Optical Telescopes

Optical Telescopes -- The purpose of a telescope is to collect light and then to have
the image magnified. The larger the telescope's main light-collecting element,
whether lens or mirror, the more light is collected. It is the total amount of light
collected that ultimately determines the level of detail. All optical telescopes fall into
one of three classes (see Figure 01). In the refracting telescope, light is collected by a
2-element objective lens and brought to a focal plane. By contrast the reflecting
telescope uses a concave mirror for this purpose. The mirror-lens, or catadioptric,
telescope employes a combination of both mirrors and lenses, resulting in a shorter,
more portable optical tube assembly. All telescopes use an eyepiece (located behind
the focal plane) to magnify the image formed by the primary optical system. Other
instruments can be placed in the focal plane for various purposes, e.g., a photo-
electric cell to measure the luminosity, the slit of a spectrograph to analyse the light,
or a thermo-couple to measure temperature. The advantage of reflecting telescope is
that it has no chromatic aberration. Moreover, mirrors can be manufactured to much
larger dimensions than lenses. Reflectors can also be made from a great variety of
materials, because all that matters is the reflecting surface, whereas lenses have to
be made from special types of glass. However, it has the problem of "spherical
aberration" - light from different parts of the spherical surface do not focus at the
same point. The problem persisted until 1721 when technique developed to grind
 non-spherical mirror. Refractor has it own problem of
chromatic aberration causing color fringes around
the image. The problem was resolved with doublet
lens in 1729, and triplet objective in 1765. Large
lens has other problems with imperfections, such as
bubbles and streaks, it also sage in the middle and
distort the received image - creating a limit on the
maximum size of about 5 meters for the refractor.

Radio Telescopes

Radio Telescopes -- It is an instrument for collecting radio waves from celestial objects.
The radiation is reflected from a parabolic dish to an aerial (dipole), situated at the focal
point, from which the signals are led to a radio receiver. Because the wavelength of radio
waves is very large (from 0.3 mm to 30 cm), a radio telescope with an aperture comparable
to the optical telescope would have a very poor resolution according to Eq. (2). A
considerable increase in resolution can be obtained by using the technique known as
interferometry (or VLBI for the very large scale by using hundreds of radio dishes and/or
intercontinental links). The method involves linking the antennas together resulting in an
effective diameter equal to the largest separation (baseline) between the individual
antennas. Such method also effectively increases the collecting area of the receiving
antenna thus increasing the sensitivity. Figure 03 shows a two dishes implementation which
records the signals with magnetic tapes (or hard disks or via optical fiber). The arrival time
of the signals (and hence the time difference) are kept in another tape
on the same device. Then they are brought together to a processing
center to produce an image (in false colors).

Infrared Telescopes

Infrared Telescopes -- Infrared radiation (wavelength between 1

and 1000 mm) from space is mostly absorbed by the atmosphere
(see Figure 04): so the largest infrared telescopes are built on the
tops of high mountains, installed on special high flying aircraft or
balloons, or better yet on satellites orbiting the earth. However,
atmospheric absorption is not the only obstacle to analyse this
type of radiation on earth: the main problem, which also occurs in
space, is to distinguish the signal collected from the "background
noise", i.e., from the enormous infrared emissions of the Earth or
of the instruments themselves, since object which is not at
absolute zero, emits infrared radiation. So everything around the instruments
(including the telescope) produces "backround noise". Therefore, special
photographic film is used to produce a "thermograph" of a
celestial body, and the instruments must be cooled
continuously by immersion in liquid nitrogen or helium
(Figure 05).

Eyepiece Filters

Several different types of filters are available for use with

telescope eyepieces. These filters generally work by blocking
wavelengths of light that may be interfering with the object
you are trying to view. Light pollution filters work by blocking the scattered light from
mercury vapor lights and other terrestrial light sources. Colored filters can both block
unwanted wavelengths of light and enhance details in an object. For example, observing the
planet Mars through a red filter will increase the contrast of the image and make surface
details easier to see. A yellow or blue filter will make the Martian polar ice caps more visible.
Observing the planet Jupiter through a yellow, blue, or green filter will enhance the details in
the cloud bands and make the famous red spot easier to see. These filters are not very
expensive. You may want to consider investing in a set of 4 to 6 assorted color filters when
your budget can handle it. If you do your observing from areas
that are plagued by light pollution, you may want to get
yourself a good light pollution filter as well.

Solar Filters

Solar filters are specially designed to allow safe viewing of the

Sun. They are typically available in two different styles. The first
style is the eyepiece filter. These filters fit directly onto the
eyepiece and are typically included with some low-priced telescopes. Because of the intense
amount of heat that can build up at the point of focus, these filters are considered to be
quite unsafe. They can crack, allowing a sudden rush of light and searing heat into the eye.
Eyepiece solar filters should be avoided at all cost! The second style of solar filter is known
as the full-aperture filter. These filters fit directly over the aperture of the telescope. Since
they block the light at the point where the light initially enters the telescope, they are much
safer if used correctly. Full-aperture filters are available in two types. The first type is the
optical glass filter. These filters are made from darkened glass that blocks almost all of the
light from the Sun. The image rendered by these filters is generally very good. They deliver
a natural yellow-orange look to the Sun and provide a comfortable and safe viewing
experience. These filters can become quite expensive, however. For large apertures of 6
inches or more, the cost of the filter can easily exceed a hundred dollars. The second type of
full-aperture solar filter is the mylar filter. As the name implies, mylar filters are made of
reflective sheets of mylar. The advantage of these filters is their low cost. Mylar filters can be
obtained for about one third the cost of their optical glass cousins. The disadvantage of
mylar filters is that they render an unnatural blue or green image to the Sun. If you are
planning on observing and photographing the Sun, purchase the
best filter your budget can afford.

Telescope Eyepieces

The eyepiece is the part of the telescope that focuses the image
to your eye. Eyepieces can also be used to magnify the image
up to several hundred times. However, it is important to
remember that as you magnify an image, you will lose
sharpness, detail, and brightness. Beginners are always tempted to magnify that image of
Jupiter or Saturn until it is a large as possible in the field of view. The more experienced
observer learns that there is often more detail to be seen in a smaller, brighter image.
Magnifying the image also reduces your field of view, basically the area you can see through
the eyepiece. When observing large objects such as nebulae or star clusters, a wide field of
view is needed. Special wide field eyepieces are also available. These eyepieces can provide
a nice, bright image full of details on large objects. Eyepieces are labeled by their focal
length, in millimeters. Typical sizes are 25mm, 17mm, 10mm, and so on. To determine the
magnification of an eyepiece you simply divide the focal length of the telescope by that of
the eyepiece. For example, if the focal length of your telescope were 1000mm, then a 25mm
eyepiece would give you a magnification of 40 times. The smaller the focal length rating of
the eyepiece, the higher the magnification. Again, it is recommended that beginners start
out with a few low-power eyepieces at first. Many people are disappointed at how bad the
image actually looks with at high magnifications. Low-power eyepieces also make objects
easier to find, due to their wider field of view. Work your way up to higher power after you
have a little experience under your belt. A low-cost device useful for gaining additional
magnification is the barlow lens. This is a long tube with a lens in it that extends the focal
length of the eyepiece and increases the magnification by a factor of 2 or 3. For example, a
2x barlow lens used with our 25mm eyepiece from the example above will increase our
magnification from 40x to 80x. The image quality is not quite as good as what you would get
with a 12.5mm eyepiece by itself. But adding a barlow lens is an affordable way to
effectively double the number of eyepieces in your collection.
Dobsonian Mount

The third type of telescope mount is known as the Dobsonian

mount. This is actually a version of the altazimuth mount
typically used on camera tripods. It was developed by John
Dobson in the 1970s and was designed as a low-cost, easy-to-
use mount for large Newtonian telescopes. Dobsonian mounts
are generally constructed of wood and sit low to the ground.
They are easy to build, which makes them a favorite of the do-it-yourself telescope maker.
These mounts are ideal for large telescopes because they are strong and sturdy. They can
also be easily moved and adjusted from the eyepiece end (front) of a large Newtonian
reflector. The disadvantage of this mount is that it is not possible to track objects as can be
done with the equatorial and fork mounts. This makes them unsatisfactory for
astrophotography. Dobsonian mounts are typically used by
those who observe galaxies and other deep-sky objects with
their large Newtonian telescopes.

Equatorial Mount

The equatorial mount is the most common type of mount available with
today's telescopes. It is pretty much standard with both reflectors and
refractors. This mount consists of two perpendicular axes. One axis
rotates the telescope in Right Ascension (R.A.), and the other controls
Declination (Dec.). When the R.A. axis is aligned parallel to the Earth's
axis, objects can be tracked by adjusting slow motion controls that move the mount on the R.A. axis.
These mounts are available with motors attached to the R.A. axis that enable automatic tracking of
objects in the sky. To accomplish this, the mount will rotate the telescope in the opposite direction as the
rotation of the Earth. This allows an object to remain centered in the telescope for prolonged periods of
time. These mounts also contain coordinate markings called setting
circles. These coordinates enable objects to be located by their
celestial coordinates using the R.A. and Dec. setting circles.

Binoculars

If you are looking to get started with amateur astronomy,

binoculars are the ideal instruments for the beginner. Their
low cost makes them affordable to almost anyone. Binoculars
are available in a variety of sizes and magnifications. Because
of their wide field of view, they are also a necessary and popular tool for the experienced
astronomer as well. Binocular sizes are expressed with two numbers, such as 7x35 and
10x50. The first number is the power, or magnification. A pair of 7x35 binoculars will
magnify the image 7 times. The second number represents the aperture size, or diameter of
the objective (front) lenses in millimeters. When selecting binoculars for astronomical
viewing, larger apertures are always better. Choose the largest aperture you can afford and
comfortably hold on to. Larger apertures will yield brighter images, but they will also be
heavier. If the binoculars are a bit too heavy to support for long periods, most can be
mounted onto a camera tripod. Make sure you get a pair with a tripod mount. As far as
magnification goes, smaller is usually better, believe it or not. Binoculars with high
magnifications will be shakier when held in the hands. This can become annoying during an
evening of observing. Again, sturdy tripod will help to alleviate this problem. Some
astronomy suppliers carry devices that can help stabilize the binoculars by propping them
up against your body. Lower magnification will also provide a wider field of view. The best
advice for choosing a pair of binoculars is to get what you feel
comfortable with. Remember you may want to use them for bird
watching or camping as well.

Schmidt-Cassegrain

The Schmidt-Cassegrain is a relatively new design that

manages to catch the best of both worlds. It contains elements
of both the reflector and the refractor. This design uses two
mirrors to bounce the light up and down the tube and then through an opening in the back
where the eyepiece is located. The front of the tube contains a glass lens known as the
corrector plate. Light enters through the corrector plate where it strikes the primary mirror in
the back of the tube. It is then reflected to a small secondary mirror attached to the front
corrector plate. From there it is then reflected through a small hole in the back of the
primary mirror. Because the light path is essentially folded in half, the tube is much shorter
than it would be in a reflector of the same aperture size. Schmidt-Cassegrains have become
increasingly popular with amateur astronomers because of their small tube size to aperture
ratio. With their motorized fork mounts, these telescopes are ideal for astrophotography.
They cost a little more than reflectors, but much less than a refractor of the same aperture
size. These telescopes are popular in 8 and 10-inch apertures, and can be found as large as
14 inches. Many of the newer models have built-in computers that can locate objects by
entering their coordinates onto a keypad. The Schmidt-
Cassegrain is a great all-around performer for both planetary
and deep-sky observing.