dutch journal of music theory

system, modular improvisation relies upon the principle of tension and release. But where
an expansionary solo builds energy and tension linearly through its entirety, a modular solo
constructs tension and release around smaller structural units.
Each chorus, or module, of Hills improvisation consists of a regular ordering of four
prominent periodic sections: (1) an opening motive that is based on the songs melody;
(2) a series of chromatic gestures; (3) polymetric articulation of irregular rhythmic
groupings; and (4) a cadence that brings us into the next chorus, where the cycle begins
again. While other components of his solo exhibit isoperiodic characteristics most
notably his left-hand accompaniment patterns the present analysis will limit itself to
these four formal subdivisions of the chorus and how they shape the solo temporally.
Refuge is the opening song on Point of Departure, a Blue Note release from 1964
featuring Joe Henderson (tenor sax), Eric Dolphy (alto sax, flute, bass clarinet), Kenny
Dorham (trumpet), Richard Davis (bass), and Tony Williams (drums). It employs a
6 meter, a feature that is still relatively rare in jazz, and has a 24-bar form that is loosely
8
structured on the blues progression, but is not intuitively felt as such. Its built like the
blues two twelve-bar sections but harmonically its much different, Hill noted. The
piano solo is four choruses long, or 96 measures.
Every chorus of Hills solo begins with an opening motive (approximately measures 1-4),
a blues-derived figure that is taken directly from the melody of the composition. Besides this
resemblance, the opening motive consists of two prominent features: the use of longer note
values than are found in the interior sections, and the prevalence of the interval of a major sixth.
While this interval is never accorded the continual spotlight throughout the opening phrase,
the dyad of a sixth is consistently placed in moments of strong metric accent, enhancing the
perception of periodicity across all four choruses. Because each subdivision resembles like
sections, only one representative example will be given for each of the four elements. The first
section, taken from the first chorus, can be seen in Example 1.

5 5

Example 1
Opening Motive, from first chorus (mm.1-5).

Following a brief transition (mm. 4-6), Hill arrives at the next major motivic element
that enters the solo in all four choruses, chromatic motion (mm. 6-9). This designation is
deliberately vague due to the very different manifestations of Hills chromatic material in
each chorus. Perhaps the most normative of these chromatic motives is the initial passage
that occurs in the first chorus (as seen in Example 2). Hill returns to this improvisational
idea rapid chromatic alternation between one base pitch and another note often
throughout the chromatic motion sections of the solo. This phase in Hills solo often has
a palpable sense of expansion and contraction, of growing and shrinking, as the contour
of the line suggests. Furthermore, the section is characterized by a greater brevity of note
values than the sections before and after.
Coming after another brief transitional phrase (mm. 9-11) is the next section of the
improvisation, which features irregular metric groupings. This device comes into play during

 Quoted in Nat Hentoff, liner notes for Andrew Hill, Point of Departure (Blue Note 84167). Refuge is
harmonically unrelated to the formal 12-bar blues model which consists of the standard harmonic motion of
I-(IV-I)-V-IV-I.

71

TvM_13_#1_januari_2008_6.indd 71 11-02-2008 11:26:40

 an alternative temporal approach to jazz improvisation in the music of andrew hill

Example 2
Chromatic Motion, from first chorus (mm.6-9).

the third quarter of each chorus. Hills technique of irregular metric groupings employs a
complex rhythmic formula whereby durationally even notes are superimposed over the 68 of
the form. Such groupings are always in irregular, contrasting patterns, with rhythmic divisions
represented by the metric ratios 4:6, 5:6, 7:6, and so on. His ability to juxtapose patterns of
equal rhythmic values against the standard metrical framework comprises perhaps the most
striking feature of Andrew Hills improvisational style. Dean, in a rare piece of analytical
commentary on Hills music, writes that he has a capacity to subdivide bars into any number
of notes, equally or unequally, and particularly to group unequal patterns over several bars.
He goes on to indicate that Hills rhythmic techniques reveal a pianist who could play in
strongly pulsed music almost as if without regard for the pulse, while yet remaining acutely
aware of its status and position. For example, we can see this technique at work in the second
chorus reproduced as Example 3.
8
7 7 3 3

7 3
8
7

3 8 8
8 8

Example 3
Irregular Metric Groupings, from the second chorus (mm.11-19).

Many authors have written on the subject of rhythmic dissonance. John Roeder calls
the coexistence of multiple even rhythmic levels pulse streams. He contends that the

 Dean, New Structures, 113.

 Dean, New Structures, 116.
 Important publications on the topic include Christopher Hasty, Meter as Rhythm. Oxford etc.: Oxford
University Press 1997; Harald Krebs, Some Extensions of the Concepts of Metrical Consonance and
Dissonance, Journal of Music Theory 31/1 (1987), pp. 99-120; and Maury Yeston, The Stratification of Musical
Rhythm. New Haven etc.: Yale University Press 1976. The term rhythmic dissonance was coined by Joseph
Schillinger in The Schillinger System of Musical Composition. New York: Carl Fischer 1941.
 John Roeder, Pulse Streams and Problems of Groupings and Metrical Dissonance in Bartks With Drums
and Pipes, in: Music Theory Online 7/1 (2007), http://mto.societymusictheory.org/issues /mto.01.7.1/
mto.01.7.1.roeder.html.

72

TvM_13_#1_januari_2008_6.indd 72 11-02-2008 11:26:41

 dutch journal of music theory

superimposition of one regular pattern of pulsation over another results in the misalignment
of phenomenal accents, leading to a situation in which two or more independent rhythmic
streams run side by side. In other words, the listener is hearing multiple beats simultaneously.
In his analysis, Roeder focuses on patterns of grouping and accent to derive different pulse
levels. Hills use of parallel pulse streams, on the other hand, is far more immediately apparent,
as these new metric patterns emerge not only from grouping dissonances, but from the
contrasting tempo of his playing in relation to the normative pulsation of the rhythm section,
a level that could be considered the most basic phenomenal accent class.
This rhythmic phenomenon can be clearly seen (and heard) in the previous excerpt. After
a 6:4 introductory phrase (omitted here), Hill plays a pulse stream of 7:6 for three measures.
His polymetric structure here is meter-preserving (Keith Waterss terminology)10: the bar line
is present, despite the rhythmic contortions around it. The creation of a new pulse at this point
sounds as if he is playing in a different tempo and, indeed, these two distinct streams of time
are not merely a figment of the analysts imagination the metric dissonance brought about
by such a superimposition can be clearly heard. Moreover, it can be clearly calculated. Against
the tempo of the rhythm section, which settles on dotted quarter-note = 95 beats per minute,
Hills new pulse stream at m. 11 runs at the speed of dotted quarter-note = 112 beats per
minute. The ratio between these two tempi, 112:95, is nearly identical to the ratio 7:6. In m. 38,
Hill accelerates into yet another even pulse stream, this one 8:6. The mathematical precision
of this rhythmic grouping is just as accurate as his execution of 7:6.
Manipulation of parallel pulse streams is not the only complexity to Hills creation of
metric dissonance, however. As Larson, Roeder, and Cynthia Folio have all observed,11 note
grouping is an important element in the perception of rhythmic patterns and accentuation.
Roeder points out that a peak in the register of a melody can produce a phenomenal accent,
and can thus supply the basis for new rhythmic structures.12 In the previous excerpt, we
can see numerous instances of grouping dictating rhythmic texture, such as the four-note
descending patterns that are displaced across the bar lines in the first three measures of the
example. This motive consists of one group of three notes followed by four groups of four
notes. Besides the aberrant three-note group an imbalance that allows him to land his
eighth-note triplets on beat one two measures later Hills irregular rhythmic grouping of
7 against 6 is characterized by note groupings that accentuate every fourth eighth-note. The
density of this rhythmic texture is further multiplied by the rhythm-section accompaniment,
which, unfortunately, space does not permit us to analyze here.13
The previous excerpt (Example 3) contains additional nuggets of rhythmic interest. In
Folios classification of rhythmic dissonance, she acknowledges a phenomenon that she
calls polytempo, referring to the fluctuation of one pulse stream against the steady beat.14
In other words, polytempo is irregular it does not prescribe to precise ratios, as do pulse
streams. Andrew Hill often employs this technique in his improvisations. A fine example can
be found in measure 4, an ascending gesture that I have approximated as eighth-note triplets
(return to Example 1). Here, Hill moves fluidly between two pulse streams in a motion that
is too fleeting to clearly establish another stream. Rather than three eighth-note triplets, this
measure is heard as an accelerando against the unmoving accompaniment, an ascending line

10 Keith Waters, Blurring the Barline: Metric Displacement in the Piano Solos of Herbie Hancock, in: Annual
Review of Jazz Studies 8 (1996), p. 25.
11 Roeder, Pulse Streams; Larson, Rhythmic Displacement; and Cynthia Folio, An Analysis of Polyrhythm in
Selected Improvised Jazz Solos, in: Concert Music, Rock, and Jazz Since 1945, eds. Elizabeth West Marvin and
Richard Hermann. Rochester: University of Rochester Press 1995.
12 Roeder, Pulse Streams.
13 For an amazing example of this sort of polyrhythmic interaction, see the cadence of the first chorus: the ride
cymbal is playing 6:6, the piano 5:6, and the bass 4:6.
14 Folio, Analysis of Polyrhythm, p. 106.

73

TvM_13_#1_januari_2008_6.indd 73 11-02-2008 11:26:41

 an alternative temporal approach to jazz improvisation in the music of andrew hill

that pushes the solo into a new pulse stream and into the climactic material that follows.
Passages of polytempo usually coincide with movement upwards into a higher register of the
instrument, a correspondence that strengthens the dramatic quality of the gesture.
In addition to the periodic utilization of unusual rhythmic groupings, Hill repeats a
good deal of the melodic material over the course of the solo. The repetition of melodic
motives aids in the perception of similarity across all four choruses and contributes
greatly to the cyclicity of his improvisational structure.
Returning briefly to our four periodic sections, the last four measures of each chorus
consist of a cadence that brings the piano solo back to the top of the form (Example 4).

Example 4
Cadence, from the second chorus (mm. 21-24).

The cadential pattern on Refuge is easily the most identifiable section of the chorus, both
rhythmically and harmonically: it is repetitive and remains clearly defined throughout,
using long note durations to break the instability that comes before and put the ground back
underneath the listeners feet. The two chords of the cadence, sustained by the left-hand and
outlined explicitly by the right, are a G7sus (over a C in the bass) followed by a DMA7. Even
the chord voicings stay identical throughout, so consistent is the repetition of this phrase.
As we have noted earlier, the strangeness of Andrew Hills rhythmic constructions are heard,
they are not mere manifestations of the analytical process. But do listeners actually discern
these parallel pulse streams and other rhythmic gambits? Is the ratio of 7:6 experienced, or
does it translate into something less concrete in the mind of the listener? Moreover, is the
pianist himself conscious of the rhythmic complexities at his fingertips?15 At this point, I will
briefly address the issue of perception and its relationship to musical semiotics in Refuge.
How exactly polyrhythm is experienced in Western musics is a highly debatable question.
Most theorists agree that it is closely related to the degree of prominence exhibited by
both rhythms: if one is more prominent than the other (louder, accentuated), the listener
will experience it as a more present texture. Another issue in perception has to do with the
alignment of two (or more) rhythmic events. Krebs asserts that the listener continues to feel
the first rhythmic layer as dominant, even as successive rhythmic levels enter. He goes on to
say, however, that the first layer can be quickly overcome by the new rhythm, erasing the
memory of the previous layer.16 Cynthia Folio speaks about the cognition of polyrhythm in
general terms: The emotional effects of polyrhythm may vary (including uneasiness, humor,
freedom), but this rhythmic device invariably creates a general perception of tension, an
anticipation of resolution, and a sensation of forward momentum.17

15 Interestingly, Andrew Hill answered in the affirmative to this question. In a master class at New York
University in October of 2000, Hill articulated this point explicitly, saying that pulse streams of 5 and 7
were always present in his mind as he improvised. To him, irregular metric groupings were a deliberate and
entirely conscious improvisatory technique.
16 Harald Krebs, Fantasy Pieces: Metric Dissonance in the Music of Robert Schumann. New York etc.: Oxford
University Press 1999, p. 45.
17 Folio, Analysis of Polyrhythm, 111. Italics mine.

74

TvM_13_#1_januari_2008_6.indd 74 11-02-2008 11:26:42

 dutch journal of music theory

William Rothstein corroborates Folios conclusions: to him, tension is a matter of divergence

from the norm in terms of the structural hierarchy of the piece. As this divergence escalates
and the space between the musical surface and the musical norm widens, we perceive this
as an apex. He writes that, the point of greatest distance, and thus of maximum tension, is
what most listeners will intuitively regard as the climax of a passage or a piece.18 Both of these
writers acknowledge the cognitive effect of musical tension: in linear schema, tension is the
climax, and a climax is succeeded by a release of all this tension and a return to the norm.
Returning to the modularly conceived Refuge solo, we can see that over each chorus
Hill builds tension through the density of his rhythmic devices. Although the four
periodic elements repeat themselves throughout, aiding in the perception of the whole
solo as isoperiodic, there is a powerful linear drive within each chorus, and rhythm is
central to this momentum. The chorus starts fairly close to the rhythmic norm of 68 . As
rhythmic activity increases, so does the accompanying tension, until we reach the peak of
the chorus at the end of the irregular metric grouping section. The climactic energy of the
passage gradually cools: by the cadence, a good deal of the tension has been diffused. In
this conclusion, most of the rhythmic deviance is coming out of the rhythm section while
the piano takes a deep breath and prepares for the next plunge.
Reviewing the previous analysis, one might ask oneself why Hill chose the structures he
did during this improvisation. Did he employ complexity for complexitys sake? Divorced
from musical context and meaning, this is about all it amounts to a catalog of novel rhythms
and strange temporal designs. However, despite his rich background in university teaching,
Andrew Hill was a decidedly non-intellectual player. Im trying to make music a sensual
expression, not an academic experiment, he commented in an interview.19 It is to this sensual
expression that we briefly turn now.
While modular structures are a salient characteristic of Hills musical language and are
found in many of his recorded improvisations,Refuge illustrates this structure in a particularly
unique and integrated way.20 For a brief excursion into the semiotic construction of Refuge,
let us consider Hills commentary on the piece: Its about trying to find a refuge and learning
that there isnt any, that theres no place to hide. No matter where you look, youre still the one
whos looking.21 Structurally, this oppressive sense of being lost, of being pursued and seeking
release is reflected in his improvisational choices. On the micro level, he employs a number of
motives that expand then contract, showing that no real change or motion is occurring; on the
macro level, Hill uses cyclicity to conjure claustrophobia. By periodically cycling through the
basic musical events, his solo seems to be searching for a way out; yet every chorus, he discovers
that relief is futile. Hills solo never really moves anywhere instead, it keeps doubling back on
itself, going around and around in circles.
In conclusion, this article has explored an alternative improvisational model employed
by the pianist Andrew Hill. His periodic temporal architecture what I have called modular
improvisation and the elaborate rhythmic techniques embedded within this framework
comprise the core of his musical style. The temporal dimension of his solo can be best
illustrated by the consistent use of four periodic elements (opening motive, chromatic material,
irregular rhythmic groupings, and cadence). All these techniques, however, are subservient to
the expressive aim of the piece. Behind every improvisatory gesture is a different way of telling
a story.

18 William Rothstein, Rhythmic Displacement and Rhythmic Normalization, in: Trends in Schenkerian Research,
ed. Allen Cadwallader. New York: Schirmer 1989, p. 89.
19 Chuck Berg, Andrew Hill: Innovative Enigma, in: Downbeat 44/5 (1977), p. 16.
20 For a compelling analysis of another Hill performance that utilizes a modular scheme, see Jeffrey Lovell,
Verona Rag: Old Wine, New Bottles A Traditional Style Interpreted by Andrew Hill, in: Annual Review of
Jazz Studies (forthcoming), p. 4-5.
21 Quoted in Hentoff, liner notes for Hill, Point of Departure.

75

TvM_13_#1_januari_2008_6.indd 75 11-02-2008 11:26:42