What is a synapse?

Mediates transfer of information

from a neuron to:
- another neuron
- effector cell
There is a very narrow gap of about 20nm
between neurons called the synaptic cleft.
An action potential cannot cross the synaptic
cleft, so nerve impulses are carried by
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
 Synapses
Presynaptic neuron: the neuron
containing the axon in the synapse that
released the neurotransmitter
message sender

Postsynaptic neuron: the neuron

containing the dendrite side of the synapse
that has the neurotransmitter receptors
message receiver

 Neurotransmitter
is made by the pre-synaptic
neuron and is stored in
synaptic vesicles at the end
of the axon.
The membrane of the post-
synaptic neuron has
chemical-gated ion channels
called neuroreceptors.
These have specific binding
sites for neurotransmitters.
 Anatomical types of Synapses

1. Axodendritic synapse
2. Axosomatic synapse
3. Axoaxonic synapse
 Physiological Types of
Synapses
Electrical

Chemical
 Electrical Synapses
Occur at specialized sites called Gap junctions
CONNEXONS - special proteins connecting pre
and post synaptic membranes
allow ions to pass from one cytoplasm to
another
Found in cardiac muscle and many types of
smooth muscle. Action potential of one cell
causes action potential in next cell, almost as if
the tissue were one cell.
 Electrical Synapses

less common
Are important in the
CNS in:
Arousal from sleep

Mental attention

Emotions and

memory
Ion and water

homeostasis
 Chemical Synapses

Most common type

Cells not directly coupled as in electrical
synapses
Chemical neurotransmitters (NTs) released
by presynaptic neuron
NT binds to receptor on PSM
 Physiological Types of
Synapses
Electrical
Gap junctions

Ion movement

(involves sodium)
Bi-directional

Chemical
Neurotransmitters

Uni-directional
 Events at Chemical Synapse
1. Arrival of nerve impulse opens voltage-gated
calcium channels
2. Ca++ influx into presynaptic terminal
3. Ca++ acts as intracellular messenger
stimulating synaptic vesicles to fuse with
membrane and release NT via exocytosis
4. Ca++ removed from terminal by mitochondria
or calcium-pumps
 Events at Chemical Synapse
5. NT diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds
to receptor on postsynaptic membrane
6. Receptor changes shape of ion channel
opening it and changing membrane
potential
7. NT is quickly destroyed by enzymes or
taken back up
 Synaptic Delay
Neurotransmitter must be released,
diffuse across the synapse, and bind to
receptors
Synaptic delay time needed to do
this (0.3-5.0 ms)
Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step
of neural transmission
 Causes of Synaptic Delay
1. Discharge of neural transmitter
2. Diffusion of the transmitter across the cleft
3. Response of membrane receptor to the neural
transmitter
4. Action of the receptor to increase membrane
permeability
5. Inward diffusion Discharge
Na+
of sodium
Receptor Response
Diffusion Receptor Effect
 Removal of Neurotransmitter
from Synaptic Cleft

acetylcholine

norepinephrine
Removal of Neurotransmitter
from Synaptic Cleft
By enzymatic destruction
By diffusion
By re-uptake
 Removal of Neurotransmitter
from Synaptic Cleft
Method depends on neurotransmitter
ACh: enzymatic degradation

Acetylcholinesterase splits
ACh into acetic acid and choline.
Choline recycled within
presynaptic neuron.

Norepinephrine: by re-uptake
 POST SYNAPTIC RESPONSES
EPSP IPSP
- depolarization - hyperpolarization
- trigger an action - inhibits an action
potential potential
- opens cation influx - opens anion influx
(sodium) (chloride)
- subthreshold - subthreshold
POST SYNAPTIC RESPONSES
( EPSP & IPSP)
both are local responses
should undergo SUMMATION to
generate action potential
1. temporal summation
2. spatial summation
 Summation
Temporal summation one presynaptic
neuron transmits impulses in rapid-
fire order
 Summation
Spatial summation postsynaptic neuron
is stimulated by a large number of
presynaptic neurons at the same
time
Intercommunication
Neural circuits I
a single
presynaptic
neuron branches
and its collaterals
synapse on
multiple post
synaptic neurons.
This is known as
DIVERGENCE
Neural circuits I
A single
postsynaptic
neuron may have
synapses with as
many as 10,000
presynaptic
neurons. This is
convergence.
 Neural circuits I
Neurons may also form reverberating circuits.
A chain of neurons where many give off collaterals
that go back and synapse on previous neurons.
 NEURO TRANSMITTERS

ACETYL CHOLINE GLYCINE

DOPAMINE GLUTAMATE
NOREPINEPHRINE GAMMA-
EPINEPHRINE AMINOBUTYRIC
ACID (GABA)
SEROTONIN
ACETYLCHOLINE
1st neurotransmitter identified
Found in most neuromuscular junction of
skeletal muscle and ANS synapses
In most instances, acetylcholine is excitatory.
Patients with Alzheimers disease is
associated with decreased ACh secreting
neurons
ACh receptors in myasthenia gravis
DOPAMINE
produces feelings of pleasure when
released by the brain reward system.
Dopamine has multiple functions
depending on where in the brain it acts.
It is generally excitatory
Release is enhanced by amphetamines
Deficient in Parkinsons disease
NOREPINEPHRINE
acts as a neurotransmitter and a hormone
In the peripheral nervous system, it is part
of the fight-or-flight response.
In the brain, it acts as a neurotransmitter
regulating normal brain processes.
Norepinephrine is usually excitatory, but is
inhibitory in a few brain areas.
Cocaine and amphetamines increase the
release and bock the reuptake of NE
 Serotonin (5-HT)
Synthesized from tryptophan
May play a role in sleep, appetite, and

regulation of moods
Drugs that block its uptake relieve anxiety

and depression
In the spinal cord, serotonin is inhibitory in
pain pathways.
levels in schizophrenia
GLUTAMATE

the major excitatory neurotransmitter

in the brain
important in learning and memory
 GABA
The most common INHIBITORY
neurotransmitter in the brain.

Inhibitory effects augmented by alcohol

and anti anxiety drugs like Valium
GLYCINE
Found in spinal cord and brain
Generally INHIBITORY
Glycine receptors are inhibited by the
poison strychnine
ENDORPHINS
Widely distributed in the CNS and PNS
Generally INHIBITORY
The opiates morphine and heroin bind
to endorphin receptors on presynaptic
neurons and reduce pain by blocking
the release of the neurotransmitter
 Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine: Excitation (mostly)
Norepinephrine: Excitation (mostly)
Glutamate: Excitation
Dopamine: Excitatory
Glycine: Inhibition
GABA: Inhibition
Serotonin: Pain inhibition, Sleep
Nitric Oxide (NO): Memory, Smooth muscle
relaxation, inhibits platelets and
cellular proliferation. NO is not
stored.
 Events during NeuroMuscular
Transmission
Action potential in Presynaptic Motor axon
terminal

Increase in Ca++ ion permeability and influx

of Ca++ into the Axon Terminal

Release of Ach from the Synaptic Vesicles

into the Synaptic Cleft

Diffusion of Ach to Postjunctional membrane

 Events during NeuroMuscular
Transmission
Combination of Ach with specific receptors on
postjunctional membrane

Increase in permeability of postjunctional

membrane to Na++ and K+ causes EPP

Depolarization of areas of Muscle membrane

adjacent to end plate and initiation of AP
 Characteristics of synaptic
transmission:
1. One way
2. Synaptic delay
3. Synaptic fatigue
4. Post tetanic facilitation post synaptic
neuron can become more excitable after
resting from intense stimulation
5. Permeability of presynaptic membrane
will increase release of NT
 Synaptic Fatigue
Nerve is incapable of producing more
action potentials
Causes are:
Depletion of transmitter substances in the
presynaptic terminals
Inactivation of postsynaptic membrane
receptors
Buildup of abnormal amounts of ions at the
postsynaptic cell
 Drugs
Increases Caffeine, theophylline,
Excitability theobromide (coffee, tea
(Reduced Threshold) and cocoa, respectively)

Decrease Inhibition Strychnine can cause

muscle spasms
Increase membrane Most anesthetics
threshold
 Other Effects
pH
Alkalosis causes higher excitability
Acidosis causes lower excitability

Hypoxia reduces excitability