Medium and High Voltage

Power Cables
ECE 6618PD
In this section, influence of various parameters; like, conductor
configuration/material, insulation type, soil resistivity, and duct
geometry/material, and cable installation, on the Current Carrying
Capacity (Ampacity) are discussed. Ampacity calculations using
thermal equivalent circuit is also presented.
References:
1. Electrical Power Cable Engineering, Editor: William A. Thue, ISBN: 978-0-8247-4303-1 978-0-203-
97061-4 (electronic), June 2005. Chapters 14, 15, and 8/3.
2. Francisco de Leon, Calculation of underground cable ampacity, CYME International T&D, 2005 .
http://www.cyme.com/company/media/whitepapers/2005%2003%20UCA-FL.pdf
3. Also refer to the back references from [2], in specific, IEC Standards [8, 9, 14], CIGRE Paper [13],
and a paper by Neher and McGrath [10].
4. ICC Working Group C2 - IEEE 575, IEEE Guide for Bonding of Single-Conductor Power Cables.
5. http://www.cyme.com/software/cymcap/
6. IEC 60827 and IEC 60853
 Current Carrying Capacity - Importance
The MV and HV cables are pushed to operate at the maximum
possible capacity, with todays power requirement
A Global Problem.
The following are some important points:
From the financial point of importance, to obtain optimal benefits,
there is an increased attention to fully utilize the capacity permitted
by the components.
Loads are constantly being added to the existing grid.
With the increased flexibility given for the power flow, the current
flow in the network becomes less predictable.
Unpredictable sources like wind/solar power; unpredictable
production due to deregulation energy trading.
Ampacity continuous current that can supply the load requirements without
raising the temperature above the accepted safe operation for all the
components used like the insulation for example.
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 Current Carrying Capacity and Losses
Flow of current means, power losses in the system.
Conductor losses depend upon the conductor
material, size, construction (solid, stranded,
segmented) and temperature.
Dielectric losses depend on cable dimensions,
permittivity, dissipation factor, and frequency.
Shield/sheath and amour losses are strongly affected
by sheath bonding methods discussed later; and
the materials used.
Additional losses are present if the cable is installed
in a steel pipe or casing.
these losses significantly influence the Ampacity.

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 PILC vs. XLPE Cables
PILC Cable Characteristics XLPE Cable Characteristics

For both the self contained oil filled and high pressure oil filled
cables, the range of operating temperature is ~ 85 oC.
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 Sources of Heat

Conductor
losses Sheath Losses
Dielectric
Losses
The maximum conductor current during the steady state operating conditions
depends on the allowable maximum temperature rise which is decided by the
insulating materials used in the cable design. With aging, as the materials
degrade, the current carrying capacity, defined as the Ampacity, also decreases.
Asset managers and network operation managers need to know the transport
capacity of power cables in normal and in emergency situations without
jeopardizing the reliability of the cable system. The ampacity or current rating
calculation gives the answer.

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 Sources of Heat
Conductor Losses:
The major losses in cables is the Ohmic losses in current carrying
conductors, due to the resistance of the conductors.

These losses are proportional to square of the current flowing through

the conductors.

The DC resistance depends on the conductor material used, copper

or aluminum; and the temperature effects.

A resistivity value known as the International Annealed Copper

Standard (IACS) has been established as 100%. Accordingly, at 20C,
commercially pure, annealed copper has a resistivity of 1.7241x10-8 -m or
5.8001x107S/m, which is taken as 100% IACS @ 20C. All other conductivities
are defined with respect to this value.

An aluminum conductor is typically 61.2% as conductive as an

annealed copper conductor.
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 Conductors
In almost all applications, either copper or aluminum conductors are
used. Depending on the current/power rating, single solid or hollow, or
stranded, or segmental conductors are used.

Solid round conductor Hallow conductor Stranded conductors

Segmental conductors
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 DC Resistance

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 AC Resistance
Under AC currents, both skin effects and
proximity effects influence the resistance,
as the current flows through the outer skin
of the conductor. Skin effect is highly
noticeable in conductors of larger cross
sectional area; thus Milliken conductors
are used in such cases.
When other power cables are in close
proximity to the conductor concerned, the
Depending on the cable core
magnetic field influences the current
construction; correction factors
density in the nearby conductor. The are available to include the skin
resulting non-uniform current density can effect and proximity effect.
be described in terms of an increased
conductor resistance for alternating
currents like the effect of mutual
inductance in transformers.

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 Losses in the Conducting Systems
Conductor Losses:
The following expression for resistance can be used to account for the
losses due to eddy current effects caused by both the skin ( s) and
proximity ( p) effects.
= [1 + + ]
Combining the effects of temperature and frequency;

, = 1 + 2 1 [1 + + ]

The values of s and p can be obtained from the simplified analytical

expressions available for particular cable core construction.

There are commercial software like ETAP, CYMCAP, USAmp that are
based on the Neher-McGrath method and IEC Standards, are used in the
industry.

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 Metallic Covering
The metallic shield is applied over the insulation shield and
serves several purposes including:
Return of the capacitive charging current under operating
conditions.
Conduction of the earth fault current in the case of a fault until
the system is tripped.
Reduction of the electrical influence on the cable
surroundings in the case of a fault, e.g. an earth fault.
Provision of protection against accidental contacts.
Protection of paper-insulated cables against leakage of
impregnating medium.
Mechanical protection of insulation while allowing the cable to
bend sufficiently.

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 Losses in the Sheaths
Magnetic fields due to current flow can induce voltages in
the nearby conducting elements Faradays Law.
In metallic shielded cables, the flow of currents in the phase
conductors induce a voltage in the metallic shields.
If the shields are connected to ground at more than one
point, current flows in the shield conductors (sheaths).
The effect is the increased heat generation; which
significantly reduces the current carrying capacity (ampacity)
of the phase conductor; by as much as 30-40%.
This is due to the fact that the amount of heat that can be
dissipated is fixed for a given set of thermal conditions.
If the current path is interrupted, voltages appear on the
sheath a line carrying 1000 amperes could have 100V on
the sheath for a line only 700m long.
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 Losses in the Sheaths
In a three phase cable, or three phase system, 5
different currents affect the induced voltages in the 6th
conductive circuit.
The sheath losses can be minimized either by (i)
single point bonding or cross bonding; and (ii)
reducing the quantity of the metal used in the shields.
Similar effects are seen in armour. One additional
point to note is the hysteresis losses as armour may
be made of magnetic material.

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 Losses in the Insulation System
There are various types of losses in the cable insulation;
and are briefly described below:

Losses due to Conduction: A movement of charged particles

through the insulation causes conduction losses. A small leakage
current flows through the insulation due to the applied potential
difference.
Losses due to Polarization: Depending on the frequency of the
applied voltage, various types of polarization effects can dominate,
and cause losses in the insulation. More like frictional losses.
Losses due to partial discharges (PDs): When a PD occurs, the
discharge energy is released into the insulation, which results in heat
generation. Every discharge means, energy from the source is lost;
and each discharge degrades the insulation.

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 Losses in the Insulation System

Dielectric

oA
C
d
1 A
R &G ; conductivi ty
G d
1
tan
CR o
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 Losses in the Insulation System
The cable insulation system together with metallic sheath and the
conductor, forms a cylindrical capacitance. This capacitance is
not an ideal capacitor, rather has a loss component, and the
following formula can be used to find the losses in the dielectric,
Wd .

Where, C is the capacitance, Uo is the applied voltage, and is the loss

angle. Losses due to PD are not included in this formula.

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 Influence of Installation Methods
The installation method used influences the ampacity of the
cable as the soil resistivity, temperature, and the fillers used
effect the temperature distribution; hence, the heat transfer.

Depth of installation influences with two opposing effects:

Cables buried deeper in the soil could have higher ampacity as
sun rays have less effects; contrary to this, cables buried
deeper have higher thermal resistance, hence lower ampacity.
The latter effect dominates in defining the ampacity.

Ambient earth temperature varies with location, season,

and depth. External heat sources, like, cable duct banks,
steam mains, can increase the effective ambient
temperature. The following slides refresh our knowledge
about these variables.

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 Cable Installation Direct Burying

Example of direct burying high voltage

Cables.

Installation of a medium-voltage cable in

trefoil, direct buried, application of a Example of direct burying high voltage
caterpillar machine. cables with application of special backfill.
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 Cable Installations

Cable Basement

132kV Cable Basement

Connecting the individual cables in the trefoil formation

minimizes the magnetic field around the conductor and
reduces the heating.
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 Ampacity is a function of many parameters.
Installation Depth vs. Ampacity Soil Resistivity vs. Ampacity

Earth thermal resistance varies widely depending upon

depth, concrete envelope or controlled backfill, and the
native soil. It also varies with time, with changes in
moisture content.
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 Ampacity is a function of many parameters.
Installation Depth vs. Ampacity

Spacing between the conductors, s Single Point Bonding

The electric power losses in a cable circuit are

dependent on the currents flowing in the metallic
Solidly Bonded
sheaths of the cables. Therefore, by reducing or
eliminating the metallic sheath currents through
different methods of bonding, it is possible to increase
the load current carrying capacity (ampacity) of the
cable circuit.
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 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Conduction: In an underground cable installation, heat
conduction occurs everywhere except in the air space in the
ducts. Fourier Law describes the heat transferred by conduction.

Convection: The flow of heat is proportional to the

temperature differences. In an underground cable installation
convection takes place in the air space inside the ducts and at the
surface of the earth. Newtons Law is applicable in this case.

Radiation: In an underground cable installation, radiation of

heat occurs from the cable surface to the ducts. Stefan-Boltzmann
Law describe the radiation mechanisms.

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 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

A typical temperature distribution for an underground cable

installation.

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 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Note the differences in the conductor and overall cable diameters. The heat has
to pass through a significant depth along many layers of different materials.
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 Practical Cable Designs
Based on different types of cable designs; we need to consider different types of
armours; and bonding used in the cable installations.

Single-core oil filled cable Single-core XLPE cable Three-core cable with optic
Single-core cable with
with armour. with armour. fibres, lead sheath and wire
lead sheath and wire
armour. armour.
Aluminium wire armour (AWA), used in single-core cables (non-magnetic).
Steel wire armour (SWA), used in multi-core cables (magnetic).
Phosphor bronze or tinned copper braid is also used when steel armour is not allowed.

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 Thermal Resistances
Insulation and jacket thermal resistances
depend upon dimensions and insulation
thermal resistivity.
Jacket-to-duct thermal resistance can be
found based on empirical calculations. It can
result in 10 20% lower ampacity than if the
cables were directly buried.

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 Ampacity Calculations
The main process involved in heat transfer is by conduction.
Analogous to electrical conduction, we can define the heat
conduction using Ohms Law:

W.T=
Where,
W = the flow of heat (W/m); as ampacity calculations are given per
meter length of cable.
T = the thermal resistance of the material through which heat flows
(Km/W)
= the difference in temperature (oK)

Conductor losses
Sheath Losses
Dielectric
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 Heat Transfer and Thermal Resistances
Equivalent circuit representation of flow of heat:
T1 to T4 represent the thermal
resistances of the insulation (T1),
armour bedding (T2), outer non-
metallic sheath (T3), and the
surrounding environment (T4)
respectively.

It is assumed that the conductor,

metal sheath, and armour add no
thermal resistances as they are all
metals.

Wc = Losses in the conductor.

Wd = Losses in the dielectric.
Flow of heat from the conductor
core to the ambient. Ws = Losses in the sheath.
Wa = Losses in the ambient.
Illustrates the correspondences between the cable
installation components and the electric circuit T2 value depends on the cable design.
elements for steady state ampacity calculations.

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 Ampacity Calculations
The ampacity, I, that gives the allowable conductor
temperature for the given operating conditions can then be
found using the following thermal-electrical analogy model.

Neher-McGrath Method
Equivalent Circuit representing the sources of heat (Ws),
thermal resistances (Ts) and temperature gradient.

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 Ampacity Calculations

Steps involved in the calculation of the Ampacity:

Thickness of insulation
Thermal Conducttivity
Step1 Find the thermal resistances:
Thermal resistance of the Insulation

Thermal resistance of the cable sheath Thickness of earth sheath

is the thermal conductivity

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 Ampacity Calculations

Thermal resistance of the cable environment in a flat formation,

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 Ampacity Calculations
Step2 Find the electrical losses:
Find , at a desired temperature.

2 = 1[1 + 2 1 ]
Find the equivalent , apply the corrections skin effect and proximity
effect. Empirical formulas are available to find s and p.

, = 1 + 2 1 [1 + + ]

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 Ampacity Calculations
Find the Sheath losses using the relationship:

2
I Sheath RSheath
1 2
I Conductor RConductor
Conductor losses 2
Sheath Losses I Armour RArmour
2 2
Dielectric
Losses I Conductor RConductor
The quantity 1 is called the sheath loss factor and is equal to the ratio of the total
losses in the metallic sheath to the total conductor losses. Similarly, 2 is called the
armor loss factor and is equal to the ratio of the total losses in the metallic armor to
the total conductor losses.
Sometimes, the terms sheath and armour are used interchangeably. In any case, the
circulating and eddy currents in these conductive parts of a cable add to sheath losses.
The induced effects are minimized by using a trefoil configuration of three single core
cables, or three-phase cables. Also, note that the sheath losses are minimized by using
special bonding systems the topic for next class.
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 Ampacity Calculations
Find the dielectric losses using the relationship:

The ampacity of the cable can be calculated using the expression below.
However, in real practice, the ampacity calculation is much more
complex as you can see from slides following slides.

The calculations are based on IEC 60287. But, you can refer to the article listed
below. As many of the equations used are empirical, there are some differences.
http://www.cyme.com/company/media/whitepapers/2005%2003%20UCA-FL.pdf
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 Technical Specification Requirements -
Ampacity Design
System Electrical Characteristics:
System Operating Voltages (Normal and Maximum VL-G, VL-L, kV)
System Frequency (Hz)
Cable Specification & Max. Conductor Temperatures
Conductor material specifications (affects ampacity, losses)
Conductor minimum or specific cross-sectional areas (affects ampacity, losses)
Insulation material specifications (affects maximum normal, emergency and
short-circuit conductor temperature & dielectric losses)
Sheath & armoring design requirements (affects losses and short-circuit rating)

Cable Loading Requirements (i.e. required Ampacity)

Summer, Winter Continuous Rating
Emergency Ratings (i.e. Summer/Winter 15 Min., 2 Hour, 10 Day, etc.)
Daily Load Factor (Max 1.0)
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 Technical Specification Requirements -
Ampacity Design
Cable System Climactic & Environmental Parameters
Maximum winter ground temperature at buried depth (C)
Maximum summer ground temperature at buried depth (C)
Maximum summer ambient air temperature (C)
Maximum winter ambient air temperature (C)
Measured earth thermal resistivity along route (Km/W)
Special backfill thermal resistivity specifications (Km/W)
Cable System Installation Parameters
Project specific drawings
Minimum and maximum cable depth (m)
Typical cable trench width & depth (m)
Cable spacing requirements (if any)
Special crossing requirements (i.e. roads, rivers, bridges, utilities etc.)

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