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Vetus

Testamentum
Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 brill.nl/vt

Contrast and Meaning in the Aqhat Story1

Shirly Natan-Yulzary
Levinsky College of Education, Israel
Gordon College of Education, Israel
Beit-Berl College, Israel
shirliyul@gmail.com

Abstract
Creating contrast between dierent elements in the narrative is one of the Ugaritic poets main
poetic devices. This literary tool is employed to encourage the audience to elicit and produce
narrative meaning. In Aqhat it is a prominent technique, abundant in the lexical make up and
stylistic texture of the narrative, in its content, as well as in the narrative structure.
The examples analyzed in the article represent only a sampling of the Ugaritic poets elaborate
and complex range of literary creativity. They illustrate the prominence of this device and dem-
onstrate that its use is akin to that familiar from biblical narrative. Thus, this essay also indirectly
supports the thesis the literary precursors and background of biblical narrative poetics are
reected in the Ugaritic epics, and that these two corpora are representative of the same literary
tradition, not only regard to thematics and language, but also in respect to their poetics.

Keywords
Ugaritic epic, West-Semitic, narrative poetry, Aqhat, wisdom, Old Testament, structuralism,
formalism, semiotic square, actantial model, contrast, Danail, Pughat, Anat, Ugaritic, epic,
semantic eld

Contrast between dierent elements or contrary concepts is a prominent con-


stituent of a story, for the simple reason that such a structuring device plays a
central role in the construction of the storys meaning.2 In this essay, I shall

1)
This article is based on a paper presented at the 2010 International Meeting of the Society of
Biblical Literature, Tartu, Estonia, 25-29.7.2010. I am grateful for the illuminating comments
of Prof. E. L. Greenstein.
2)
According to the structural school, contrasts and opposites are fundamental for the under-
standing of a language and of the sense of a text. For denitions, a discussion and references, see
Tz. Shimon, Contrast in Biblical Narrative: The Literary Device and the Drama of Choice,
unpublished thesis (Bar-Ilan University 2008 [Hebrew]), 1-4.
Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2012 DOI: 10.1163/156853312X645254
434 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

present several examples of contrast in the Aqhat epic, which illustrate the
Ugaritic poets use of such devices and techniques, in ways that are similar to
their deployment in the Bible.3 We shall further see that contrast is a funda-
mental key to the interpretation of this epic work.
My discussion refers to the recognition of contrast on a number of dierent
levels, from the lexical/verbal level, through the level of characterization, and
on to the formal and structural levels of the narrative. I will demonstrate that
the contrast between life and death is one of the texts main themes, since it
is refracted through dierent levels of the literary work.

1. Life and DeathOpposite Semantic Fields


The rst example of this opposition is found in Anat and Aqhats conversa-
tion (CAT 1.17, V: 26-41). Anat, desiring Aqhats bow, oers him gold and
silver. But since he refuses, she oers him immortalitya much higher price.
She says:4

26-28 ir.h ym.laqht.zr/ Ask for life, Aqhat the Hero,


ir.h ym.watnk. Ask for life, and Ill give it,
blmt/walh k. DeathlessnessIll endow you.4

In her attempt to persuade Aqhat, she elaborates her bargain and says:

28-29 asprk.m.bl/nt. Ill let you count years with Baal,


m.bn il.tspr.yrhm/ Count months with the ospring
of El
30-31 kbl.kyh wy.yr. As Baal revives, then invites,
h wy.y/r.wy[]qynh. Invites the revived to drink,
31-32 ybd.wyr.lh/ Trills and sings over him,
nmn [wt]nynn. With pleasant tune they respond;
32-33 ap ank.ah wy/aqh[t z]r. So Ill revive Aqhat the Hero.
(CAT 1.17, VI: 26-33).

3)
Here and below, I use poet or narrator alternately to refer to a poet who is also a narrator
and vice versa.
4)
The transliteration and English translation are partially based on S. B. Parker, Aqhat, in:
idem. (ed.) Ugaritic Narrative Poetry (SBLWAW 9, Atlanta 1997), 49-80, with modications.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 435

Anats words draw broadly from the semantic eld of life: In addition to her
ve-fold repetition of the root h -y-y / h -w-y (to live/to give life), she uses the
synonym deathlessness or immortality (balmta), and mentions the nouns
months and years to illustrate endless time.5 She further illustrates her oer
by mentioning how Baal revives a human being, bringing him back to life.
Yet Aqhat does not believe her, since he knows that a human cannot obtain
immortality.6 He replies:

35-36 mt!.uhryt.mh.yqh / In the end a man gets what?


mh.yqh .mt.atryt. A man gets what as his fate?
36-37 spsg.ysk/[l]ri. Glaze is poured on the head,
h rs.lzr.qdqdy/ Lye all over the skull.
38 [ ] mt.kl.amt. [ ] the death of all I shall die,
wan.mtm.amt I too am a mortal man and shall die.
(CAT 1.17, VI: 35-38).

In contradistinction to Anats speech, Aqhats words draw on the opposite


semantic eld of death. In addition to the repetitive eect and consonance
produced by using the verb mtu (m-w-t; to die) in proximity to the noun
mutu (meaning man),7 Aqhat refers to the inevitable end of all men, in his
use of the words uhrayatu (end)8 and atrayatu (future). Anat employs three
verbs to formulate and emphasize her oer: aru (a-r- ), yatnu ( y-t-n) and
ullah u (-l-h , in the D stem), the last two meaning to give. Aqhat responds
by using the verb laqh u (l-q-h ; to take) to prove her oer false. He too illus-
trates his claim by describing a mortuary custom or depicting an image of old
age, paralleling Anats illustration of Baals power to restore life.9 His answer
is thus poetically formulated in the same way, but with contrastive meaning.

5)
That is, eternal life like that of a god.
6)
Cf. the words of the bartender to Gilgamesh. See E. A. Speiser, The Epic of Gilgamesh, in:
J. B. Pritchard (ed.), ANET, 3rd edn (Princeton 1969), 90.
7)
Here the word mutu (man, destined to die) is in wordplay with the word mtu death.
8)
Cf. Num. 23:10. The future (fate) of all men, of course, is death.
9)
For dierent interpretations of ll. 36-37 see H. L. Ginsberg, The Tale of Aqhat, in:
J. B. Pritchard (ed.), ANET, 3rd edn (Princeton 1969), 151, n.24; B. Margalit, The Neolithic
Connexion of the Ugaritic Poem of Aqht, Palorient 9 (1983), 93-98 (cf. W. F. Albright, The
Natural Force of Moses in the Light of Ugaritic, BASOR 94 [1944], 33, n.119); K. Spronk,
Beatic Afterlife in Ancient Israel and the Ancient Near East (AOAT 219, Kevelaer 1986), 152,
n.3; D. Pardee, The Aqhat Legend, in: W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger, Jr (eds), The Context
of Scripture, I: Canonical Compositions (Leiden 1997), 347, n.46. Compare the metaphorical
description of old age in Eccl. 12:1-7.
436 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

2. Drought and the Source of WaterFurther Use of Semantic Fields


After Anat murders Aqhat, a drought befalls the land. Danail does not seem
to notice this, until Pughat rends his garment. Immediately he prays for rain.

38-39 apnk.dnil.mt/rpi Now Danail, man of Rapiu,


39-40 ysly.rpt.b/h m.un. Adjures10 the clouds in the awful heat,
40-42 yr.rpt/tmtr.bqz. Let the clouds make rain in the
summer,
tl.ytll/lnbm. The dew lay dew on the grapes.
(CAT 1.19 II: 38-42).

But the situation does not change. The poet notes proleptically that the
drought will continue for seven years.

42-44 b.nt/ysrk.bl. (But) seven years Baal is absent,


tmn.rkb/ rpt. Eight, the Rider of the clouds:
44-46 bl.tl.bl rbb/ No dew, no downpour,
bl.r.thmtm. No swirling of the deeps,
bl/tbn.ql.bl No welcome voice of Baal.
(CAT 1.19 II: 42-46).

10)
The verb s-l-y has two meanings: to curse and to pray. See Y. Avishur, A Prayer to the Baal
of Ugarit, in: Studies in Hebrew and Ugaritic Psalms ( Jerusalem 1989), 175-176 (Hebrew). The
passage is a well-known parallel of 2 Sam. 1:21. In light of Davids lament, many have assumed
that Danail curses the land. See e.g. H. L. Ginsberg, A Ugaritic Parallel to 2 Sam. 1:21, JBL 57
(1938), 211 and n. 6; S. Spiegel, Noah, Daniel, and Job in: S. Lieberman et al. (eds), Louis
Ginzberg Jubilee Volume, on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday, English Section (New York
1945), 315; N. Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit 2nd edn (The Biblical Seminar 53, London
2002), 295. I disagree for several reasons: (a) Danail does not know about Aqhats murder yet.
He becomes aware of it only later, when the messengers arrive (CAT 1.19, II: 27-49). Danail
therefore has no motive to curse the land; (b) The interpretation to curse would imply that
Danail brought about a long and hard drought, but this does not reconcile with his positive
characterization in the remainder of the text, and with his wish that Aqhat collect the crops from
the elds (CAT 1.19, II: 17-18, 24-25); (c) The passage in question does not exhibit a curse-
fulllment structure (cf. the structure in CAT 1.19, III: 1-41); moreover, according to CAT 1.19,
I: 17-19, 29-31 the description of the drought appears before the so-called curse to the clouds,
contrary to logic and literary convention. (d) The prayer to the clouds is Danails rst attempt to
counteract the drought, and the rituals in the elds are the second attempt. (e) Only lines 40-42
can be attributed to character. Lines 42-46 are a proleptic note by the narrator. The seven years
mentioned are the same period of mourning, during which nothing happens, because the family
is busy grieving. (f ) The traditional image of the sources of water can function dierently in dif-
ferent contexts: in the Bible it is a curse, and in Aqhat it is the poets description of the drought.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 437

These verses set up a contrast between the desired state and the present one.
Lines 38-42 employ the three verbs yaryu ( y-r-y), muttaru (m-t-r, in the
D stem), tullalu (t-l-l ),11 and the nouns tallu (dew) and araptu (clouds).
Here again the poet avails himself of words belonging to a semantic eld sig-
nifying the sources of water. In lines 42-46 the poet continues to draw on this
semantic eld and introduces the noun rabbu (downpour), and the phrases
aru tihmtima and tubnu qli balibut the latter expressions are couched
in the negative (by means of the negation word bal [no]). The narrator also
reports that Baal (explicitly named and described by the epithet rkibu
arapti) is absent (lines 42-44). Notably, this contrast may be perceived
already in lines 39-42, when the poet mentions the dry seasons heat in prox-
imity to the words comprising the semantic eld of rain (bi-h ammi ni [in
the awful heat]; bi-qzi [in the summer]).

3. Pughat and DanailAwareness and Unawareness


It was earlier noted that Danail does not notice the signs of the drought until
Pughat tears his garment. This can be inferred by closely examining the
sequence of the poets account, and lling in the gaps between the overt
description of events and of actions and the undisclosed characters inner life.
The poet reports:

17 wbmt[ ]mss[ ]/ And with his death . . .


18-19 [p]r.qz.[ ] The rst fruits of summer are . . .
blt/[b]lph. The ear [in] its husk.
19-21 apnk.dn[i]l/[m]t.rpi. Now Danail, [ma]n of Rapiu,
ap[h]n.[z]r/[mt hrnm]y. The hero, [man of the Harnem]ite,
21-23 yt[]u/[ytb bap t][r] Gets up [and sits in the gate ]way,
[t]ht/[adrm dbgrn] Among [the chiefs on the threshing
oor],
23-25 ydn/[dn almnt Takes care of [the case of the widow],
y]tpt/[tpt ytm Defends [the need of the orphan].
(CAT 1.19 I: 17-25).

According to this account, Danail is busy with his regular activity (cf. CAT
1.17, V: 4-8). In addition to the dessication of the fruit, Danail fails to notice
other bad omens.

11)
In the jussive form.
438 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

32-33 l.bt.abh.nrm.trhpn./ Vultures circle over her [=Pughats]


ybsr.h bl.diym/ fathers house,12
A ock of kites soars.13
34-35 tbky.pt.bm.lb/ Pughat weeps in her liver,
tdm.bm.kbd/ Sheds tears in her heart,
36-37 tmz.kst.dnil.mt/rpi. She tears the mantle of Danail,
al<l>.zr.mt hrnmy./ man of Rapiu,
(CAT 1.19, I: 32-37). The robe of the hero, man of the
Harnemite.

Pughat, who is wise and clever, notices and understands the bad omens.14
The poet reports that she weeps inwardly, immediately after he mentions the
gathering fowl overhead. Here we, the audience, are required to ll the gap
and divine the characters mental statePughat recognizes the signicance of
the wild fowl and responds with inner sorrow. But why does she tear Danails
garment? Again, we must construe our own interpretation of the characters
state of mind: Danail is unaware of what happened, and is oblivious of the
omens. By tearing the garment, Pughat tries to draw Danails attention and
only then does he respond to the drought and dessication and pray for rain
(CAT 1.19, I: 38-42).
Still, Danail has only just becomes aware of the new conditions and prob-
ably does not know the cause of the drought. The poet does not penetrate
Danails consciousness directly, but the audience is certainly encouraged
to do so covertly. By lling in the gaps between the characters actions and
their responses (or lack thereof ) we may deduce their contrastive states of

12)
The sux-pronouns in l. 32 refer to Pughat, who is probably introduced for the rst time
in ll. 25-28. See S. Natan-Yulzary, Narration and Characterization in the Epic of Aqhat from
Ugarit, unpublished thesis (Tel-Aviv University 2010 [Hebrew], 306.
13)
Kites is the B-word for Vultures in a parallelism structure.
14)
Pughats epithet characterizes her as a wise woman (CAT 1.19, II: 1-3). Her description as
wise is essential for understanding the plot (E. L. Greenstein, The Role of the Reader in Ugaritic
Narrative, in: R. C. Culley and S. M. Olyan [eds], A Wise and Discerning Mind: Essays in Honor
of Burke Long [BJS 325, Providence 2000], 147-148). In epic literature, feminine characters may
mediate between worlds, possess magical or other esoteric skills, inaccessible to normal indi-
viduals in society. See D. A. Miller, The Epic Hero (Baltimore 2000), 107-108; H. P. Foley,
Women in Ancient Epic, in: J. M. Foley (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Epic (Blackwell Com-
panions to the Ancient World. Literature and Culture, Malden, Mass. 2005). In Aqhat only
Pughat notices these omens and is able to understand their meaning.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 439

awareness. Without the secondary character, Pughat as a foil, we would not


have been able to project our understanding of Danails state of mind.15

4. Anat and Pughatthe Bad Daughter and the Good Daughter


Another signicant contrast in the narrative, is that of the two female charac-
ters, Pughat and Anat, who comprise a prominent contrastive pair. How does
the poet encourage his audience to compare and contrast the two? One salient
detail that accomplishes just this is Pughats epic epithet: Pughat, Bearer of
water, Collector of dew from the eece, Who knows the course of the stars.
This epithet introduces Pughat as a wise woman, a type of seer. She is
knowledgeable in interpreting omens. The poet deliberately constructs Pughats
epithet by drawing on a traditional description of the goddess Anat.

Pughats Epic Epithet ( Aqhat)


1-3 m.pt.tkmt my/ Listen, Pughat, Bearer of water.
hspt.l r.tl. Collector of dew from the eece,
yd [t]/hlk.kbkbm Who knows the course of the stars:
(CAT 1.19. II: 1-3).

Actions of Anat (Baal)


38-40 [t]hspn.mh.wtrhs/ [She] draws water and washes,
[t]l.mm.mn.ars. [With D]ew of Heaven, Oil of Earth,
rbb/[r]kb.rpt Showers of the Cloud [r]ider,
40-41 tl.mm.tskh/ Dew which the Heavens pour on her,
[rbb.]nskh.kbkbm [Show]ers the Stars pour on her.
(CAT 1.3, II: 38-41).16

Yet additional details in the characterization of the two encourage us to com-


pare them. Note the simile used to describe the moment when Anat percieves
Aqhats bow and covets it.

15)
Another example of a contrasting pair of characters is found in Kirta (CAT 1.15, II: 16-III: 30).
See S. Natan-Yulzary, Characterization and Text Texture in Ancient West-Semitic Literature
from Ugarit, Shnaton: An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies 17 (2007), 181-183,
184 (Hebrew).
16)
Cf. CAT 1.3, IV: 42-44.
440 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

13 [ ].tsb.qt.bnt[?]/ [ ] she longs for the bow,


14 [ ]nh.km.btn.yqr/ [ her e]ye(s) like a snake . . .
(CAT 1.17, VI: 13-14).

This feral imagery most probably expresses the goddess excitement. Similarly,
when Pughat hears Yat pans words (CAT 1.19, VI: 58-59), she understands
that she is facing her brothers killer. She too is impassioned:

60-61 p[ ]km/ybl.lbh. . . . her heart,


km.btn.y[ ]s(or l)ah. Like a snake . . .17
(CAT 1.19, IV: 60-61).

In the extant text, the image of the snake appears only in these two passages.
Unfortunately, both contexts are broken. But what survives allows us to sur-
mise that in both passages the image is used to evoke the arousal of strong
passions.18
The common snake imagery and the similarity between Pughats epithet
and Anats actions in the Baal text are the two main features that lead us to
associate between the two characters and compare them. But let us not forget
that both Anat and Pughat are also feminine gures who use, or intend to use,
male weapons. Anat is the goddess of war and game, while Pughat outts
herself in warriors clothes.19 Both feminine characters weep: Pughat cries
when she sees and understands the bad omens (in her knowledge or perhaps
ignorance of what happened to Aqhat); Anat cries after she kills Aqhat (pre-
sumably in response to the same event, but the tablet is damaged there
[CAT 1.18, IV: 39-41; CAT 1.19, I: 11-17]). Both characters are described in
Aqhat as daughters, and both request their fathers approval or blessing before
acting. In executing their plans, both use deception: Anat acts in an outwardly
friendly manner and induces Aqhat to meet her at Qiryat Abiluma, but

17)
I follow H. L. Ginsberg, The North-Canaanite Myth of Anath and Aqhat II, BASOR, 98
(1945), 16 and n.26; and T. H. Gaster, Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near
East, New and rev. edn (Garden City 1961), 375.
18)
The connection was suggested rst by Ginsberg (1945: 16 and n.26). The use of the same
imagery may hint at a lex talionis. See S. Natan-Yulzary, Divine Justice or Poetic Justice? The
Transgression and Punishment of the Goddess Anath in the Aqhat StoryA Literary Perspec-
tive, UF 41 (2009), 581-599.
19)
Wearing these male accessories imbues the person with battle prowess. See H. A. Honer Jr.
Symbols for Masculinity and FemininityTheir Use in Ancient Near Eastern Sympathetic
Magic Rituals, JBL 85 (1966), 326-334.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 441

then she kills him; Pughat disguises herself as a prostitute,20 thus managing to
penetrate Yat pans camp. And lastly, both characters are said to put their
weapon in a belt and hide it in a scabbard.21

Anats Plan:
17-18 atk.km.nr.bhb[y]/ Put you like a vulture in my be[lt],22
km.diy.btrty. Like a kite into my sheath.
-----------------
27-29 tqh.ytpn.mhr.t/ She takes Yatpan, the Sutian warrior,
ttn.knr.bhbh. Puts him like a vulture in her belt,
km.diy/btrth. Like a kite into her sheath.
(CAT 1.18, IV: 17-18, 27-29).

The Narrators Description of Pughats Equipping:


43-46 t[ht]/tlb.nps.zr. She puts on a heros outt [below],
tt.hl[pn b]/ngh. Places a knife in her belt,
hrb.tt.btr[th]/ In [her] scabbard places a sword,
wl.tlb.nps.att. A womans outt on top.
(CAT 1.19, IV: 43-46)

This resonance is sucient to prove that the poet intends his audience to
compare the feminine characters. But when performing this comparison we
nd that these two characters are contrastive in many other respects.23 While

20)
See Ginsberg, 1969: 155; S. B. Parker, The Pre-Biblical Narrative Tradition: Essays on the
Ugaritic Poems Keret and Aqhat (SBLRBS 24, Atlanta 1989), 131; N. H. Walls, The Goddess Anat
in Ugaritic Myth (SBLDS 135, Atlanta 1992), 207-208. Some scholars suggest that Pughat dis-
guises herself as Anat (W. G. E. Watson, Puzzling Passages in the Tale of Aqhat, UF 8 [1976]:
376; B. Margalit, The Ugaritic Poem of AQHT: Text, Translation, Commentary [BZAW 182,
Berlin 1989], 322, n.4).
21)
Parker, 1989: 142. Note that the weapon of Anat is actually Yatpan (Wright, 2001: 210,
217). Cf. the description of Baals weapon (CAT 1.2, IV: 13-14, 15-16, 20-21, 23-24).
22)
Anat is referring here to Yatpan.
23)
Many scholars have observed the contrast between Pughat and Anat. See e.g. D. R. Hillers,
The Bow of Aqhat: The Meaning of a Mythological Theme, in: H. A., Honer Jr. (ed.), Orient
and Occident: Essays Presented to Cyrus H. Gordon on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday
(Kevelaer 1973), 80. Walls (1992: 206.) similarly developed this topic. See also R. S. Hendel,
The Epic of the Patriarch: The Jacob Cycle and the Narrative Traditions of Canaan and Israel
(Harvard Semitic Monographs 42, Atlanta 1987), 89-94; D. P. Wright, Ritual in Narrative: The
Dynamics of Feasting, Mourning, and Retaliation Rites in the Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat (Winona Lake
2001), 217-218.
442 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

Anat craves the bowa male symboldriven by a personal motive that


bespeaks her innate character,24 Pughat is motivated to don a heros outt
(a male symbol) temporarily, for a social-moral purpose, to fulll a familial
duty of vengeance. She hides the manly outt under a feminine dress.
When Danail orders Pughat to saddle the donkey, she is described as an
obedient daughter (CAT 1.19, II: 1-11). She requests Danails blessing and
approval to carry out her mission, and her request is granted (CAT 1.19, IV:
28-40). In contrast, Anat acts against Els will, and he therefore describes her
as impious in heart (CAT 1.18, I: 17),25 implying that Anat does not accept
his paternal authority. The similar context of the snake imagerya wine
feastprovides an additional point of contrast: Anat stops drinking and
empties her cup on the ground, while Pughat exploits the setting of the feast
and continues to provide Yatpan with wine (CAT 1.17, VI: 13-16; CAT 1.19,
VI: 60-61). Finally, while Anats actions complicate the plot and bring disas-
ter, Pughats actions advance it toward rehabilitation and resolution. I con-
clude that the characters of Pughat and Anat are antonymous: one represents
a positive- and the other a negative feminine model. One is submissive and
follows social norms: the other is unrestrained, capricious and disobedient.26
The opposite roles of the two characters may be highlighted by applying
Greimas actantial model.27

24)
Walls (1992: 210) writes: In contrast to Pughats presentation as a proper daughter, Anat
personies the anti-social, anti-structural forces of the cosmos. In his view, Anat is an adoles-
cent, who failed to adopt the traditional feminine roles (a mother, a wife), or submit to patriar-
chal authority. She is a female character, yet her gender is ambiguous. See for example ibid., 210,
218-219.
25)
See Natan-Yulzary, 2009.
26)
Cf. Wright, 2001: 219.
27)
The actantial model allows scholars to map the roles of the characters and the way in which
they relate to each other within the narrative. Greimas actantial model is explained in R. Scholes,
Structuralism in Literature: An Introduction (New Haven 1974), 102-111. For an application of
Greimas models (The Actantial model and the Semiotic square, which I mention later) in bibli-
cal literature see D. Jobling, The Sense of Biblical Narrative: Structural Analyses in the Hebrew
Bible, II ( JSOT Supplement Series 39, Sheeld 1986), 17-43; M. Bal, Murder and Dierence:
Gender, Genre, and Scholarship on Siseras Death, trans. M. Gumpert (Indiana Studies in Biblical
Literature, Bloomington 1988), 37-50; D. Jobling, Structuralist Criticism: The Texts World of
Meaning, in: G. A. Yee (ed.), Judges and Method: New Approaches in Biblical Studies (Minne-
apolis 2007), 90-114.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 443

Danail (sender) Aqhat (object) Danail (receiver)



Baal (helper) El / Danail / Pughat (subject) Anat / Yatpan (opponent)28

Pughat acts positively towards Aqhat and Danail, while Anat acts negatively.

5. Morphological Plot Analysis: Fluctuation between Lack and Liquidation


Analyzing the main plotline, we may draw the following diagram:

Initial state Critical point: Critical point: Terminal state


No son Birth Danail has a son Murder No son (?)

Positive actions Negative actions Positive actions


(Towards a positive state) (Towards a negative state) (Towards a positive state)
Bringing life Bringing death Bringing life(?)
in the human in the human and in the natural spheres
sphere natural spheres

* The entreaty to the gods Conicts and violence: * Burial


* Blessing * Conict 1, 229 * Curses
* Deception * Blood vengeance

Life Death
Human sterility Fertility/Continuity Sterility in nature ?
Negative state Positive state Negative state ?

On the overt level of the text, the theme with which the story opens (a child-
less hero) is its central subject. As previous morphological studies have done,30

28)
This diagram, is taken from Natan-Yulzary, 2009: 582. Danails wish to have a son, means
that he is the sender as well as the receiver, while the son is the desired object. El grants Danail
a son, hence he is the subject performing the action in the rst part of the story. Anat strives to
murder Aqhat; she therefore occupies the role of opponent. Pughats role in the last part of the
narrative is to exact blood revenge, thus removing Aqhats innocent blood, spilled by Anat and
her helper Yatpan.
29)
Conict 1: between Anat and Aqhat; Conict 2: between Anat and El.
30)
See V. Propp, Morphology of the Folktale, 2nd edn, rev. and edited with a preface by
L. A. Wagner, new introduction by A. Bundes, trans. L. Scott, with an introduction by
S. Pirkova-Jakobson (Bibliographical and Special Series 9, Research Center in Anthropology,
Folklore, and Linguistics 10, Austin 1968). In regard to Aqhat see especially K. T. Aitken,
444 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

we can dene this theme as a lack. An abstract, but still somewhat concrete
term for the event no son, would be sterility. At a higher level of abstrac-
tion, we might term it a negative state. We can discern three main plot seg-
ments between the initial state and the terminal state of the main plot, which
are punctuated by two opposite critical points: birth (indicating, at various
levels of abstraction, life, fertility, continuity, and a positive state) and death
(death, sterility, cessation, and a negative state). These two critical points are
highlighted and associated with each other by similar (but contrastive) formu-
laic language (see number 7 below). In the two segments at the extreme ends
of the plot line, the plot develops towards a positive state, and in the middle
segment the plot advances towards a negative state. The two critical points are
in fact intermediate points.

6. Greimas Semiotic SquareLife and Death


At a later point, Greimas rejected the Actantial model and introduced the
Semiotic square as a structural tool for the analysis of narrative.

A and B are a pair of opposites. Their relation is described as contrary. Non-A


is whatever is not A, and its relation to A is called contradictory (likewise B
and Non-B). The relationship between A and Non-B is one of implication
(likewise B and Non-A). A implies Non-B.

The Aqhat Narrative: A Study in the Narrative Structure and Composition of an Ugaritic Tale
( JSS Monographs 13, Manchester 1990).
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 445

I have chosen to analyze the narrative by applying this model to the con-
trary pair life and death. I believe the authors deployment of this pair
reects a human perspective on life, which is highlighted in the conversation
between Anat and Aqhat, the plots point of complication.Anat oers Aqhat
immortality, but he rejects this oer, claiming he is mortalhis response
implying that immortality is an exclusive feature of the gods. I have thus plot-
ted the diagram with the pair mortal and immortal, which is parallel to the
more abstract pair, eternal and ephemeral.
Related to the above thematics is the fact that the Aqhat narrative is a story
of a childless hero: the narrative opens with an entreaty scene in which Danail
requests a son from the gods. Thus continuity by progeny is a prominent theme.

Immortal gods are eternal (ospring are not necessary for the continuation
of existence). By contrast, humans are ephemeral and will eventually die.
The antithetical concept of (divine) eternal life is (human) death.31 A mortal
man ceases to exist when he dies. And the antithetical concept of mortal
human life is its continuation (through progeny). The implication of mortal-
ity is cessation of life through death; the implication of eternity, indeed the

31)
Some gods belong to the dying and rising god type (e.g. Dumuzi-Tammuz, Baal, Adonis). Still,
these gods are considered eternal, since they return to life cyclically. See T. N. D. Mettinger, The
Riddle of Resurrection: Dying and Rising Gods in the Ancient Near East (Coniectanea Biblica. Old
Testament Series 50, Stockholm: 2001). For a critical view of Mettingers essay, see M. S. Smith,
The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israels Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts (New
York 2001), 104-313.
446 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

only possible path to it, in the case of humans, is through the production
of progeny.
Thus, the Aqhat narrative can be analyzed by examining the structural
dynamics of the contrastive pair life and death. The conversation between
Anat and Aqhat, formulated through the deployment of terms belonging to
a semantic eld (example number 1) stresses this fundamental contrastive
theme, and clearly conveys one of the storys central messagesthe sapiential
axiom that humans cannot obtain immortality. Perpetuation of human exis-
tence is possible only through progeny (succession, a sequence of uru [prog-
eny]). Both Danail and Aqhat know this truth. Indeed this is what Danail
strives for, while Aqhat recognizes this human limitation. In other words, one
of the storys central themes is the nature of human mortality.32
As a symbol of male fertility in ancient Near Eastern cultures, the bow plays
an instrumental role in the plot, while simultaneously working on a symbolic
level of the narrative, to express the notions of fertility and sterility.33 The bow
is introduced into the narrative after Aqhat is born, and immediately after his
death it breaks and is lost. Danail again is childless. Further, just as human
sterility and fertility form a related pair, so do the sterility and fertility of the
land. The drought begins after Aqhats death. Like many other scholars, I
presume that the drought ends when Pughat executes her vendetta on
Yatpan.34

7. Reversal of FateA Symmetrical Plot Structure


The reversals of fortune and fate of the hero Danail are expressed in the nar-
rative by means of parallel passages, which are similar in pattern but opposite
in meaning.35 Observe the symmetrical chiastic arrangement of the main plot
line in the narrative:36

32)
Cf. Kirta, especially the speeches of Kirtas children (CAT 1.16, I: 2-23; II: 35-49). Some
ambiguousness exists concerning Kirtas nature. The characters wonderwill he die like all
men? (See S. Natan-Yulzary, 2007: 190-194).
33)
Honer, 1966: 327, 329-330; A. Goetze, Hittite Ritual, Incantations, and Description of
Festivals, in: J. B. Pritchard (ed.), ANET, 3rd edn (Princeton 1969), 349-350.
34)
Cf. 2 Sam. 21:1-14.
35)
Compare Aitkens suggestion (1990, 142-170; diagram in p. 169).
36)
On the general use and literary function of chiasmus see J. W. Welch (ed.) Chiasmus in
Antiquity: Structures, Analyses, Exegesis (Hildesheim 1981). Especially relevant are chapters 2 and
4 on chiasmus in Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew Poetry, pp. 36-49, 118-168.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 447

A Blessing: El blesses Danail


Reaction to good news formula (implies relaxation)
B-C
Hospitality scene: goddesses of birth in Danails house
D Danail judges the widow and orphan at the city gate
E Pivot: Aqhat is murdered
D Danail judges the widow and orphan at the city gate
Reaction to bad news formula (implies collapse)
B-C
Hospitality scene: professional mourners in Danails house
A Blessing: Danail blesses Pughat

Two of the four pairs of passages evidently convey contrastive meanings.


Before the birth of Aqhat, the poet uses the seven-day pattern to narrate the
visit of the Ktirt (goddesses of conception and birth). The scene is framed by
the formulaic report of their entrance to and departure from Danails house.
After Aqhats burial, the poet summarizes the visits of the professional mourn-
ers in Danails house over a period of seven years. This scene too is framed by
the formulaic report of their entrance into and departure from Danails house.
The similarity in pattern and formula signals to the audience that the two
scenes are to be associated and compared. Both scenes frame Aqhats life and
reect Danails reversal of fortune in regard to his progeny (uru).
The second pair, the reaction to news formulas, are constructed similarly,
but semantically convey opposite moods: the opposing formulas are based on
semantically contrastive groups of verbs, each associated with its complemen-
tary set of bodily parts and somatic reactions.

Reaction to good news (CAT 1.17, II: 8-12): Relaxation


bd!ni[l]/pnm.tmh. Danails face beams,
wl.yshl pi[t]/ His brow above lights up;
yprq.lsb.wyshq/ He breaks out into laughter,37
pn.lhdm.ytpd. Sets his foot on the footstool,
yu/gh.wysh. Raises his voice and cries:

Reaction to bad news (CAT 1.19, II: 44-48): Collapse


[bh pnm]/ttt. [Below, his feet] tremble,
l[n pnh td Above, [his face perspires],
bdn]/ksl.yt[br [Around], his loins cr[ack],
ys pnt kslh]/ [The joints of his loins shake],
an.[dt zrh [Those of his back] give way.
yu gh]/wysh [He raises his voice] and cri[es]:

37)
Literally, he opens his jaws and laughs.
448 S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449

The rst formula expresses relaxation and condence, while the second
expresses breakdown and collapse. The narrator utilizes two conventional con-
trastive formulas, situating them at signicant points of the plot, thus suggest-
ing a reversal of fate.38

8. Yatp an and PughatWisdom and Loyalty versus Physical Strength


The conceptual contrast between sterility and fertility is fundamental to the
West Semitic traditional literary theme of the childless hero (compare the
Abraham cycle, Kirta, and other ancient Near Eastern tales). Another example
of a contrast embedded in a traditional theme is found at the end of the
Aqhat narrative.
Pughat is wise but she is only a girla puatu.39 Still she manages to over-
come Yat pan, who is learned in the art of war. The contrast between strength
and wisdom is familiar from biblical wisdom literature,40 but also from other
ancient Near Eastern stories that rehearse a common theme (motif-stories). In
these stories a weaker but cunning and faithful party overcomes a strong one
(usually a soldier learned in the art of war and equipped with weapons).
Examples are the stories of David and Goliath (1 Sam. 17), Yael and Sisera
( Judg. 4:17-22), Judith and Holophernes (The Book of Judith), and the
Hittite myth of Illuyankas.41
This contrastive scheme is not limited to the last scene of the Aqhat narra-
tive. Throughout the story the narrator demonstrates to his audience that wis-
dom and righteousness are advantageous, while violence leads to destruction.
Pughats confrontation with Yat pan embodies this didactic notion. Wise

38)
The existence of the same formulas in other passages within the Ugaritic poetic corpus (and
see also related passages in biblical literature) indicates that this expression is not unique to the
Aqhat epic. See D. R. Hillers, A Convention in Hebrew Literature: The Reaction to Bad News,
ZAW 77 (1965), 86-90; K. T. Aitken, Oral Formulaic Composition and Theme in the Aqhat
Narrative, UF 21 (1989), 1-16.
39)
Cf. Heb. p.
40)
See the sapiential maxim in Eccl. 9:18. Cf. Eccl. 9:16. This idea is expressed also in Eccl. 7:19
and Prov. 21:22. Cf. RS 22.439, II: 9-10 (English translations are available in J. Khanjian,
Wisdom, in: L. R. Fisher et al. [eds], RSP, II [AnOr 50, Roma 1975], 379; B. R. Foster, Before
the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature, 3rd edn [Bethesda 2005], 417).
41)
The story of Yael and Sisera is a variation on this theme. Sisera is already defeated by God.
Barak and Yael are only tools in the hand of God ( Judg. 4:9). The weaker party in the David and
Goliath story is a young, inexperienced male. Drinking is absent in this realization of the
theme.
S. Natan-Yulzary / Vetus Testamentum 62 (2012) 433-449 449

Pughat most probably succeeds in her mission and overcomes Yat pan. Simi-
larly, Aqhat and Yat pan regard themselves as heroes or warriors, but they
meet their death. Aqhat behaves with arrogance and pride, unlike his wise
sister. Anat is an aggressive character, and she gains nothing by her actions:
the bow is lost. Danail is a judge, and wisdom is a trait associated with his
social role. It is he who wins the favor of the gods El and Baal.

Conclusion
The use of contrast and contrasting is one of the main means employed in the
art of narration to communicate an idea or message, at dierent levels of the
story. The examples discussed here represent only a sampling of the Ugaritic
poets elaborate and complex range of literary creativity. They illustrate the
prominence of this device and demonstrate that its use is akin to that familiar
from biblical narrative. Thus, this essay also indirectly supports the thesis the
literary precursors and background of biblical narrative poetics are reected in
the Ugaritic epics, and that these two corpora are representative of the same
literary tradition, not only regard to thematics and language, but also in
respect to their poetics.

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