Hydrodynamic Techniques To Enhance Membrane Filtration: Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics December 2011

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Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance

Membrane Filtration
Article in Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics December 2011

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-fluid-120710-101112
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Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2012.44:77-96. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
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First published online as a Review in Advance on Dean and Taylor vortices, pulsatile ows, dynamic ltration, vibrating
September 9, 2011
membranes
The Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics is online at
uid.annualreviews.org Abstract
This articles doi: This article reviews the use of various techniques for membrane ltration,
10.1146/annurev-uid-120710-101112
such as Dean and Taylor vortices, pulsatile ows, and dynamic ltration,
Copyright c 2012 by Annual Reviews. which can generate high shear rates more efciently than cross-ow ltra-
All rights reserved
tion. In dynamic ltration, shear rates are generated not by a pump, but by
0066-4189/12/0115-0077$20.00 moving parts or by vibrations. The most successful application of Taylor vor-
tices has been plasma collection from donors in transfusion centers by micro-
ltration (MF), using small rotating cylindrical lters. Industrial dynamic l-
tration modules consist of metal disks with vanes or blades rotating between
circular at membranes or rotating ceramic membrane disks. These systems
can be operated at high rotation speeds in order to produce very high perme-
ate uxes, or they can be operated at low speeds and save energy as compared
with cross-ow ltration for the same ux. Vibrating modules (i.e., vibratory
shear-enhanced processing) consist of a stack of circular membranes oscillat-
ing around a vertical shaft at its resonant frequency. While instabilities cre-
ated by Dean vortices and pulsatile ows are mostly efcient in laminar ow
and in MF and ultraltration, the benets of high shear dynamic ltration are
even more impressive in nanoltration and reverse osmosis, as the reduction
in concentration polarization not only increases permeate ux as compared
with cross-ow ltration, but also decreases microsolute transmission.
77
1. INTRODUCTION
Cross-ow ltration through a membrane permits the separation of solutes, i.e., sorting parti-
Cross-flow filtration: cles and molecules of different size or molecular weight according to membrane pore diameter.
classical ltration This process consists of circulating the feed uid along the membrane with a pump, while the
mode in which the permeate is extracted by the transmembrane pressure (TMP) produced by the pump and con-
uid circulates along a
trolled by a check valve on the ltration module outlet. When the pore size ranges from 0.1 m
at or tubular
membrane while the to 5 m, as in microltration (MF), only particles are retained in the retentate. Molecular sep-
permeate ux is aration is achieved by ultraltration (UF) membranes with pore diameters between 5 nm and
produced by the 0.05 m. Nanoltration (NF) membranes have mean pores of approximately 1 to 3 nm and re-
pressure difference tain molecules with a molecular weight below 1,500 Da. This process must be carried out at a
across the membrane
larger TMP than in MF and UF because the hydraulic permeability of NF membranes is smaller
(transmembrane
pressure) and the osmotic pressure of rejected solutes is higher, owing to their small size and high molar
concentration. Reverse osmosis (RO), carried out with dense membranes and a TMP exceeding
Microfiltration (MF):
ltration through 2 MPa, can extract small molecules below 100 Da and is used in desalination and wastewater
membranes with pore treatment.
sizes between 0.05 m The separation of molecules or particles from uid by membrane ltration presents a perma-
and 5 m nent challenge because the ltered uid continuously brings these solutes to the membrane and
Ultrafiltration (UF): builds up a layer of rejected solutes, which increases the resistance to ltration. In addition, the
ltration through TMP necessary for ltration packs this layer, which becomes increasingly less permeable. In un-
membranes with pore
stirred dead-end ltration, the accumulation of solutes on the membrane or inside the pores will
sizes between 5 nm
and 50 nm or cutoff rapidly decrease the ltration ow rate, except if the solute size is smaller than most of the pores,
between 2,000 Da and and this process is only practical for MF of low-concentration uids such as surface water. Except
106 Da in hollow-ber modules with internal ber diameters of 2 mm or less, it is necessary to circulate
Nanofiltration (NF): the uid at high speeds, from 3 to 6 m s1 , to generate a high-enough shear rate at the membrane
ltration through to limit the growth of the layer of rejected solutes on the membrane or cake formation in the case
membranes with pore of the MF of particulate suspensions. These high velocities produce a large pressure gradient along
sizes between 0.5 nm
the membrane so that the feed pressure at the inlet must be high to retain a sufcient TMP at the
and 5 nm
module outlet. In the case of NF and RO, when the goal is to separate small molecules from the
Membrane shear
permeate at a high concentration, the TMP must be high, from 10 to 60 bars, to exceed the osmotic
rate: velocity gradient
at the membrane pressure of the retentate. Thus the combination of high feed pressures and large feed ow rates
created by the uid requires powerful and expensive pumps that consume much energy. In addition, the TMP decay
velocity and viscosity along the membrane makes the downstream part of the membrane less efcient than the upstream
Dynamic filtration: one.
ltration mode in If membrane fouling increases during ltration, as it is often the case, the permeate ow rate
which membrane shear will decrease, and the energy consumed per cubic meter of permeate will increase with time. In the
rates are produced by
case of MF and UF, when the goal is to separate small solutes in the permeate from larger ones in
moving parts such as
rotating disks or the retentate, internal membrane fouling will reduce solute transmission by the membrane as its
membranes, impellers, pores are narrowed or blocked. It is thus important, by clever use of uid mechanics, to increase
or uid inertia in the membrane shear rate and the backtransport away from the membrane to limit membrane
vibrating modules fouling, using energy-saving techniques.
The goal of this review is to present and discuss various methods such as the produc-
tion of ow instabilities by vortices or ow and pressure pulsations that have been tested
and implemented on cross-ow ltration. We also discuss a recent type of ltration, called
dynamic ltration, in which very high shear rates are generated not by pumps, but by mov-
ing parts or vibrations, and which signicantly improves permeate uxes and membrane
selectivity.
78 Jaffrin
2. HYDRODYNAMIC METHODS TO ENHANCE FLUX

IN CROSS-FLOW FILTRATION
2.1. Flux Enhancement by Dean Vortices

Dean vortices are helicoidal ows created by centrifugal forces in curved channels, such as coiled
or helically twisted tubular membranes. They enhance solute backtransfer away from the mem-
brane and are effective for enhancing permeate ux by depolarization of the solute layer on the
membrane.
2.1.1. Literature survey. Winzeler & Belfort (1993) and Belfort et al. (1994) were among the
rst to report interest in membrane ltration. These vortices occur when the Dean number (De),
which characterizes the ratio of centrifugal to viscous forces, exceeds a critical value, Dec . The
Dean number is dened as
De = Re(d i /d c )0.5 , (1)

where Re denotes the Reynolds number, di the inner tube diameter, and d c the effective diameter
of curvature of the bend, which is given by

b 2
d c = d c 1 + , (2)
dc
where b is the pitch of coil and dc the actual curvature diameter. If the pitch of the coil is small,
De reduces to Re(di /dc )0.5 .
Mallubhotla & Belfort (1997) compared permeate uxes in the MF of polystyrene and silica
suspensions with and without Dean vortices. They used a simple, but clever, module that permitted
them to retain the same internal geometry in both cases. It consists of a U-shaped at channel in
which a rectangular membrane is inserted on the top part before the bend. Thus the membrane is
exposed only to Dean vortices if the uid is fed from the bottom part. The critical Dean number for
this module was found to be 35.7. Permeate ux increased with increasing De to reach a maximum
increase of 43% at low concentration, and De = 6 Dec . This was lower that the 60% increase in
the MF of yeast suspensions reported by Mallubhotla et al. (1995). The same group (Mallubhotla
et al. 1999) investigated the effect of Dean vortices in the NF of aqueous solutions of salts and
amino acids, with a module consisting of hollow bers wrapped helicoidally around steel rods,
which they compared with straight hollow-ber modules made of the same bers, in tests at the
same energy consumption and TMP. In this case, Dec was approximately 13. The permeability
of the helical module was 32% higher than that of the straight module for K3 PO4 solutions.
However, salt rejection was 4% to 8% higher in straight modules, which was attributed to their
lower convective transfer. Permeabilities with amino acid solutions were maximum at the highest
pH tested (9.3). The maximum ux increases due to Dean vortices were 18% for glutamic acid,
23% for glutamine, and 30% for lysine at the maximum pH (9.3 or 10). At low pH, such as 3.7,
the increase fell to 10% for glutamine. Moulin et al. (1999) compared coiled and straight cellulose
acetate hollow-ber modules during the UF of bentonite suspensions and dextran solutions. They
observed that the limiting ux (ux plateau at high TMP) increased with uid velocity V as V 0.90 .
The ux increased as De0.25 in 48-cm-long bers with dc = 11 cm and as De0.36 in 24-cm ones. This
increase reached 67% at De = 69 and 31% at De = 42. In a subsequent paper (Ghogomu et al.
2001), the same group compared different designs of hollow-ber modules, with twisted bers or
a sinusoidal meander shape, in addition to the coiled and straight types in the UF of bentonite
suspensions. These modules were designed to have the same ratio De/Re = 0.76, a large pitch
b compensating for a smaller dc in twisted bers. They found that permeate uxes J of various
www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 79

modules with Dean vortices increased linearly with Re (or De) with the same slope, giving a 38%
higher ux than straight modules at the same Re for a feed concentration of 3.3 g liter1 . Using
Mishra & Guptas (1979) ratio of friction factors for curved (subscript c) and straight (subscript s)
Concentration
polarization: layer of pipes, as
rejected molecules or fc / fs = 1 + 0.033( log10 De)4 , (3)
small particles that
forms on the and the relation found by Manno et al. (1998),
membrane during
J = k 0.9 , (4)
ltration and may
become a gel, thus they expressed the ux increase due to Dean vortices as
decreasing the
ltration ux through Jc /Js = [1 + 0.033( log10 De)4 ]0.9 . (5)
the pores
According to Equation 5, a 100% increase in ux would necessitate a De of 272.
Although the wall shear stress is higher in curved bers than in straight ones according to
Equation 3, the authors showed that, for the same permeate ow rate QF , modules with curved
bers consume less energy (W ) than modules with straight ones, as the ratio of consumed energy
is
W s /W c = (Qp/Q F ) S /(Qp/Q F )c = V S /V c = [1 + 0.033( log10 De)4 ]0.9 , (6)
where Q is the ow rate and p the module pressure drop. For the same specic energy of
0.45 kWh m3 , Moulin et al. (1999) reported a ux increase of 75% for 24-cm coiled modules
as compared with straight modules and an increase of only 45% for 48-cm modules. At the same
uid velocity of 2 m s1 , the increase in ux was close to 100% in the short coiled module.
2.1.2. Discussion. Dean vortices can effectively reduce concentration polarization and increase
permeate ux, while reducing the specic energy consumed by a cubic meter of permeate. How-
ever, for practical reasons, most designs use hollow bers with limited values of Re and De, so the
maximum ux increase is limited to approximately 100% in short bers and is less in longer bers.
In addition, large area modules with high De seem difcult to build. This is probably why these
systems have not been used on an industrial scale.
An alternative to coiled modules is the insertion of helical bafes in mineral tubular membranes
with 0.14-m pores. Gupta et al. (1995) reported a maximum 102% ux increase in the MF of 5%
dry weight yeast suspensions to 84 liters h1 m2 with a six-turn bafe and 1.13-W power, after
2 h of ltration, as compared with the same membrane without a bafe.
2.2. Flux Enhancement by Pulsatile Flows

Another method for enhancing permeate ux and mass transfer without using very high uid
velocity consists of superposing ow and pressure pulsations at the membrane inlet with a piston-
in-cylinder system or special pumps such as modied roller pumps.
2.2.1. Medical applications. Bellhouse et al. (1973) proposed the use of pulsatile blood ow to
enhance gas transfer in membrane blood oxygenators. Their goal was to reduce the membrane
area of disposable oxygenators to lower their cost. In their original system, at membranes forming
blood channels were corrugated by heat, producing transverse grooves that created microvortices.
Blood ow was oscillated by two bellow pumps, one at oxygenator inlet and the other at the
outlet, with a net forward component. The pulsation frequency was varied between 1.5 and 4 Hz to
control oxygen transfer. This concept, rst tried in pigs and newborn lambs with 0.15-m2 prototype
80 Jaffrin
oxygenators, demonstrated that high oxygen transfer rates of 150 ml min1 m2 could be obtained
with small blood ows of 0.3 liters min1 . This system, named Interpulse, was commercialized
for clinical use by the Extracorporeal Corporation in 1981 with a 0.8-m2 membrane instead of
a 2-m2 one as for hollow-ber oxygenators, while producing an oxygen transfer rate of up to
300 ml min1 at a blood ow of 6 liters min1 . However, its commercialization was discontinued
after a few years, owing to its complexity and the necessity of having a second system on standby
in case of mechanical failure.
Galletti et al. (1983) were the rst to report that pulsatile blood ow enhanced plasma MF
from blood. But, owing to the small membrane area (74 cm2 ) and nonoptimal design of their
lter, although the permeate ow rate was doubled by pulsations, it represented only 1.5% of
the inlet blood ow. The postulated mechanism of ux enhancement was that pulsations induced
the rotation of red blood cells, which increased their backtransport away from the membrane and
reduced their concentration polarization. Jaffrin et al. (1984) conducted an in vitro experiment
on fresh bovine blood using polypropylene hollow-ber lters of 0.17 m2 designed for plasma
collection from donors. Pulsations were created by a metal plate squeezing periodically the silicone
blood tubing at the lter inlet. At a blood ow of 100 ml min1 , a pulsatile volume amplitude Vp
of 3.6 ml, and 2-Hz frequency (F), the time necessary to collect 600 ml of plasma (the normal
quantity for a donor) decreased from 25 min without pulsations to 15 min, conrming the positive
effect of the pulsations.

Later, the same group ( Jaffrin et al. 1987) showed, with in vitro experiments using bovine
blood, that the ratio of the permeate ow rate to mean blood ow rate QF /QB increased almost
linearly with the ratio FVp /QB until almost all plasma was extracted from blood, reaching 0.58 for
a hematocrit of 40%. However, hemolysis of red blood cells occurred when this ratio exceeded
0.32. The authors also demonstrated that part of the increase in ux resulted from velocity reversal
during pulsations. The efciency of pulsatile ow plasmapheresis was further improved by a new
type of pulsatile peritaltic pump (Ding et al. 1991b). This pump was a modied blood roller pump
from a Fresenius dialysis monitor in which one of the two rollers was removed and the inlet blood
line exited from a hole in the back plate to feed the lter and returned to the pump through a
second hole. During its rotation, the roller alternately squeezed the inlet blood line of the lter,
producing an acceleration of blood into the lter, and when it squeezed the outlet line, it produced
a reverse velocity, opposite to that of a steady ow pump. This system was tested on bovine blood at
36% hematocrit and 0.92-Hz frequency. Figure 1 shows that during the rst 50 min of ltration,
QF increased by an average of 130%; then pulsations were stopped, and QF dropped below its
normal steady ow value owing to increased membrane fouling. When pulsations were resumed,
the ux increased instantaneously and, after 100 min, was still 270% higher than its steady ow
value. There was a sudden increase in plasma free hemoglobin due to hemolysis, also shown in
Figure 1, at the start of pulsations. It returned to its normal level during the rst hour and then
rose slowly during the second hour, but no signicant hemolysis was observed during this test.
With pulsations, 2.5 liters of plasma were collected in 70 min instead of 190 min with steady
ow of the same time-mean value. This technique was also applied to protein fractionation in
plasma by UF after the separation of red blood cells by Ding et al. (1991a). In the absence of
red blood cells, ux improvements were not as high as in plasmapheresis, but sieving coefcients
of albumin recovered in the permeate were increased, owing to reduced internal fouling, and
albumin recovery rose from 40% in steady ow to 85% with 4-Hz pulsations. Legallais & Jaffrin
(1993) compared pulsatile and dead-end ltrations for ApoB separation from ApoA and albumin
and found that ApoA and albumin sieving coefcients increased with time at 0.5 Hz, instead of
decreasing rapidly after 30 min in dead-end ltration.

20
Hb (mg dl1)
15
10
5
0
S = 0.1 m2 QBi = 90 ml min1 H = 36%

50 F = 0.92 Hz V = 2.2 ml
40
QF (ml min1)
130%
30
270%
20
10 Steady
Pulsatile
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)
Figure 1
Comparison of ltration ow rate and hemoglobin (Hb) concentration with time in the microltration of
blood for steady and pulsatile ows.
2.2.2. Industrial applications. Finnigan & Howell (1989) proposed the use of pulsatile ow
in the UF of whey protein solutions with bafed tubular 100-kDa organic membranes. In their
experiment, the bafes were ring shaped with a 7.9-mm inner diameter inside 12.5-mm inner-
diameter membranes. Tests were conducted at low speeds in the laminar regime. In short tests
at steady ow, the bafes increased the ux by 130% at Re = 1,140, whereas pulsations added
another 47%. But in 2-h tests, the increase in ux dropped to 95% for the bafes alone and to
approximately 100% for the bafes and pulsations, with a maximum ux of only 22 liters h1 m2 .
Gupta et al. (1992) applied this technique to the clarication of apple juice by MF with tubular
ceramic membranes with a 280-cm2 area. The pulsating mechanism consisted of a piston in a
cylinder driven by a pneumatic jack operated with compressed air at 6 bars. This piston delivered
its stroke volume Vs at the inlet of the module, while a one-way valve and an air chamber were
placed upstream to protect the feed pump from large pressure uctuations. The piston speed on
the forward and backward strokes could be adjusted independently by a control valve, and the
frequency could be varied between 0.5 and 2 Hz. The best results were obtained with a 0.1-s
backward stroke followed by a 0.1-s forward stroke at a frequency of 1 Hz and a stroke volume of
50 ml, for an internal membrane volume of 20 ml. However, because the Womersley parameter was
larger than 5, the velocity near the wall reversed itself during part of the cycle. It was probably this
periodic reversal in wall shear rate that destabilized the deposited particle layer on the membrane
and increased the permeate ux.
In a later work (Gupta et al. 1993), the same bench was adapted to a larger pilot of 0.32 m2 of
mineral membranes with two modules in series of 240 ml of internal volume. Larger stroke volumes
of up to 350 ml were used. Permeate uxes with 1-Hz pulsations increased with increasing Vs , but
at a smaller rate above 240 ml. The permeate ux of the downstream module was approximately
20% lower than in the rst module. For a xed Vs , the ux increased with increasing frequency,
but at a lower rate above 1 Hz. It rose linearly with the ratio = Vs F/Qc , where Qc denotes the
mean ow rate, to reach 140% at = 0.40.
82 Jaffrin
An original pulsation mechanism was proposed by Bertram et al. (1993). It consisted of feeding
the lter with a collapsible tube located in a pressurized chamber. The action of the ow produced
by the pump was opposed by the elastic forces of the collapsed tube and induced periodic closures
Retrofiltration:
and reopenings of the downstream end of the tube, generating periodic pressure and velocity technique for reducing
pulses of 5- to 10-Hz frequency. In contrast to the pulsation generator of Gupta et al. (1992), membrane fouling by
this system produced a negative TMP and ow reversal during part of the cycle, which may pressurizing the
be effective for cake removal. This system was rst tested in the turbulent regime with tubular permeate above
retentate pressure in
ceramic membranes in the MF of silica suspensions. The authors found that, at a 0.5 g liter1
order to inject
concentration, pulsations increased the permeate ux by a maximum of 48% at a mean TMP of permeate into
200 kPa, as compared with steady ow of same mean value. A similar study (Hadzismajlovic & retentate and clean the
Bertram 1998) was undertaken with the same module, but in laminar regime at Re = 1,340. The pores
ux increase due to pulsations, moderate at rst, rose to 450% after 4 h, conrming that steady
laminar ow is not efcient in tubular membranes.
A different concept, which can be easily implemented on existing large tubular ltration mod-
ules, consists of mounting a rotating perforated disk at the module inlet (Spiazzi et al. 1993).
During rotation, the slot in the disk distributes a higher ow rate in each tube in turn, creating
periodic velocity increments at nearly constant TMP. Tests in the MF of bentonite suspensions
showed an increase of permeate ux of 100% with only a 50% increase in energy consumption.
Industrialization of this system was considered by the Techsep Company (France) but did not
materialize.
2.2.3. Discussion. Above we see that the superposition of pressure and ow pulsations at the inlet
of a ltration module permits the enhancement of permeate ux in MF. Gains seem to be higher
in the laminar than in the turbulent regime as mass transfer in steady ow is already increased by
turbulence. The mechanisms responsible for this enhancement are higher maximum membrane
shear rates, shear rate reversal at the membrane, and, in some cases, short negative TMP pulses,
which produce backltration and decrease internal fouling. Few tests were conducted in UF, as
the preferred method in this case is gas sparging, which consists of introducing air bubbles into
vertical or inclined tubular membranes (Cui & Wright 1994, Mercier et al. 1997). No applications
of pulsatile ows to NF or RO processes have been reported. Extrapolation of pneumatic pulsation
generators to large industrial modules with important internal membrane volumes also has not
been attempted.
2.3. Techniques Based on Periodic Retrofiltrations

Because ux decay in MF is frequently caused by internal pore plugging or narrowing and by the
buildup of a cake layer on the membrane, several methods based on intermittent ltration or short
periods of retroltration have been proposed.
2.3.1. Backwashing. Backwashing, or backushing, consists of periodically pressurizing the per-

meate by a piston or compressed air to create short bursts of retroltration to clean the pores
and push the cake layer away from the membrane. For instance, Ben Amar et al. (1990) applied
this technique to clarify depectinized raw apple juice by MF with ceramic tubular membranes.
While the TMP was set to 3 bars during normal ltration, the permeate was pressurized to
6.5 bars by compressed nitrogen during periods of 2 to 5 s every 5 to 10 min. While the steady
ow ux at a velocity of 2.77 m s1 stabilized to approximately 85 liters h1 m2 after 1 h, backwash-
ing every 5 min kept the mean permeate ux at its initial value of 200 liters h1 m2 for the rst 2 h

350
Ceraflo 0.2 m Ptm = 3 bar
Pc = 6.5 bar
300
V = 2.77 m s1
Permeate flux (liters h1 m2)

250
200
150
100
50
Without backwashing
With backwashing
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (min)
Figure 2
Comparison of permeate uxes in the microltration of apple juice with and without backwashing. Figure
taken from Ben Amar et al. (1990) with permission.
(Figure 2). Then the period was raised to 10 min, and the net ux decayed slowly to approximately
170 liters h1 m2 and to 100 liters h1 m2 when backwashing was stopped at t = 200 min.
2.3.2. Backpulsing. Rodgers & Sparks (1992) suggested that one could increase the backwashing
frequency to 1 Hz or more by reducing the duration of backpulses to 0.1 s and named this technique
backpulsing. They conducted tests in the UF of bovine serum albumin solutions in the laminar
regime by using a small at sheet module and reported a 100% ux increase. However, no increase
was observed in tests conducted in the turbulent regime. Parnham & Davis (1996) microltered
bacterial lysates to recover proteins and found that backpulsing at a 2.5-Hz frequency permitted
them to increase the ux to 160 liters h1 m2 from a steady ow value of 14 liters h1 m2 , while
protein transmission rose from 60% to 100%. They concluded that the performance and optimal
frequencies of backpulsing were highly dependent on solute characteristics, as these uxes were
much lower than those obtained in the MF of yeast cells (4,200 liters h1 m2 ) at 0.1 Hz. Redkar
et al. (1996) set up a model of concentration depolarization by backpulsing. By solving numerically
the convection diffusion equation during repeated cycles of backpulsing, they could predict the
prevention of a cake or gel layer on the membrane, provided that the forward ltration phase
did not exceed a critical duration of 1 s for typical uids. The optimal duration of backpulse was
approximately 0.1 s to minimize permeate loss. However, the required backpulse frequency could
be reduced for dilute suspensions, as was the case in the MF of yeast cells.
2.3.3. Discussion. Backwash techniques have frequently been used in the industry to reduce
membrane fouling between chemical cleaning phases, as they are easily implemented on large
industrial modules, especially on tubular mineral membranes (Galaj et al. 1984). However, unlike
84 Jaffrin
backpulsing, backwashing is not effective against internal fouling by small proteins (Kuberkar &
Davis 2001). Although laboratory tests with backpulsing have shown impressive results in laminar
ows, they have only been carried out on small at organic membrane modules, and not on
Couette flow:
hollow bers or tubular membranes, suggesting that membrane vibrations due to backpulses are laminar ow induced
important for raising uxes, as proposed by Rodgers & Sparks (1992). No industrial applications by a plate moving
have been reported. parallel to a xed one
by a cylinder rotating
inside a larger
concentric cylinder
3. DYNAMIC FILTRATION
3.1. Rotating Cylindrical Membranes

The concept of a rotating cylindrical membrane takes advantage of Taylor vortices created by cen-
trifugal forces at large rotation speeds in the annular space between membranes and their housing
that increase the shear rate as compared to classical Couette ow. The Biodrucklter (Sulzer
AG, Winterthur, Switzerland) and the Benchmark Rotary Bioltration (Membrex, Gareld, New
Jersey) (Kroner & Nissingen 1988, Holeschovsky & Cooney 1991) were among the rst devices of
this type to be commercialized, with a maximum membrane area of 2 m2 . But the most successful
application of this concept is the Plasmacell lter (Hemascience, Santa Ana, California) intro-
duced in 1985 for plasma collection from donors (Figure 3) (Rock et al. 1986, Kaplan & Halley
1988), with a 58-cm2 polycarbonate cylindrical membrane with 0.8-m pores and a 1.34-cm radius
Fixed cylinder Inlet blood flow
Membrane support Membrane

and plasma channel
Plasma collection
channel
Rotating cylinder
li d Outlet blood flow
Plasma flow
Figure 3
Schematic of a Plasmacell lter for plasma collection from donors with a rotating cylindrical membrane.
Figure taken from Beaudoin & Jaffrin (1989) with permission.

rotating at 3,600 rpm. The increase in membrane shear rate was such that it could collect 600 ml
of plasma from a donor in 30 min, less than that for hollow-ber lters with a 300-cm2 area. This
device was later commercialized by Baxter (United States), with a nylon membrane with 0.45-m
pores and same area, integrated into an automatic monitor.
3.1.1. Calculation of shear rates and mass transfer coefficients. It is well known that Couette-
type systems, with an inner cylinder rotating inside a concentric one, generate toroidal instabilities
called Taylor vortices that appear when the Taylor number,
1/2
Ta = R1 e 3/2 /, (7)
exceeds 42. In Equation 7, denotes the angular speed, R1 the inner cylinder radius, e the annular
gap, and the kinematic viscosity. These Taylor vortices greatly increase mixing and the shear
rate in the annular gap in laminar ow. When Ta > 400, Taylor vortices degenerate into turbulent
ow. By measuring the torque exerted on the inner cylinder, Taylor (1936) was able to propose
an equation for the shear rate on the inner cylinder as

= 0.23 Ta1/2 R1 /e = 0.23 3/2 R1 e 1/4 1/2 ,
5/4
(8)
when using Equation 7, which is valid in the range 60 < Ta < 3,000 and includes both laminar
and turbulent regimes.

One of the most complete studies of UF in Couette ow devices is by Lopez-Leiva (1980),
who built a module equipped with a cellulose acetate membrane mounted on a 2.5-cm-diameter
rotating cylinder. The annular gap was varied from 0.1 to 3.5 cm by changing the outer cylinder.
Using skim milk and bovine serum albumin, Lopez-Leiva found an empirical correlation for the
Sherwood number (Sh) in the mass transferlimited regime, when the ow was turbulent (400 <
Ta < 4,000), which is written as
Sh = km e/D = 0.070Ta 0.64 Sc 1/3 , (9)

where D is the diffusivity, Sc = /D the Schmidt number, and km the mass transfer coefcient.
Equation 9 can be combined with Equation 10 (from Blatt et al. 1970),
J = km ln(C/Cw ), (10)
where Cw is the membrane concentration, to express the permeate ux J in the mass transfer
limited regime.
3.1.2. Technological applications. Vigo et al. (1985) ultraltered cutting oil emulsions to sep-
arate oil from water with a rotating cylindrical module equipped with a Celgard 3,500 membrane
with a 700-cm2 area. The tangential velocity of the membrane was varied from 2 to 12 m s1 and
the annular gap from 3.3 to 1.5 mm. At a TMP of 300 kPa, the permeate ux increased linearly
with tangential velocity until 5 m s1 and increased more slowly above 9 m s1 . Reducing the gap
from 3.3 to 1.5 mm increased the ux by 37% at speeds above 10 m s1 . The authors obtained
a maximum ux of 160 liters h1 m2 at a velocity of 9 m s1 and 700 kPa. They also measured
the overall specic energy per cubic meter of permeate consumed by the lter with a 20% oil
emulsion as a function of tangential velocity and pressure. This energy decreased with increasing
velocity and increasing pressure from 30 kW h1 m3 at 5 m s1 to 16 kW h1 m3 at 9 m s1 and
700 kPa for a 3.3-mm radial gap. Reducing the gap to 2.5 mm increased the specic energy.
Kroner & Nissingen (1988) investigated the MF of bakers yeast and various microbial suspen-
sions with a Biodrucklter equipped with a 6.6-cm-diameter Teon membrane with a 400-cm2
area and 0.2-m pores at rotation speeds up to 3,000 rpm and a 4-mm radial gap. The permeate
86 Jaffrin
ux increased linearly with rotation speed, but at a higher rate above 2,000 rpm, when ow be-
came turbulent. In a concentration of Escherichia colicell broths, the authors obtained an initial
permeate ux of 220 liters h1 m2 versus 160 liters h1 m2 for a tubular polypropylene membrane
of the same pore size. The ux of the Biodrucklter dropped much less rapidly with increasing
cell concentration than did that of a tubular membrane. Cell transmission remained four times
higher, at 80%.
Belfort et al. (1993) reported the MF and UF of cell culture media containing bovine serum
albumin or lipids and amino acids using a Benchmark Membrex lter with a 4.4-cm-diameter
rotating cylindrical membrane with a 200-cm2 area, at rotation speeds from 500 to 4,000 rpm.
The authors conrmed that centrifugal forces in permeate created a counterpressure proportional
to 2 , which decreased the effective TMP. In MF at 0.45 m, the permeate ux increased linearly
with effective TMP to a maximum of 1,400 liters h1 m2 at 70 kPa, independent of rotation
speed. In UF tests at 100 kDa, permeate uxes increased with TMP until approximately 100 kPa,
reaching a plateau of 162 liters h1 m2 at 2,000 rpm, whereas no plateau was observed at speeds
above 3,000 rpm and a TMP of 270 kPa. The maximum ux was 305 liters h1 m2 at 4,000 rpm.
3.1.3. Medical applications. Beaudoin & Jaffrin (1987, 1989) microltered bovine blood
using a Plasmacell lter equipped with a 50-cm2 rotating cylindrical polycarbonate Nuclepore
membrane with 0.8-m pores at rotation speeds from 0 to 4,725 rpm. The authors also tested the
same lter equipped with a polyamide membrane with 0.5-m pores from the Pall Corporation
(Massachusetts). They measured the membrane shear rate from the torque exerted on the shaft
and found excellent agreement with Equation 8. Figure 4 presents the variation of permeate
uxes with TMP from these membranes at 3,000 rpm and a hematocrit of 35%. With the more
permeable polycarbonate membrane, the ux reached a high peak at low TMP, as also observed
by Ohashi et al. (1988), and decayed toward a plateau at higher pressures. With the polyamide
membrane, the variation of ux with TMP was more classical, without overshoot, and the ux
plateau at 100-mm Hg was 47% higher than for the polycarbonate membrane. This ux decay,
following the peak, could be caused by platelet or lipid adsorption into the pores, but this has
not been conrmed in the literature. In the mass transferlimited regime with the polyamide
0.8
Limit of region 1 Polycarbonate
0.7
Filtration velocity (cm min1)
Nylon
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200
TMP (mm Hg)
Figure 4
Comparison of plasma uxes separated from blood using a Hemascience rotating lter as a function of
transmembrane pressure (TMP) with polycarbonate and nylon membranes. Figure taken from Beaudoin &
Jaffrin (1989) with permission.

membrane, the ux in milliliters per minute was proportional to the membrane shear rate in
inverse seconds (s1 ) ( Jaffrin 1989) given by Equation 8 as
J = 2.34 105 . (11)
Thus in the MF of blood, J increases proportionally to 1.5 , instead of , as observed by Belfort

et al. (1993) in the UF of cells. Although the Plasmacell was designed to collect only 600 ml of
plasma from donors, Kaplan & Halley (1988) ltrated 3 liters of plasma during periods of up to
3 h for therapeutic plasma exchange. They observed no decline in protein transmission for up to
3 h, conrming the minimal fouling of the polyamide membrane at a high shear rate.
3.2. Rotating Disk Modules

The rst commercial systems using this concept for dynamic ltration had several metal disks
mounted on a single shaft and rotating between xed circular membranes, such as the DMF (Pall
Corporation) described by Lee et al. (1995). This module, intended for biotechnological applica-
tions, could be completely sterilized and had a 2-m2 membrane. A larger system of similar design,
the Dyno, manufactured by Bokela GmbH (Karlsruhe, Germany) with membrane diameters from
13.7 cm to 85 cm for a total maximum membrane area of 12 m2 , is available with polymeric or

ceramic membranes.
A variation of this concept, the Optilter CR, commercialized by Metso Paper (Raisio, Finland),
features blades rotating between stationary at circular membranes with a tip azimuthal speed of
10 to 15 m s1 . The membrane diameter can reach 1 m, and the total membrane area can exceed
140 m2 (Manttari et al. 2006). It can deliver permeate ow rates of up to 230 m3 h1 . This system
is used in at least 30 plants, mostly for treatment of pulp and paper efuents or pigment recovery.
Another multidisk system, but with rotating membranes, is produced by Spintek (Huntington,
California) with a maximum membrane area of 2.3 m2 . Initially available with organic membranes
only, it can now receive mineral membranes.
The recent availability of ceramic disks, especially in Germany, has led to multishaft systems
with overlapping rotating membranes. For instance, the MSD system (Westfalia Separator, Aalen,
Germany) features 31-cm-diameter ceramic membranes on eight parallel shafts located on a cylin-
der (Figure 5) for a membrane area of 80 m2 . All disks rotate at the same speed and are enclosed
in a cylindrical housing. The membrane shear rate is unsteady and reaches a maximum in the
overlapping regions (Ding et al. 2006, He et al. 2007). Another system, the Rotostream (Canzler,
Dueren, Germany) (Kaiser 2004), available with a 150-m2 membrane area, has its parallel axes
in the same plane. These systems are simpler to build than single-shaft systems with metal disks
rotating between xed membranes. They are also capable of producing very high shear rates,
between 105 s1 and 4 105 s1 , by increasing rotation speed or disk radius. When operated at
moderate rotation speeds, their permeate ux is comparable with that of tubular membranes, but
with a 60% lower energy consumption.
Novoow (Oberndorf, Germany) manufactures two types of single-shaft rotating MF and
UF ceramic membrane systems: the CRD (with 15-cm-diameter ceramic disks, for a maximum
membrane area of 5 m2 ) and the SSDF (with 31-cm-diameter ceramic disks, for a membrane
area of 15 m2 per module or 25 m2 with organic membranes). The company reports a low power
consumption of 2.5 kW for the 15-m2 module.
Bouzerar et al. (2000) calculated the local shear rate t produced by a rotating disk in turbulent
ow on a stationary membrane, using the Blasius friction coefcient for a at plate,
t = 0.0296(k)1.8 r 1.6 0.8 , (12)
88 Jaffrin
FL44CH04-Jaffrin
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2012.44:77-96. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org ARI 18 November 2011 10:31
Figure 5
Industrial MSD module with eight parallel shafts and 31-cm ceramic disks. Figure courtesy of Westfalia
Separator.
where k is the core uid angular velocity and the disk angular velocity. The coefcient k varies
from 0.42 for a smooth disk to 0.80.9 when the disk is equipped with radial vanes (Brou et al.
2002).
3.3. Vibrating Systems

An original concept, known as vibratory shear-enhanced processing (VSEP), was proposed by
Armando et al. (1992). It consists of a stack of circular organic membranes separated by gaskets
and permeate collectors (Figure 6), mounted on a vertical torsion shaft oscillating azimuthally at
its resonant frequency of approximately 60 Hz. The shear rate at the membrane is produced
by the inertia of the retentate moving at 180 out of phase with the membrane, and it varies
sinusoidally with time. The use of resonance permits one to minimize the power necessary to
produce the vibrations, which is only 9 kW, even for large units with a 150-m2 membrane area
(G. Johnson, New Logic Res., personal communication in 2008). The key parameter governing
performance is the maximum azimuthal displacement of the membrane rim (d1 ), which has been
measured as a function of frequency by Al-Akoum et al. (2002) and is limited to approximately
3 cm, both in 30-cm-diameter pilots and in industrial modules, to avoid breakage by fatigue and
reduce maintenance costs. Thus, even in large systems, the maximum membrane shear rate ( max )
is approximately 1.4 105 s1 for uids with a similar viscosity to water.
The PallSep is the Pall Corporations version of the VSEP intended for biotechnological and
food applications. Its concept is similar, but it is available with up to 32 m2 of membrane area.
3.3.1. Membrane shear rate. Al-Akoum et al. (2002) have calculated the local instantaneous
shear rate on a membrane, using Rosenblatts (1960) earlier work, as
(r, t) = (rd /R2 )( F )1.5 0.5 (cos t sin t), (13)
where d is the membrane displacement at radius r; R2 is the outer radius; F is the oscillation
frequency, which equals 1 /2 ; and is the uid kinematic viscosity.

Spacer
Drain cloth
R2
2
d
Membrane R1
O-ring
R2
Torsion
Retentate Feed
Figure 6
Schematic of the vibratory shear-enhanced processor (VSEP) pilot series L with a single membrane
oscillating around its vertical axis.
The maximum with time of this shear rate at the disk periphery is given by
max = 20.5 d 1 ( F )1.5 0.5 , (14)
where d1 is the membrane displacement at the periphery. In the 30-cm-diameter series L pilot,
the membrane-averaged shear rate is given by
23/2 (R23 R13 )
m = max = 0.330 max . (15)
3 R2 (R22 R12 )
3.3.2. Applications. Nuortila-Jokinen et al. (1998) compared the performance of a VSEP single-
membrane series L pilot with that of a cross-rotational CR 500 lter from Raisio Engineering
in the UF of pulp and paper efuents. The authors noted the strong inuence of the membrane
displacement amplitude (d ) on the permeate ux of the VSEP, as an increase in d from 1.25 to
2.5 cm at 8,800 kPa increased the ux from 240 to 360 liters h1 m2 and lowered the energy
consumed per cubic meter.
Vane et al. (1999) and Vane & Alvarez (2002) investigated the removal of volatile organic
compounds. (VOCs) from aqueous solutions by pervaporation using the same VSEP pilot as
previous authors, but with pervaporation silicone membranes. They observed an increase of the
VOC mass transfer coefcient proportional to the membrane displacement amplitude for the
20-m membrane, and this coefcient was larger than that for spiral wound modules. They later
used a 10-m2 industrial VSEP module (CF1010) with a 254-m berglass reinforced silicone
90 Jaffrin
membrane and 38 membrane trays distributed in ve packs in series of 12, 10, 7, 5, and 4 trays
fed in parallel. They modied their module to have 13 packs in series of three trays in parallel
to avoid a tapering effect of the retentate. This new module gave 50%58% higher VOC mass
Rotating disk
transfers than the initial CF1010 module. module: dynamic
The VSEP internal hydrodynamics were investigated by Al-Akoum et al. (2002) in the MF of ltration module with
yeast suspensions and in the UF of bovine albumin solutions as test uids. The authors measured metal disks rotating
the membrane displacement amplitude as a function of frequency with an accelerometer placed on between xed circular
membranes
the housing. This amplitude dropped from 3.0 cm at the resonant frequency of 60.75 Hz to 1.5 cm
at 59.8 Hz and approximately 0.25 cm at 57 Hz. The permeate ux in MF at 30 kPa dropped
with decreasing frequency from 65 liters h1 m2 at 60.75 Hz to approximately 30 liters h1 m2
at 57 Hz. In the MF of yeast suspensions, they found that the permeate ux (in liters per hour per
squared meter) for m < 12,000 s1 or F < 59 Hz was given by
J = 6.62 m0.19 , (16)

where m is the mean membrane shear rate given by Equation 15. For m > 12,000 s1 , the
permeate ux was given by
J = 0.35 m0.50 . (17)
Postlethwaite et al. (2004) used a PallSep PS10 pilot, similar to the VSEP pilot, for protein
recovery from a bacterial suspension with a Teon membrane with 0.45-m pores. At a biomass
concentration of 500 g liter1 , the module yielded a stabilized permeate ux of 45 liters h1 m2
and a protein transmission of 67%.
Jaffrin et al. (2004) compared uxes of VSEP and rotating disk modules equipped with the same
membrane in the MF of yeast suspensions and the UF of ultra-high-temperature processed skim
milk. This comparison in MF is displayed in Figure 7 for the VSEP at 60.75 Hz and disks rotating
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
m = 3.05 105 s1
J (liters h1 m2)
1,000
800
m = 1.12 105 s1 m = 0.99 105 s1
600
400
Disk with 6-mm vanes N = 2,000 rpm, T = 25C
200 Smooth disk N = 2,000 rpm, T = 25C
VSEP F = 60.75 Hz, T = 20C
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
TMP (kPa)
Figure 7
Variation of permeate uxes with transmembrane pressure (TMP) in the microltration of 3 g liter1 yeast
suspensions with 30 liter h1 inlet ow for the small rotating disk module using a 0.2-m-pore membrane
with two types of disks and the vibratory shear-enhanced processor (VSEP). Figure taken from Jaffrin et al.
(2004) with permission.

at 2,000 rpm with and without vanes. Maximum shear rates at the membrane rim are indicated
in the gure. Interestingly, the VSEP, which has a 10% larger shear rate than the smooth disk
module, produced a 10% higher ux. The disk with vanes produced a shear rate three times larger
than the smooth disk, and its ux at 120 kPa was 180% higher. When shear rates were varied by
changing the yeast concentration in the retentate during concentration tests without permeate
recycling, corresponding permeate uxes for the three modules varied with shear rate according
to a single equation:
J = 4.3 106 max
1.459
. (18)
The exponent of the shear rate in Equation 18 is larger than those in Equation 17. This results from
the double action of the rising yeast concentration. This rise decreases the shear rate by raising the
uid viscosity and increases the yeast layer thickness and concentration at the membrane, which
also contributes to the ux decrease.
3.4. Discussion
A remarkable feature of various dynamic ltration systems is that the membrane shear rate is a
good predictor of permeate ux, which is proportional to x , where x varies from 0.42 to 0.55
at a constant concentration when the frequency, rotation speed, or disk diameter is varied. Thus
permeate uxes obtained on a small pilot should be applicable to larger systems, provided that
shear rates are the same.
In these systems, the major part of the energy is consumed by rotating or vibrating elements.
The power necessary to rotate disks is proportional to 14/5 as the shear stress is proportional to
9/5 (Equation 12), whereas the permeate ux increases with a lower power of , less than 1.5.
Therefore, the specic energy consumed per cubic meter of permeate generally increases with
increasing rotation speed. Thus, with rotating disks or rotating membrane modules, operating
at moderate rotation speeds decreases the specic energy consumed, whereas operating at high
speeds permits one to reduce the membrane area because of higher uxes, but increases the specic
energy. Westfalia Separator recommends the use of a rotation speed of 500 rpm for their modules
with 31-cm ceramic disks, corresponding to a tangential speed of 7.8 m s1 . According to this
company, this choice yields the same permeate ux as that with tubular ceramic membranes, with
the specic energy reduced by at least 60%. Vibrating systems, such as VSEP and PallSep, which
maximize the vibration amplitude by the use of the resonant frequency, require a low specic
energy in large industrial modules, as the power consumed by vibrating a module is only 9 kW
for up to 150 m2 of membranes, whereas the feed pump power is approximately 11 kW. But their
maximum shear rate is limited to approximately 105 s1 , even in large diameter modules, although
it can exceed 4 105 s1 in large rotating disk modules at high speed.
4. CONCLUSION
This review conrms that the appropriate use of uid instabilities can improve the performance
of membrane ltration. These instabilities can be created by geometry (as for Dean vortices),
inserts, membrane corrugations, pulsatile ows, or retroltration. As expected, the benets of
these instabilities are higher in laminar than in turbulent ows. So far, only retroltrations have
been widely adopted by the industry, as they can be easily implemented on many ltration modules,
tubular membranes, press-type lters, and hollow bers. It is probably more delicate to implement
retroltrations on spiral wound modules. However, Dean vortices, backpulsing, and pulsatile
ows can play a role in specic applications, which are carried out in the laminar regime, or with
92 Jaffrin
very colmating uids. This category of instabilities has generally been restricted to MF and UF
applications. On the contrary, the benets of dynamic ltration with regard to permeate ux and
membrane selectivity are present in all types of membranes. Membrane transmission is improved in
MF and UF, and membrane fouling is limited by a high shear rate, but a less obvious benet, found
in NF and RO, is the large increase in small solute rejection due to the decrease in concentration
polarization. This effect also increases permeate ux to a large extent, especially at high TMP as
the ux keeps increasing until it reaches higher pressures than in cross-ow ltration. Thus the
benets of dynamic ltration are probably more impressive in NF and RO than in MF and UF
(Frappart et al. 2006).
SUMMARY POINTS
1. This article covers various techniques for enhancing permeate ux through instabilities
such as Dean and Taylor vortices, ow, and pressure pulsations. It also describes some
techniques used for preventing membrane fouling such as intermittent retroltrations,

which push the cake away from the membrane and clean up membrane pores.
2. A large part is devoted to a review of dynamic ltration modules such as rotating cylindri-
cal membranes, modules with rotating metal disks between membranes, or with rotating
ceramic disk membranes, and vibrating membranes systems such as VSEP. These mod-
ules generate very high membrane shear rates, which not only increase permeate uxes
by factors of up to ve as compared to cross-ow ltration, but also increase microsolute
transmissions in microltration and small-molecule rejection in nanoltration and re-
verse osmosis. A selection of technological and medical applications of these techniques
is described.
FUTURE ISSUES
1. An important issue in dynamic ltration is the development of large-diameter (>60-cm)
ceramic membrane disks available at reasonable cost. Ceramic disks are better suited
to dynamic ltration than organic membranes as they permit the construction of large
modules with a high number of membrane disks rotating around shafts inside a cylindrical
housing, without the need for separate compartments as for organic membranes. These
discs would also simplify the construction of vibrating VSEP systems.
2. Another issue is the development of ceramic disks with low cutoffs for nanoltration and
reverse osmosis as the benets produced by high shear rates in terms of ux and rejection
are maximum for these membranes.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The author is not aware of any biases that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this
review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The scientic contributions of colleagues, identied in the literature, more specically L.H.
Ding and P. Paullier, and former PhD students, O. Al Akoum, G. Beaudoin, R. Bouzerar, and
M. Frappart, have been invaluable in the writing of this article. I also thank the Picardy Region

for its nancial support; Veolia Waters, France, for the gift of a VSEP pilot; Westfalia Separator
for supplying an MSD pilot; and the companies Alting, Novasep, and Osmonics for supplying
membranes.
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Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration

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Article in Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics December 2011

Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2012. 44:7796 Keywords

2. HYDRODYNAMIC METHODS TO ENHANCE FLUX

2.1. Flux Enhancement by Dean Vortices

De = Re(d i /d c )0.5 , (1)

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 79

2.2. Flux Enhancement by Pulsatile Flows

effect of the pulsations.

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 81

S = 0.1 m2 QBi = 90 ml min1 H = 36%

2.3. Techniques Based on Periodic Retrofiltrations

2.3.1. Backwashing. Backwashing, or backushing, consists of periodically pressurizing the per-

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 83

Permeate flux (liters h1 m2)

3.1. Rotating Cylindrical Membranes

Fixed cylinder Inlet blood flow

Membrane support Membrane

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 85

an equation for the shear rate on the inner cylinder as

and turbulent regimes.

Sh = km e/D = 0.070Ta 0.64 Sc 1/3 , (9)

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 87

J = 2.34 105 . (11)

Thus in the MF of blood, J increases proportionally to 1.5 , instead of , as observed by Belfort

3.2. Rotating Disk Modules

13.7 cm to 85 cm for a total maximum membrane area of 12 m2 , is available with polymeric or

t = 0.0296(k)1.8 r 1.6 0.8 , (12)

3.3. Vibrating Systems

(r, t) = (rd /R2 )( F )1.5 0.5 (cos t sin t), (13)

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 89

J = 6.62 m0.19 , (16)

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 91

techniques used for preventing membrane fouling such as intermittent retroltrations,

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 93

crossow ltration. J. Membr. Sci. 96:158

www.annualreviews.org Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration 95

magnitude. vibrating membrane module. J. Membr. Sci. 153:23341

for uid instabilities. J. Membr. Sci. 80:3547

Contents Volume 44, 2012

Aeroacoustics of Musical Instruments

Javier Jimenez p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p27

Hydrodynamic Techniques to Enhance Membrane Filtration

Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics and Its Diverse Applications

Vegetable Dynamicks: The Role of Water in Plant Movements

Stephen E. Belcher, Ian N. Harman, and John J. Finnigan p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 479

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 144 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 597

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