help students learn high-frequency
items by seeing and listening to them in meaningful con-
texts. While engaged in the virtualized world of English
learning, they experience not only visual but also tactile
stimuli in learning vocabulary. Words do not occur as
detached from contexts, where they tend to be used in
everyday life, but embedded into verbal interaction
between characters. Students are thus exposed to essential
cognitive processes of vocabulary acquisition, by which
visual stimuli are provided when target words are used in
combination with those they frequently occur with. They
can learn these collocation varieties and in addition a
valence of verbs is transmitted to further acquaint them
with syntactic patterns. Moreover, personal participation in
reading during the task-solving games aids word retention.
They can thus initiate and experience a situation-specific
chunking process by which words and related expressions
are not learned individually in a decontextual routine, but
collected and further assembled into larger meaningful
elements. Chunking leads to increased ability to vocabulary
knowledge, particularly in word choice and fluency, which
is therapeutic for Chinglish. Chinglish is symptomatic of
English learners in Taiwan. When students with an inad-
equate knowledge of how variously words can be used and
combined are only able to transport certain elements taken
from English into their linguistic output. They fall back on
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Y. Chen
their knowledge of Chinese structure and use equivalents
they assume to be valid.
Products or items words refer to in virtual worlds are not
merely text-based but graphically depicted. Students enjoy
an illusion of being in another world while using virtual
.77
reality and it is this artificial delusion of quasi-reality that
.61
shifts their focus from memorizing word forms onto
associating them to concrete objects, thus allowing them to
perceive lexical items as image-based hints and galvanize
more response to them while learning.
The role of context in learning reaches far beyond the
sole aspect of content to a great extent (de Figueiredo
2005). Contextualized vocabulary learning has been
receiving increasing attention due to the fact that it
addresses learning needs in several aspects. Using Blooms
Taxonomy as a framework, contextual learning is instru-
mental for a student to internalize syntactic rules and
structures. As students can see words in the dialogs
between characters, they can also initiate the parsing pro-
cess each time they use a virtual world. Their engagement
enhances concentration on sentence structures, prompting
them into analyzing elements in the sentence, deciding on
their grammatical roles and validity, and then reviving their
syntactic knowledge. As words are also played to them,
auditory stimuli further help them to consolidate ortho-
graphical knowledge as word forms and their correspond-
ing sound patterns can be cognitively matched. In a
nutshell, contextualized lexical learning benefits students
more than a decontextualized one in a formal setting.
Progress made can be noted in the aspects of word usage,
word retention, syntactic training as well as an ortho-
graphical consolidation.
Conclusion
This study demonstrated the advantages of foreign lan-
guage learning in the virtual environment not only on the
students linguistic abilities but also on their cognitive
abilities as well. Results indicate that students made pro-
gress from using the system and the VLE improved student
learning. The unique features of the VLE, immersion and
ease of use, together with help seeking positively affected
student perceived cognition. Virtual world learning assisted
in the development of more complex and higher cognitive
levels of thinking.
In terms of acquiring English linguistic knowledge such
as phonology, morphology, vocabulary, and syntax, the
VLE is a great learning facilitator, in which it provides
EFL learners with an innovative way and allows contextual
learning. Results help support the assertion that the virtual
environment does facilitate the process of acquiring the
English language, as many improvements have been
The Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Environment on Student Cognitive and Linguistic
identified through examining learner response to each of
the linguistic items. Acquiring linguistic knowledge leads
to language use and learners become more competent users
(Berman 2007). This then leads to our curiosity of looking
at another issue of how the virtual environment helps
improve and increase the percentage of each learners
learning success. Two studies (Robers et al. 2000; Over-
baugh and Lin 2004) imply that low social-affective stu-
dents may benefit from the online VR learning
environment, and this can be a subsequent research topic of
the present study, which provides us with more possibilities
of looking at the issues beyond student academic perfor-
mance, and what other factors might be in affecting student
learning outcome.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by a grant from Tai-
wan Ministry of Science and Technology No. MOST 103-2410-H-
262 -011. I appreciate the reviewers valuable comments and
suggestions.
Funding Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology, Grant No.
MOST 103-2410-H-262 -011.
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