Bio6 Blueprint of LifeU

keep it simple science
HSC Biology Topic 2
BLUEPRINT of LIFE
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. EVOLUTION OF LIFE
2. MENDELIAN GENETICS
3. CHROMOSOMES & DNA STRUCTURE
4. MOLECULAR GENETICS & MUTATION
5. REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES &
GENETIC DIVERSITY
but first, an introduction...

Evolution Chromosomes & DNA
You will next move on to study things that
In earlier topics you were introduced to the Darwin & Mendel would have been delighted to
concept of Biological Evolution, and the have known... the cellular and molecular basis of
mechanism of Natural Selection. Now you will Genetics and Evolution. You will see the link
study in more detail the evidence for evolution between inheritance, cell division,
and Theory of Evolution. chromosomes and the basis of it all... the DNA
molecule and the Genetic Code.
Chromosomes
Part of a DNA
molecule
Genetics In the section on

The science of inheritance was discovered Molecular Genetics
about 150 years ago by a monk living in an you will learn how the DNA
obscure monastery in central Europe. In this acts to control all the
topic you will study the simple patterns of characteristics of each organism
inheritance that he discovered. (the phenotype) and how Mutations can occur
to alter the code and produce new
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) characteristics for evolution to work on.
experimented with garden
peas for 12 years to work out
In the final section you will look briefly at where
how parents pass on their
modern Biology is heading into Reproductive
characteristics to offspring.
Technologies and Genetic Engineering.
You will study his results and (This controversial area can be studied more
the reasons for his success thoroughly in one of the later Option topics)
as an experimenter.
HSC Biology Topic 2 Blueprint of Life 1 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
copyright 2005-22009 keep it simple science Site Licence Conditions only
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC
Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and
remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic,
come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
The THEORY
of EVOLUTION Dominant-RRecessive
inheritance.
The Monohybrid crosses
Divergent
EVIDENCE
&
for Evolution Mendels
Convergent
Evolution experiments
Pedigrees
(Family trees)
Evolution
Mendelian
of Life
Genetics
Chromosomes,
genes & DNA
THE Chromosomes Meiosis &

BLUEPRINT & gamete
formation
DNA
OF LIFE
Sex-llinkage
&
Codominance
Molecular Genetics
Reproductive
& DNA
Technologies
Mutations Replication
&
Genetic Diversity
Transcription &
Translation
Effects on Punctuated
genetic Genetic Equilibrium
diversity Engineering
Mutation
&
The link to mutagens
Artificial insemination evolution
and pollination.
Cloning

1. EVOLUTION OF LIFE
The Evidence for Evolution Fossils of Transitional Forms
There is overwhelming evidence that life on Only a tiny fraction of all the zillions of
Earth has undergone a sequence of changes organisms that have ever lived have ended up
over the past 3.5 billion years or so. Here, briefly being fossilised. The fossil record is, therefore,
(K.I.S.S. Principle) are the main sources of that incomplete and a rather patchy record of
evidence: evolution.
Palaeontology The Study of Fossils Despite this patchiness, there are some
The fossil evidence is undoubtably our most fossils that have given us a glimpse of the
important, direct evidence showing that life on change that occurred when one type of life was
Earth has changed. evolving into another. Such fossils are called
Transitional Forms
The fossils not only show that life was once
different, but that the changes follow a pattern Perhaps the most famous is Archaeopteryx.
or sequence... this is evolution. (Archae= ancient, pteryx= wing)
Pa
atterns of Cha
ange Fossil Reconstruction
Ancient Life Modern Life

Simple types More complex types
Less variety Greater variety
Less like More and more
day life
present-d resembling modern life Bony tail
Bony jaw
covered in
with teeth
feathers
How do we know this to be fact? Not only do we
have many fossils of extinct organisms, but we Clawed wings
can place them in time sequence to see the
It is very unlikely that Archaeopteryx could fly like a
patterns. modern bird. It may have climbed trees & glided
down on insect & lizard prey
These fossils
youngest
correlate to When this fossil was first discovered, its

each other. skeleton was clearly that of a small dinosaur.
Only later was it noticed that the faint outlines
around the fossil were the impressions of
feathers. This was a dinosaur-bird!
Transitional fossils are important evidence that

each new type of life that appears in the fossil
record did in fact evolve from a previous
ancestor. Scientists have discovered
The transitional fossils showing:
coresponding
rock layers reptiles evolving to become mammals.
oldest
(in different ferns evolving to become cone-bearing plants.

places)
lobe-finned fish evolving into amphibians.
must be the
same age.
...and many more, including fossils of
Initially, scientists could only place fossils in our own probable ancestors, who were very
relative time order by correlating the ape-like, but undoubtably human-like too!
sequences, as suggested in the diagram above.
Now we can also place absolute times on many

fossils by Radiometric Dating... the
determination of the actual age of things by
measuring the residual radioactivity of certain,
naturally-occurring radio-isotopes in the rocks.

Biogeography (how life is distributed) Comparative Embryology
When Charles Darwin travelled around the world If the embryos of various vertebrate animals are
on board HMS Beagle in the 1830s, it was the compared, it is found that they are remarkably
distribution of different types of life in different similar, even though they later develop into
places that first gave him the idea for Evolution. quite different animals.
Some Vertebrate Embryos...
He noticed that each continent had its own
characteristic biota, often showing similar
features although often not closely related to
each other. For example, each continent has
characteristic grazing mammals:
North America
...and
OZ what they develop into
Why should they be so similar when they grow

All these Sth America up to be very different animals? Why should (for
animals are example) a human embryo have a tail and gill
relatively arches like a fish?
large, fast-
running, Evolution explains this as the result of all these
Africa animals evolving from a common ancestor
with flat
which had an embryo like this.
grinding
teeth, and all lead pretty much the same lifestyle.
So why is there not just one type of large grazer Comparative Anatomy
in the world, living on every continent? When the body structures of different
(Penta= 5, dactyl=fingers)
organisms are compared, it is often obvious that
Evolution explains why. On each separate they share common features, even though those
continent different animals have evolved to fill body parts might be used in different ways.
the large grazing herbivore role, often
beginning that evolution from an ancestor quite The classic example of this is the Pentadactyl
different to that on other continents. Limb structure of the vertebrate animals.
Another aspect of Biogeography was seen by 1 bone in

Darwin on a much smaller scale in the Galapagos upper arm Not
Islands. He discovered that the islands were to
populated by many different species of small same
birds... finches. Although all were obviously 2 bones scale
related to each other, each separate island had its in forearm
own particular species.
5 sets
Why? Ancestral Finch of finger
bones
Human Whale Bat
arm flipper wing
Island 1 Island 2 Each limb is used in very different ways by

Island 3
animals that have very different lifestyles, yet all
The explanation is: have exactly the same basic arrangement of
the islands were first colonised by one type of bones. Why?
finch which spread to all of the islands in the group.
on each separate island conditions were different Once again, these are FACTS that are consistent
(eg different foods available) so each population with, and easily explained by, the concept of
evolved in a different way, into a different species. EVOLUTION.
BIOGEOGRAPHY doesnt prove Evolution has Evolution explains this as the result of all these
occurred, but many facts about the distribution animals evolving from a common ancestor
of organisms are best explained by Evolution which had this bone structure.

Biochemistry Selective Breeding

People wonder how one organism can just
All the life-forms on Earth have remarkable turn-into another by evolution. No individual
similarities at the molecular level. All organisms animal changes during its life-time. The changes
have basically the same: occur from one generation to another, as certain
features are selected in favour of others.
genetic code in their DNA.
Humans have been doing it to plants & animals
enzymes used for basic metabolic processes,
for centuries. Human farmers have always chosen
such as cellular respiration. which seeds to keep for next years crop, or which
structural chemicals in their basic cell bull to breed with the cows.
components, such as the phospholipids
in cell membranes. This has drastically changed all these plants and
animals. Modern wheat is nothing like the wild
grass we believe it was bred from. Cabbages and
cauliflowers used to be the same thing, but have
been changed by selective breeding.
WHY SHOULD ALL ORGANISMS HAVE THE SAME

STRUCTURES AND CODES IN THEIR DNA? All breeds of dogs are
descended from the wolf.
Once again, this doesnt prove that evolution Selective Breeding
occurred, but it is consistent with the idea that proves that a species can be changed.
life on Earth has evolved from common ancestors Humans can do it artificially,
who had these biochemical features. in the wild it happens by Natural Selection
New Technologies Change Our Ideas

About Evolutionary Relationships
The new technology of analysing the sequence of DNA molecules is changing our
ideas about the evolutionary relationships between living things.
For example, the evolutionary This relationship has been overturned
relationship between LIZARDS, by DNA analysis.
CROCODILES and BIRDS.
DNA sequencing shows that birds and
Traditionally crocodiles & lizards are crocodiles are more closely related to
classified as Reptiles and considered each other than either is to the lizards.
a separate class to the Birds. It was
CLASSIFICATION IN THE FUTURE?
always thought that the lizards and
crocodiles were more closely related to LIZARD is
DIFFERENT
each other than to the birds.
TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION Croc & Bird in SAME GROUP
BIRD is Based on DNA

DIFFERENT studies, which
show
evolutionary
Croc & Lizard in SAME GROUP relatedness
Stand by for more revelations as

Based on body
DNA analysis reveals more!
structure

Origin of a Theory
Darwin & Wallace Meanwhile, another Englishman, Alfred
Wallace (1823-1913) came up with
In the 1830s a young naturalist, exactly the same idea after his journeys
in the 1840s and 1850s. We often give
Charles Darwin (1809-1882), voyaged
Darwin most of the credit for this major
around the world on the naval survey scientific theory, but Wallaces
ship HMS Beagle. He became contribution should not be forgotten.
convinced that living things had
changed, and spent the next 20 years In 1859 they jointly published an outline
researching, gathering evidence and Charles of their theory, and Darwin followed up
developing the how of a theory to Darwin with his detailed book Origin of
explain evolution. Species about 2 years later.
The Darwin-Wallace Natural Selection

Theory of Evolution Natural Selection refers to the way that
You need to learn the details of this theory. This the conditions of nature constantly select
is best done as a series of numbered points:- who survives and who dies. If survival
depends on speed to run from a predator,
1. All organisms produce more then the faster individuals survive and the
offspring than can survive slower ones get eaten. In a drought those
Plants scatter thousands of seeds and maybe plants with slightly thicker cuticle on their
only one ever makes it to plant maturity. Oysters leaves conserve water and survive, while
produce a million eggs at a time, but only 1 or 2 others die.
survive. In all species, the breeding rate is far
higher than the survival rate.
How Natural Selection Works
A population of a species with a lot of variations
2. In every species there is variation
among the individuals
Each animal or plant is slightly different to the
other members of the species. The differences hairy long long light big squat
may be slight, and might not be easily visible, neck legs colour ears body
but theyre important!
Then, the climate changes... winters get colder
If you put points 1 & 2 together, you can see that
survival is uncertain, AND the chances of Natturral Many die in the harsh winters
survival are not equal for each individual. Selecttion
n
3. Nature selects which

individuals survive
hairy survives Squat survives
This is called Natural Selection, and it is
explained in more detail at right. Surrvival Survivors breed
of the over many generations
4. Those best suited to their Fitttestt
environment survive, reproduce,
and pass on their characteristics
This is called Survival of the Fittest, and it will The survivors pass on their characteristics.
be discussed in more detail later. Soon most of the population are squat and hairy.
No single animal changed, but the population has
5. Over generations, the species changed because of which animals
changes...It Evolves survived and reproduced.
The Species ha
as Evolved.
Each generation is slightly different than before, Even
ntually itt chan
nges so much thatt itt
because only some, selected individuals have becommes a differren
nt species.
bred and passed on their characteristics.

More on Natural Selection A Change in the

Physical Environment
Any characteristic might be a help to survive A classic example of micro-evolution is the
under different conditions... change in the population of the English Pepper
a stronger immune system survives diseases. Moth which has been studied and documented
being more inquisitive might find more food. over the past hundred years.
more timid behaviour might avoid dangers.
brighter coloured flowers might attract This moth always rests during the day on tree
more pollinators and ensure reproduction. trunks, which in natural forests, are mostly
larger body size might deter predators. covered in light-patterned lichens. Under these
smaller body size might allow more food conditions the light peppery moths are the
gathering on small branches of trees. most common form, although occasional black
moths occur. Lighter-c
coloured
It may seem as if Evolution is an intelligent moths survive and
force which directs organisms in a an appropriate In unpolluted
breed in greater
numbers
direction. In our fictitious population of animals, forests, the lighter-
(previous page) the climate became colder and it coloured moths are
camouflaged... They
would seem that some evolutionary force caused are fittest for
an appropriate change in the population... the survival and
animals became squat & hairy to conserve body breeding.
Population ratio.
heat better. The black form
is rare.
Predators spot the black
But of course squat and hairy were already in moths more easily
the population. Their type simply became more
common, and finally predominant, because they During the coal-burning phase of the Industrial
survived in greater numbers and reproduced to Revolution many forests were damaged by
pass on their characteristics to their offspring. pollution. The lichens were killed and tree
trunks blackened with soot.
Evolution is not intelligent. Nature selects the
survivors from the different types available. It was observed that the Pepper Moth population
Survivors breed... if youre dead, you cant changed in the proportion of peppery to black
reproduce! types.
Black moths survive
Effects of Changing Conditions In polluted forests,
and breed in greater
numbers
Environments can change in many different the dark-ccoloured
ways. For example, we know that ice-ages come moths are better
camouflaged...
and go, and climates change as the continents They are fittest for
gradually drift to new locations. Any change survival and
in an environment will result in Natural breeding.
Population ratio.
Selection picking out different characteristics The lighter form
is rare.
for survival and the species will evolve in line
Predators spot the lighter
with the environmental change. moths more easily
If the change is sudden and drastic, there will be Now that industrial pollution has been stopped,
fewer survivors every generation and the the moths have evolved back to being mostly of
species may decline into extinction! the lighter-coloured type.
A Change in the Chemical Conditions of the Environment

Another example of micro-evolution was Over many generations the non-resistant types
observed when DDT insecticide began to be used were killed, and resistant types kept surviving and
against a variety of insects, such as disease- breeding until almost the entire population was
carrying mosquitoes or crop-eating pests. resistant. DDT was no longer useful for killing
insects. (Just as well, because DDT caused
Initially, the chemical was a huge success, ecological damage by Biological Magnification.)
destroying the insect populations. But then
Natural Selection did its thing... The DDT acted as a Chemical Selecting Agent
resulting in the evolution of the insects by natural
Among the millions of insects in each selection and survival of the fittest.
population there was variation. A few individuals
had a natural resistance to the DDT and they Similar examples have been observed with
survived and reproduced and passed on their bacteria becoming resistant to Penicillin and other
resistance to their offspring. antibiotics.

Natural Selection and Competition

In a previous topic it was pointed out that Survivors breed and pass on their
competition between 2 species for the same characteristics. Over generations the species
resources usually results in a winner and a evolves to be using a slightly different resource.
loser... the loser becoming extinct, at least Therefore, it is no longer in competition and
within the area of competition. both species can survive... a Win-Win
A TYPICAL COMPETITION GRAPH situation.
Population Size (ABUNDANCE)
ER
Species using resource. N
Population stable IN
W
New competitor LO
enters ecosystem SE
R
TIME (years)
However, this is not the only possible outcome.
If among the natural variations within either This outcome is called Resource Partitioning
species there are some individuals who are and is commonly observed in nature. For
perhaps less fussy about their food or nesting example, the predatory big cats of the African
sites (what ever the resource might be) and who plains avoid competition because each has
can survive on slightly different foods, or utilise slightly different preferences among the various
different nesting sites, then they will have an prey animals. They also have different hunting
advantage to survive. techniques, so they avoid direct competition.
More on Survival of the Fittest

Survival does not just mean survival. The The Importance of Variation
biggest toughest animal in the herd, who scares
predators away, gets to eat most of the food and It is vital for the on-going survival of a species
lives to a ripe old age, is a complete failure if it that it has variation among the individuals of the
does not reproduce! population.
In evolutionary terms Survival means to
When changes occur in the environment, a
survive and reproduce.
species with a lot of variation has more chance
to survive, because out of all the different
Reproduction is the types there is a good chance that at least
true measure of survival. some will survive to breed and continue the
species.
An animal which does not live long, but
manages to produce many, viable offspring is an A species with little variation within it, might
evolutionary success!
have no survivors from an environmental
Fittest refers to those individuals with a change, and become extinct.
combination of characteristics best suited to
their environment. What constitutes an environmental change?
It doesnt just mean It could be...
biggest, fastest,
strongest... those a change of climate.
best suited to some
environments might a new disease, predator or competitor.
be the smallest,
sneakiest, most a change in availability of a food.
cautious types.
... or the most ...or any other biotic or abiotic factor
cha arming and of the environment.
socia
ally
acceptaable

Directions of Evolution
It is easy to imagine that evolution has a target that it aims for.
Looking back at fossil ancestors of a modern species, its easy to think that those
ancestors were deliberately evolving to become the modern, final species.
Ancestors always look primitive compared to their modern descendants.
Of course, the modern species is NOT the final outcome at all.
Evolution has no targets. It is an on-going process which continues to cause changes.
In 100 million years time, the fossils of todays creatures will seem primitive.
Divergent Evolution Convergent Evolution

(Diverge = move apart) (Converge=come together)
One of the aspects of evolution to be If totally different organisms live in the
aware of is the importance of Isolation. same kind of environment and lead
similar lifestyles they will be subject to
Rember Darwins finches on the the same sorts of Selection Pressures
Galapagos Islands? and evolve many of the same features,
so they may come to resemble each
Ancestral Finch
other even though not closely related at
More all.
A classic example is the shark (a fish),

Island 1 Island 2
Island 3
dolphin (a mammal) and the extinct
ichthyosaurus (a reptile).
From one ancestral species of finch
over a dozen different species evolved,
one on each of the islands in the group.
Once a population of finches colonised
a new island they were isolated from
other populations. Movement of birds
between islands must have been a rare
event, and each population was
effectively cut off from other
populations.
On each island conditions were

different... different foods were
available, different conditions of water
supply, shelter, nesting sites, predators
and so on. Natural selection caused All 3 animals are (were) fast-swimming
each population to evolve along a fish-hunters of the ocean. All evolved
different path until they became the same streamlined shape, powerful
different species... they had diverged! tail, dorsal fin and sharp teeth to suit
this lifestyle. The resemblance is
Now, even if they mixed together again, superficial, and they are very different
they could not interbreed because their
in the details of body structure and
mating rituals, sperm & egg cells and
DNA have changed to become metabolism. For example, the shark is
incompatible. They are forever separate. a gill-breathing ectotherm, while the
This is how we think all species have dolphin is a lung-breathing endotherm.
arisen from common ancestors over There are many other examples
millions of years. of such convergence.

Worksheet 1 Evidence for Evolution `Name....................................

The most important, direct evidence for Biogeography is the study of p).............................
Evolution comes from a)......................................., ............... It gives indirect evidence for evolution.
the study of b)......................... This shows that
life on Earth has changed from being Comparative Embryology reveals that vertebrate
c).................. complex to become d)..................... embryos are all q)............................... to each
complex, and showing e)..................... variety to other, even though each animal grows up to be
f)....................... variety and becoming more and r)..................................... This is explained by
more like g).......................................................... evolution as being due to these animals all
over a period of h)................................ of years. evolving from a s)...................................................
Similarly, the study of Comparative Anatomy
Initially scientists could only place fossils in shows much the same. For example, the
i).......................... time order by forelimbs of vertebrates have the same
j)............................... the fossils from one place to t)................................ even though each animal
another. The technique of k)................................... uses the limb u).................................................
dating has allowed absolute ages to be This 5-digit limb structure is called
measured. v).....................................
An important type of fossil is a Biochemistry reveals that all organisms have

l)............................ form, which is an in- the same genetic code in their w).........................
between organism. A good example is and use the same x).................................... to
m)................................... It appears to be a control their metabolic processes. This is
n)........................... in the process of evolving into evidence of y)..........................................................
a o)....................
Selective Breeding of domesticated plants and
animals shows that z)............................................
Worksheet 2 Theory of Evolution Name....................................

The Theory of Evolution was developed pollution changing the background colours of
independently by a).................... and ................... its environment. This led to a change in the ratio
of p)........................................................................
It can be summarized in 5 main points:
1. All organisms produce b).................................. Another example was due to a chemical change
2. Every species shows c)...................................... in the environment. When the insecticide
3. d)..................................................... occurs to q)....................... was widely used it acted as a
choose the survivors. r).......................... agent, causing mant pest
4. Those organisms e)................................. to the species to evolve to become s)..............................
environment survive and f)..............................
This is called g)................................................... Competition for resources can result in one
5. Over generations, the species h)....................... species losing and becoming t)............................
because the selected characteristics are being However, another possible outcome is called
passed on in greater proportions. Resource u)................................. which results
if one species evolves to avoid the competition
Natural Selection refers to the way that the by v).........................................................
forces of nature choose who survives. These
forces of nature could include disease, Divergent Evolution is when one species
i)............................... and ......................................., w).......................... into ...........................................
and any factors in the environment. Survival of This happens when different populations of a
the Fittest refers to how the organisms species become x)................................ from each
j)........................................ to the environment will other. Each population is subject to different
survive and k)..................... y).......................... pressure due to the differing
environments.
Variation within a population is vital so that if the
environment changes, there are more likely to z)....................... Evolution is when quite
be some individuals who will l)............................. unrelated species evolve to aa).............................
and m)....................................... each other. This can happen because they live in
ab).................... environments and so natural
Changes to actual populations have been selection favours evolution of similar
observed. The n)......................... Moth of England ac).............................. A good example is the
was observed to undergo a population change shark and ad)........................... which have many
over generations due to o)..................................... common ae).................................. even though
they are not af)............................... to each other.

Worksheet 3 Test Questions Section 1 Name....................................
Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

1. Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to
The fossil record shows a pattern, from ancient give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
times to recent times, of: appropriate. Answer in space provided, or on reverse.
A. more complexity to less complexity.
B. greater diversity to less diversity. 8. (4 marks)
C. increasing complexity and diversity. Explain the difference between relative dating
D. no distinct pattern of change. of fossils and absolute dating, by outlining
how each is achieved and what each can tell you
2. The famous archaeopteryx is a: about fossils.
A. common fossil, found in many rock layers.
B. transitional form, showing a stage
of evolution.
C. index fossil, useful for correlating between
locations.
D. living fossil; an extremely primitive bird
alive today. 9. (3 marks)
Comparative Anatomy can give evidence
3. supporting the idea of evolution.
Two types of evidence which both suggest a) Outline an example of comparative anatomy
descent from a common ancestor are: that gives such evidence.
A. embryos of vertebrates & the pentadactyl limb.
B. convergent evolution and biochemistry.
C. DNA structure and the biogeography.
D. natural selection and survival of the fittest.
4.
Natural Selection refers to b) State how this example is evidence of
A. those organisms best suited to the evolution.
environment survive and reproduce.
B. factors of the environment determining which
organisms survive and which do not.
C. the changes to living things over generations. 10. ( 3marks)
D. the way that not all organisms can survive Briefly discuss, using an example, how
because too many offspring are produced. advances in technology have changed
scientific thinking about evolutionary
5. relationships.
The really important part of Survival of the
Fittest is:
A. being very well adapted to the environment.
B. living a long and healthy life.
C. being chosen to survive.
D. reproducing many offspring. 11. (5 marks)
Outline the Darwin-Wallace Theory of Evolution.
6.
A species has a better chance of long-term
survival during changes to the environment if:
A. it reproduces asexually.
B. most individuals are similarly adapted.
C. the species has a lot of genetic variation.
D. there are many large, strong individuals.
7. 12. (4 marks)
An example of microevolution that has Differentiate between convergent and
actually been observed to happen, is: divergent evolution, giving examples of each.
A. the extinction of the dodo.
B. divergence of Darwins finches on the
Galapagos Islands.
C. convergence of the shark and dolphin.
D. change in the population of Pepper Moths.

2. MENDELIAN GENETICS
In Charles Darwins lifetime there were 2 parts of Next, he self-pollinated the plants of the F1.
his Theory of Evolution that no-one could TALL F1 plant
explain: SELF
Where Does Variation in a Species Come From?
(That will be explained later in this topic)
How Are Characteristics Passed On to X SELF
Offspring? That will be explained right now! POLLINATED
Gregor Mendels Experiments

Mendel was the Abbot of a monastery in what
today is the Czech Republic. He was trained as
a teacher and was not a professional scientist,
but became interested in discovering how
inheritance works. The monks grew most of
their own food, so Mendel worked his
investigations into the day-to-day vegetable F2 (2nd Generation) Offspring
gardening by choosing to experiment with occurred in a ratio of 3:1
garden peas.
Mendel didnt do this with one or two plants, but
First he bred his pea plants over several with hundreds. His 2nd generation totalled
generations to select plants that were pure thousands of plants, not just a few.
breeding for certain contrasting
characteristics, such as... He got the same result with flower colours, seed
shapes, seed pod colours, and so on. In every
case the first generation always took after one
parent completely, and the second generation
always appeared (in their thousands) in a ratio
of very close to 3:1.
TALL DWARF PURPLE WHITE
FLOWER FLOWER
Each type was pure breeding, meaning that if Reasons for Mendels Success
they were self-pollinated they always produced as an Experimenter
offspring of exactly the same type as themselves.
Then he cross-pollinated 2 contrasting types to

Gregor Mendel had discovered the basic
obtain hybrid (cross-breed) offspring. The mechanism of inheritance. Scientists
result was that all the offspring showed the before him had studied inheritance, but
characteristic of one parent and none took after had failed to discover the simple patterns.
the other. For example, when TALL plants were Why was he successful?
crossed with DWARF:
He chose simple, easily-identified
characteristics which occurred in just 2
X
X is short-
hand for forms.
crossed with
e.g. height was either tall or dwarf.
F1 (1st Generation) Offspring were ALL TALL He began with pure-breeding parent
plants.
He bred large numbers of plants so

that the numbers of offspring were
statistically significant.
Mendel explained this result by suggesting that (If hed bred just a few offspring then
the factor (GENE) which caused Tallness was random chance could have produced
DOMINANT to the gene for Dwarfism. misleading results.)
Dwarf is RECESSIVE to Tall.

Mendels Explanation of Results Mendels Pure-B Breeding These are Phenotypes...

(Using Modern Terminology) parent plants were descriptions of the outward
homozygous for each appearance
Each characteristic is produced by factors (we trait... 2 genes the same
now call them genes) carried by the plants. For
example, there is a gene for tallness of stem, PARENT Tall x Dwarf
and a corresponding gene for dwarf stem. There PLANTS
TT tt
is a gene for purple flower and another for white
flowers, and so on for other characteristics. Only 1
These are gene is
Genotypes passed
The genes which control opposite forms of the actual into
genes gametes
the same characteristic are called alleles, or T t
allelic genes. Genes for tall and dwarf are present GAMETES
alleles. Genes for purple flower and white
flower are alleles.
Fertilisation
All the F1
One of the alleles is Dominant over the other, offspring
which is said to be Recessive. We usually use ALL THE F1
receive this
letters of the alphabet to designate this: combination OFFSPRING ARE
e.g. Tall ( T ) is dominant to Dwarf ( t ) of genes Tt TALL, BUT
Purple flower ( P ) is dominant to white ( p ) Tall HETEROZYGOUS
Next, the F1 plants were self-
Each plant carries 2 genes for a characteristic. Self-ppollinating pollinated to produce the F2
The 2 genes may be the same as each other the F1 plants is
the same as
(homozygous) or different to each other crossing with
Tall x Tall
(heterozygous). the same Tt Tt
genotype
Example: for the height characteristic, the
possibilities are:
TT = homozygous, Tall plant Possible
Tt = heterozygous, Tall plant (T dominant) T t GAMETES T t
tt = homozygous, Dwarf plant
Although each plant carries 2 genes for each possible

fertilisations
characteristic, only one gene is passed into the
gametes (pollen or ovules). Each parent passes
on one gene, so the offspring gets one from
each parent and gets back to having 2 genes for TT Tt Tt tt
the characteristic. TALL TALL TALL DWARF
Which one of the 2 genes for each characteristic Ratio of Phenotypes 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf
is passed on is completely at random.
The diagram (above, right) explains why Mendel observed a ratio

of about 3:1 in the plants of his F2 offspring.
His experimental ratios were approximately 3:1, but not exactly 3:1. This is
because the actual combinations of gametes at fertilisation occur at random.
He bred large numbers of plants and so his actual ratio
was very close to theoretical.
Reasons Why Mendels Work Was Ignored

Mendel published his results in 1865 in a German Science journal and was totally ignored. Why?
He was not a recognised scientist, and had no contact with the scientific establishment of his
time. His work was read by only a small circle of people, who failed to see its significance.
His work was written only in German, while all the important science of that time was
appearing in English or French, in well-known journals in England, France & USA.
It was not until well after Mendels death that in 1900 his work was discovered by scientists,
and his great contribution was recognised. He is now known as the Father of Genetics.

The Punnett Square parent

genotypes
Tt x Tt
T&t gametes T&t

The working out of a cross by a diagram can
be a bit messy and confusing. A scientist called
T t
Punnett invented a simpler method which you
must learn to use. the table shows all T TT Tt
the possible
genotypes of the
The Punnett Square working (right) shows the offspring t Tt tt
same cross... the formation of the F2 plants in
Mendels experiment. phenotypes of Phenotypes of Offspring
offspring should be Tall : Dwarf
shown as a ratio or 3:1
percentage 75% : 25%
Monohybrid Crosses Sample Problem 2

In drosophila fruit flies, the allele for long wings
mono = 1 (referring to just one characteristic)
hybrid = cross-breed (L) is dominant to the allele for short wings ( l ).
A pure breeding long winged fly was crossed
It has been found that there are many with a short winged fly. Their offspring were
characteristics, in all sexually-reproducing allowed to mate among themselves to produce a
organisms, which are inherited just the way second generation. There were 240 flies in the
Mendel discovered... F2. Predict how many of each phenotype would
these are cases of Mendelian Genetics and occur.
you need to be able to predict the outcomes of
simple crosses. Solution
To work out the F1, a punnett square is not really
Study the following examples to help you work needed.
through the next worksheet.
Parents genotypes: LL x ll
Sample Problem 1
In mice, black coat (B) is dominant to albino (b). Gametes possible: L only and l only
Predict the outcome of mating a heterozygous
black mouse with an albino. All the F1 flies must
be Genotype: Ll
Solution Phenotype: 100% Long winged
Parents are Bb x bb Then, for the F2:

Genotypes of L l x L l
B&b gametes b&b parents
List of all
gametes l
b b
possible L& l L&
gametes
B Bb Bb L l
Punnett Square
table shows all L LL L l
b bb bb the possible
offspring
genotypes
l L l ll
Phenotypes of Offspring
Black : Albino
1:1 The phenotypes
50% : 50% of offspring are
Long Wing : Short Wing
written as a ratio
3:1
or percentage
75% : 25%
You will soon come to realise that If the F2 comprises 240 flies, we should expect close to
only 3 outcomes are possible: 180 long wing flies and 60 short wing flies.
100% : zero
50% : 50% However, this is a statistical prediction only, and
75% : 25% we should not be surprised if the actual numbers
were (say) 190 to 50, just by random chance.

Pedigrees (Family Trees) Interpretation of this Pedigree
Another skill you must learn is how to read, In Generation I, individuals 1 & 2 were both
interpret and construct a pedigree diagram. tongue-rollers. They had 4 children, a daughter
and 3 sons. Most of the kids can roll their
This is a diagram showing the inheritance of a tongues, but son 4 cannot.
trait through a family. It is used particularly with
human families to trace some characteristic This means the inability to tongue roll must be
over a number of generations. recessive.
(Whenever a child shows a trait different to both
Symbols Used in Pedigree Diagrams parents, the childs phenotype must be
recessive.)
Male Male
with trait being studied without trait Therefore, tongue-rolling ability must be
dominant.
Female with trait Female
without trait We can now assign symbols...
Horizontal connections are marriage lines.
Vertical lines lead to children of that couple.
tongue-rolling = R non-rolling = r
...and work out most peoples genotypes:
Each generation is numbered by Roman
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Numerals.
Rr Rr ? rr ? Rr rr rr rr
Individuals may be numbered for identification.
(Individuals 3 & 5 might be either RR or Rr.
Example
... more information needed to be sure which)
In humans, some people can roll their tongue
while others cannot. This is passed on by
simple Mendelian Inheritance. Here is a
Questions & Answers
How can we be sure that parents 1 & 2 are both
pedigree of a family showing how this trait was
Rr (heterozygous)?
passed on.
A: Since they produced son 4 who is a non-
roller (must be genotype rr) both 1 and 2 must
1 2
Generations be carrying the recessive gene. Therefore, both
I must be Rr.
Can we be sure that son 6 is Rr and NOT RR?

A: He married a non-roller (rr) and both the
II children in generation III are non-rollers.
3 4 5 6 7 Therefore, son 6 must have passed on a
recessive gene to his children. He must be
heterozygous (Rr) to do this.
III
9
If 6 and 7 had another child, could it be a
8
tongue roller? Whats the chance?
A: Yes. The cross is Rr x rr.
If you work out a punnett sqare for this, you will
see that the expected outcome is 50% rollers
and 50% non-rollers. The chance for the next
child is 50% either way, and is NOT affected by
the fact they have already had 2 non-roller
children.
Uses of Pedigree Diagrams

Pedigree diagrams are used to study human inheritance
because it is not moral or ethical to carry out breeding
experiments on people to discover which traits are
dominant/recessive.
Some human disorders are inherited. Examples are

haemophilia (in which blood will not clot properly) and
colour-blindness (inability to distinguish certain colours).
Health professionals can study affected families by
Sarah can... compiling a pedigree chart, then advise people about the
Nathan cant risks to future children. This allows people to make
informed decisions about family planning.

Worksheet 4 Mendelian Genetics

Fill in the blank spaces Name....................................
Gregor a)........................ was a monk who

experimented with b)................ plants and One of the alleles is dominant to the other, which
discovered the basics of how characteristics are is called u).......................... The v).........................
c)................................. He started with plants that gene will always show its effect, but the
were d).................-breeding for 2 opposing traits, recessive one can only be expressed in the case
and crossed them. For example, he crossed where it is w).................-zygous. The appearance
pure-breeding tall-stem plants with of an organism due to its genes is called the
e)................................, f).....................-stem plants. x)..............................., while the genotype is the
In the first generation, or g)........., the offspring y).....................................................................
plants were 100% h)................. When these were
allowed to i).....................-pollinate, the F2 (which Mendel was successful, where others had failed,
means j)........... .............................) showed a ratio because:
of k)....................... of tall to dwarf plants. 1. he chose z)................................. characteristics
2. he began with aa)......................... parent plants
He explained these results as follows: 3. he bred ab)................... numbers of plants so
Each trait is determined by factors we now call the numbers of offspring would be
l)................. The genes which control the ac)........................................ significant.
opposing traits of a characteristic are called
m)......................., or n).............................. genes. However, Mendels achievements were not
For each characteristic, an organism always has recognised because he was not
o)........... genes, which may be p).......................... ad).............................................. and because his
(homozygous), or may be different (called findings were published in an obscure journal
q)...................................) In sexual reproduction, written in ae)................................. and did not
the r)...................... (eg sperm/eggs) contain only come to the attention of the scientific
1 of the genes for each trait. When the gametes community until after his death.
unite at s).........................., one gene from each
t)............. are brought together in each offspring.
Worksheet 5 Mendelian Genetics Problems Name....................................

1. 2.
In pea plants, green seed pods (G) is a dominant In rats, black fur (B) is dominant to brown (b).
trait over yellow seed pods (g) a) If a pure-breeding black rat mated with a pure-
a) What is the phenotype of a plant, if the breeding brown rat, what would be the
genotype is:
i) GG? ii) gg? iii) Gg? i) genotypes of the offspring?
ii) phenotypes of the offspring?

b) What is the genotype of a plant with seed
pods that are: b) One of the offspring from the cross described
in part (a) was crossed with a brown rat.
i) green, and it is pure-breeding?
i) Use a punnett square to predict the outcome.
ii) heterozygous?
iii) yellow?
c) Use a punnett square to predict the outcome

of each of the following crosses. In each case,
state the expected phenotypes of the offspring
as a percentage. (Answer on reverse)
i) Gg x Gg
ii) Gg x GG
ii) In fact, they produced 7 babies; 5 black & 2
iii) gg x GG brown. Is this result surprising? Explain your
answer.
iv) Gg x gg

Worksheet 6 Pedigrees 1 2 3 4
In humans, some people have little fingers that I

are straight, while others have curved little
fingers. This characteristic is inherited by
simple Mendelian inheritance. Study the
pedigree diagram, then answer the questions II
which follow.
5 6 7 8 9
Shaded shapes represent curved little fingers.
a) Is the curved little fingers trait dominant or III

recessive? Explain your answer referring to 10 11
specific individuals above.
d) Couple 1 & 2 had children who all have
straight fingers. Was there any chance they
might have had a child with curved little fingers?
b) Assign the letters S and s appropriately to Explain your answer.
the 2 alleles operating in this pedigree.
e) Person 5 later married a girl with curved little
fingers. Use a punnett square to predict the
c) Extra information: individuals 2 & 4 are finger shapes of their children. (on reverse)
homozygous.
Using the symbols chosen, work out the f) In fact, person 5 and his wife had 2 beautiful
genotypes of everyone in the pedigree, as far as little girls both with straight fingers. Is this
is possible. possible? Is your prediction wrong?
Worksheet 7 Test Questions section 2 Name....................................

Multiple Choice 5. (cont)
b) Mendels discoveries were ignored by other
1. When Gregor Mendel crossed pure-breeding scientists for many years.
tall pea plants with pure-breeding dwarf plants,
and bred them through 2 generations, he found 6. (5 marks)
that the F2 phenotypes were: In pea plants, green seed pods(G) is dominant to
A. 100% tall plants yellow pods (g).
B. 75% tall: 25% dwarf, approximately. A pure breeding green pod plant was crossed
C. 50% tall : 50% dwarf, approx. with a pure-breeding yellow pod plant.
D. ratio of 3:1, dwarf : tall, approx. a) Explain why all the offspring will have green
pods.
2. The genotype of a pea plant described as
heterozygous tall would be: b) One of these offspring plants was later
A. Tt B. T C. TT D. tt crossed with a yellow pod plant. Showing all
working, predict the phenotypes (as ratio or
3. In mice, Black coat (B) is dominant to white percentage) of the offspring from this second
(b). If a heterozygous mouse mated with a white cross.
mouse, you would expect
A. approximately 75% of the babies to be black. 7. (8 marks)
B. all the babies to be black. a) Use the following information to construct a
C. approximately 50% of the babies to be white pedigree diagram.
D. all the babies to be white.
Inheritance of red-hair in the Meggs family.
Longer Response Questions Fred and Mary both have blonde-brown hair.
4. (6 marks) They have 4 children, a daughter and 3 sons.
Explain the difference between each pair of Their daughter and one son are red-heads, the
words: other 2 sons are similar to their parents. The red-
a) Dominant & Recessive genes. headed son married a red-headed girl and they
b) Homozygous & Heterozygous. have a son and a daughter.
c) Genotype & Phenotype.
b) State whether red-headedness is a
5. (5 marks) dominant or recessive trait, giving reason(s).
Outline the reasons why:
a) Mendels experiments were successful in c) Predict the hair colour of Fred & Marys
discovering the fundamentals of how grandchildren. Explain your answer.
inheritance works.

3. CHROMOSOMES & DNA STRUCTURE

Chromosomes Mitosis & Meiosis
Mendels discoveries were re-discovered by You should already be familiar with the
mainstream science in 1900. At about the same difference between these processes of cell
time, new techniques in using stains to division in terms of their outcomes.
highlight specific parts of the cell had led to the
discovery of chromosomes. The combination of
Now look more carefully at what happens to the
Mendelian Genetics + Chromosomes was the
next big breakthrough. Things to know... chromosomes during each process.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the ORIGINAL BODY

This cell is DIPLOID
nucleus of cells. They only become visible (to a CELL (abbrev. 2n)
light microscope) during cell division. with 4 (chromosomes in pairs)
chromosomes In this case,
Chromosomes have genes along their length. (2 homologous 2n = 4
There may be 1000s of genes on one pairs)
chromosome.
Chromosomes occur in pairs. Chromosomes Mitosis Meiosis

in a pair are called homologous. Homologous
chromosomes correspond with each other by In BOTH
carrying allelic genes in corresponding processes, the
locations. chromosomes
Homologous pair are first
a duplicated, to
Study this diagram to get form double
A chromosomes
the idea.
b
B
Consider 3 sets of genes.
Genotype is AaBbCc.
(heterozygous for each Chromosomes
line up in their
characteristic) Chromosomes
homologous
C c line up in a
pairs
single line
This is how the genes
could be located on some
chromosomes.
Another Homologous pair
Notice that homologous

pairs correspond with each other, but are NOT Homologous
identical. pairs have
Chromatids
separated, and
separate
cell divides in 2.
Before cell division, each chromosome is
Now cells divide
duplicated. again, and
separate the
Study the diagram. Homologous pair of chromatids.
Double chromosomes
The original and its exact
copy remain attached to
a
The chromosomes are not in pairs.
each other, as a double A A a

chromosome. Cell Divides
Haploid means half the
chromosome number.
in 2
B B b b
Each part of a double
chromosome is called a
Chromatid. C C c c
The chromatids in a
double chromosome are
Indentical Chromatids in
identical... (look at the each chromosome DIPLOID CELLS HAPLOID CELLS
genes in the diagram) 2n = 4 n=2
but the homologous partners are not
2 Daughter cells 4 Gamete cells
identical... merely corresponding. Identical to each other and to NOT identical to each other,
the parent cell nor to parent cell

Chromosomes & Mendels Genes The Structure of DNA
In 1902, two scientists independently noticed a Like many biological molecules, DNA is a
similarity between the way that chromosomes polymer, made of many smaller units which are
behaved in meiosis, compared to how Mendels joined in long chains. The basic unit of DNA is a
genes were inherited. Nucleotide. (named for nucleus)
A NUCLEOTIDE
Walter Sutton (USA) and Theodor Boveri
(Germany) had both been studying meiosis
using new staining techniques which made Phosphate
group
chromosomes more visible. Both were aware of Base molecule
Mendels discoveries, which had been re-
discovered just 2 years before. Sugar There are 4 different
(Deoxyribose) bases, so 4 nucleotides
Chromosomes Mendels are in DNA
During Meiosis Genes
The 4 different bases are usually known just by
Begin in homologous Two genes for each the first letter of each name:
pairs characteristic A Adenine
C Cytosine
Pairs separate The 2 genes separate G Guanine
in meiosis in gamete formation T Thymine
Gametes have only 1 Gametes have only 1 DNA molecules are composed of 2 strands of
of each chromosome of each gene pair nucleotides (one running upside-down
pair (haploid)
compared to the other) which are joined by the
At fertilisation, each At fertilisation, each bonding between base molecules.
gamete supplies one gamete supplies one Two Strands of Nucleotide Chains
chromosome, so the gene, so the offspring
zygote gets back to gets back to having
having paired chromo- two genes per
somes (Diploid) characteristic
A T
Bases A-T
T bonded
The obvious similaries made it clear that the genes
must be located on the chromosomes in the cell
nucleus.
C G
Chromosomes Contain DNA Bases C-G
G bonded
Chemical analysis reveals that chromosomes
are made of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA for
short) wrapped in proteins.
G C
We now know that DNA is a double helix-shaped
molecule which carries a chemical code... it is a
gene.
T A
Notice that the only

Chromosomes base combinations are
A-TT and C-GG
One Nucleotide
Finally, the entire molecule is corkscrewed into

a double helix, rather like a spiral staircase
or ladder.
Part of a DNA
molecule Bases are the
Sugars & phosphates steps of a
are the side rails ladder
Each chromosome
contains 1000s of DNA
molecules (wrapped in
protein) each one specifying
one of the organisms many
hereditary traits.

What Determines Sex?

In humans, and in many other species, sex is determined by a special
pair of chromosomes... the sex chromosomes.
In a normal human body cell there are 46 How these chromosomes are passed on to
chromosomes arranged in 23 homologous children can be shown using the Punnett Square
pairs. Of these, 22 pairs are called autosomes diagram to track, not genes, but the sex
and are the same size and shape in males as in chromosomes: Father Mother
females.
Xy x XX
The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes: Notice that
females can X&y gametes X&X
Females have a matching only pass on
pair of chromosomesthat are an X chromosome X X
known as X chromosomes. in their eggs.
A female is described as XX X XX XX Girls
Males sperm
Males have one X cells can either y Xy Xy Boys
chromosome, and one carry an X or a y.
smaller y chromosome.
Which type of Girls : Boys
Males are described as being sperm fertilises 1:1
Xy. the egg 50% : 50%
determines the sex of the baby.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Gregor Mendel discovered the basics of Genetics, but it was found early in the 20th century
that genes dont always work in that simple Mendelian fashion.
Thomas Morgan began experimenting with Morgan produced hundreds of flies in the
Drosophila fruit flies and quickly found they experiment so, like Mendel, his results were
were ideal for genetics experiments. statistically significant.
In 1910, in an experiment involving flies with The Explanation:

different eye colours, Morgan realised that the The genes for eye colour are carried on the X
way this characteristic was being inherited chromosome.
depended on the sex of the fly... males and The dominant (Red) gene can be designated as
females were inheriting eye colour differently. XR. The recessive (White) gene is Xr
The male y chromosome does NOT carry one
Sex-Linkage Inheritance of these alleles at all.
The common and normal eye colour in the flies
is red. Morgan discovered a male fly with white The possible female (XX) genotypes &
eyes. He set out to do a Mendel-type breeding phenotypes are:
experiment:
White-e
eyed Red-e
eyed XRXR Red eye female (homozygous)
PARENTS Male Female XRXr Red eye female (heterozygous)
XrXr White eye female
X
The possible male (Xy) genotypes & phenotypes
F1 generation are:
XRy Red eye male
Xry White eye male
All have red eyes.
Morgan concluded F1 flies were allowed Note that females get 2 genes, but males only
(correctly) to mate among get one because their y chromosome lacks
themselves
Red is DOMINANT, this allele totally. A male cannot be
White RECESSIVE heterozygous for this trait and cannot have a
hidden recessive gene.
F2 generation WHEN DOING PUNNETT SQUARES WITH

SEX-LINKAGE, YOU MUST TRACK THE
Females 100% Males 50%: 50% X AND y CHROMOSOMES...
red eyed.
Whats going on? see next page.

Morganss Sex-Linkage Then, the F1 generation were allowed to breed
Experiment (continued...) among themselves. Notice that the F1 females
Here is the experiment explained by Punnett are all heterozygous red eyed ( XRXr ) and the
Square. males are all red eyed ( XRy ).
F2
XRy x XRXr
Xry x XRXR
F1 XR & y gametes XR & Xr
Xr & y gametes XR & XR The F2 are
red : white
3:1 XR Xr
XR XR just like
The F1 are all
red-e
eyed. Mendels XR XRXR XRXr
Xr XRXr XRXr results, but
Note that
females are all the sexes are
y XRy Xry
heterozygous. y XRy XRy different.
Phenotypes of Offspring (both sexes) FEMALES MALES
Red:White Red : White Red : White
100% : 0 100% : 0 50% : 50%
There are a number of genes in humans that are sex-linked. The best-known are 2 genetic disorders:
Red-Green Colour Blindness, is where a person cannot distinguish between certain colours.
Haemophilia, is a condition in which the blood does not clot properly, putting the person at constant
risk of internal bleeding. It was always a fatal condition, but in modern times people with
haemophilia are treated with clotting factors from donated blood.
Both conditions are sex-linked, inherited as recessive genes on the X chromosome.

They occur much more often in males than females.
Inheritance by Co-Dominance
Another example of Non-Mendelian Inheritance is known as Co-Dominance. This is a fairly
common situation in which the 2 alleles for a characteristic do not show a Dominant-Recessive
pattern, but when both genes are present (heterzygous) they are both expressed,
and may result in an in-between phenotype.
Example: In Shorthorn cattle, there is gene (R) Here is what happens in a Mendel-type cross:
that causes the hair of the animals coat to be
red (actually a rusty-
PARENTS X
brown colour). To be red,
the animal must be RR WW
homozygous for this gene. Genotype RR
gametes: R only W only
The other allelic gene (W) causes
the coat to be white,
if the animal is homozygous.
RW RW RW RW
Genotype WW F1 100% Roan
If an animal is heterozygous,
with both alleles present, gametes: R or W
F1 breed among
neither gene dominates the other. themselves
Both genes are expressed,
producing mottled patterns
of red and white hair which
is called roan. RR RW RW WW
Genotype RW F2
Phenotypes: RED : ROAN : WHITE
Note that it is best to use 1 : 2 : 1
2 different CAPITAL letters as 25% : 50% : 25%
symbols in this case, since neither gene is
recessive. Try to verify for yourself the F2 result by using a
Punnett Square.

The Effect of Environment

Its not just an organisms genes that produce its phenotype; the environment has an effect as well.
For example, consider some of Mendels pea
plants with different genes for stem height. In Hydrangea plants, if cuttings are taken from a
IN GOOD SOIL single individual (the cuttings would be
genetically identical) and grown in different
Genotype tt
Genotype TT soils, the flowers on each cutting can be
different colours. If the soil is slightly acidic the
Phenotype
Phenotype TALL flowers will be blue, but in slightly basic soil
DWARF
theyll be pink.
Now, imagine planting them (as baby seedlings)
in very poor soil, so that normal growth was not Identical twins have inherited exactly the same
possible. IN POOR SOIL genes. In the USA about 40 years ago, a famous
Genotype TT Genotype tt study was done on identical twins who had been
adopted into separate families and raised in
Phenotype
Phenotype DWARF DWARF different environments. The study found quite
large differences between the twins in intelligence,
The point is that the genes may control what the personality, and even appearance. Presumably
organism COULD grow up to be, but the these differences were due to different foods,
environment may influence this, possibly altering education, etc.
the final appearance (phenotype).
Genetics, Sex and Evolution Crossing-Over
During meiosis homologous chromosomes also
During his lifetime, Charles Darwin freely swap pieces of chromatid with each other,
admitted that there were 2 big gaps in his further mixing up the possible gene
controversial Theory of Evolution... combinations:
GAMETE FORMATION WITHOUT CROSSING-O
OVER
How are characteristics inherited?
A A a a Possible gene
When the fittest survive and breed, how do
combinations
they pass on their survival traits to their MEIOSIS in gametes
offspring? B B b b
AB or ab
The Science of Genetics can now explain that
Remember, each gamete gets just one of these 4 chromatids
Where does variation come from? WITH CROSSING-O

OVER
Natural Selection needs differences between
individuals to choose the survivors. Why is a A
a
Possible gene
A combinations
there variation anyway? MEIOSIS in gametes
b b AB Ab
Variation comes from MEIOSIS and B B
aB ab
Sexual Reproduction
These chromosomes have exchanged
pieces of chromatid with each other.
Variation Caused by Meiosis This has mixed up the combinations of
genes A, a, B and b.
The process of meiosis to produce the sperm
and egg cells increases variation, even before Variation Caused by
fertilisation occurs. Sexual Reproduction
The simple fact that sexual reproduction
Study the diagram of meiosis on page 18. involves TWO parents, creates a lot of variation.
Remember that homologous chromosomes are The offspring receives genes from 2 different
NOT identical. individuals, thereby getting a new mix of
traits.
Each pair of homologous chromosomes line up Summary
and separate at random, and independently of
all other pairs, so the number of different Meiosis creates variations in the way
possible gametes is very large. In humans, with homologous chromosomes separate,
23 pairs of chromosomes, it is possible for AND in the process of Crossing-Over.
meiosis to produce about 8 million different Further variation comes from
combinations of chromosomes in the gametes combining genes from 2 parents.
of each person!

Worksheet 8 Chromosomes & DNA Name....................................

Fill in the blank spaces. In 1902, two scientists t)..........................
and .......................... noticed the
Chromosomes are thread-like similarities between how Mendels
structures in the a).................... of a cell. genes worked and how u)........................
They are only visible during behave during v)......................... From
b)....................................... this observation it was clear that
w)...............................................................
Chromosomes come in pairs, referred to
as c).............................. The members of Chromosomes have been analysed
a c)............................... pair are not chemically and found to contain
identical, but correspond with each x)............................... and .........................
other because they carry It is known that the DNA molecules
d).................................... genes in contain a chemical code which is a
corresponding locations. Before a cell y)........................ Thus, each
division, each chromosome is chromosome contains many genes,
e)............................ to make a double each one encoded by a molecule of
chromosome. The 2 parts are called z)....................
f)................................ and they are
g)................................. to each other. The DNA molecule is a aa)......................
of repeating units called
In Mitosis, the chromosomes line up ab).............................. Each one is made
h).......................... and the of 3 smaller parts; ac)....................... and
i)............................. separate, so that the ............................... and .........................
daughter cells are j).......................... to
each other, and to the k)....................... There are 4 different bases, known by
cell. the intial letters of their names; ad)......,
......., ....... and ....... (letters) The DNA
In Meiosis, the chromosomes line up molecule is a double- ae).....................
l)................................... and the first shape, made of af)............... (number)
division separates the strands resembling a twisted ladder. The
m).................................. pairs. Then the rungs of the ladder are formed by 2
cells divide again to form n)............. bases bonding with each other. The
(number) gametes, each with bases can only bond in combinations
o)....................... the original number of ag).............. and ...............
chromosomes.
Sexual reproduction produces
Body cells with pairs of chromosomes variations in a population because:
are called p)........................... while
gametes are said to be Offspring receive ah)........................
q)............................... Human body cells ..............................................
have a total of r).................... (number)
chromosomes, while egg or sperm cells ai)................................... of homologous
have s)............. (number) chromosomes in meiosis.
WHEN COMPLETED, the process of aj).................................
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES ...................... in meiosis.

Worksheet 9 Sex-Linkage & Co-Dominance Problems Name...............................

1. 3. Refer to the information about Co-Dominance.
Refer to Morgans experiment with fruit flies.p20
a) Why are there 3 genotypes for female flies, Use Punnett Squares to predict the phenotypes
but only 2 for males? of calves born if:
a) a roan bull mated with a red cow.
b) From which parent (mother or father) does a
white-eye male fly inherit his white eyes?
Explain.
c) i) What is the genotype of a female,

who is heterozygous? b) a white bull mated with a roan cow.
ii) What is her phenotype?
iii) Explain why this genotype is often referred

to as a carrier female.
d) Use a Punnett Square to predict the outcome

of each cross below. (You must track the X & y
chromosomes. Offspring phenotypes should
describe the sexes separately) 4.
In a particular breed of chickens, the feather
i) Xry crossed with XRXr colour is controlled by 2 alleles B and W.
Genotype BB produces black feathers.
Genotype WW produces white feathers. The
heterozygous genotype BW results in black &
white speckled feathers.
Use a Punnett Square to predict the colours of

ii) XRy crossed with XrXr chicks from: (show working on back of sheet)
a) a speckled rooster and speckled hen.

b) a black hen and a white rooster.
c) a black rooster and a speckled hen.
5.
Some plants have flower colours controlled as
follows: There are only 2 alleles involved, but
2.
there are 3 phenotypes possible... red flowers,
In humans, a recessive gene (Xn) carried on the X
chromosome causes colour-blindness. The white flowers and pink flowers.
normal vision gene can be symbolized by XN. a) Suggest how just 2 genes can result in 3
Use these symbols to write the genotype of: different colours.
a) a homozygous normal-vision female.
b) a normal-vision male. b) Suggest suitable symbols for the alleles.
c) a colour-blind male.
d) a colour-blind female.
e) a carrier female (heterozygous) c) Use these symbols to write the genotype for:
f) A man with normal vision married a woman i) red flower
who is colour blind. Use a Punnett Square to ii) pink flower
predict the pattern of inheritance in their
iii) white flower
children.
d) Use a Punnett Square to predict the
phenotypes resulting from crossing a red-
flowering plant with a white-flowering plant and
breeding through to the F2 in a Mendel-type
experiment. (show working on back of sheet)

Worksheet 10 Test Questions section 3 Name....................................

Answer on reverse, if insufficient space.
1.
A pair of homologous chromosomes: 7. (6 marks)
A. are identical to each other. a) Sketch one pair of homologous
B. carry totally different genes chromosomes, just before a cell was to undergo
C. will line up as a pair during mitosis. a cell division.
D. carry alleles in corresponding locations. If the organism is heterozygous for allelic genes
Q and q, show on your diagram the
2. positions of all copies of these genes.
Meiosis produces:
A. 4 haploid gamete cells. b) Draw simple sketches to show:
B. 2 diploid body cells. i) how these 2 chromosomes would line up for
C. 4 identical gametes. mitosis.
D. 4 non-identical body cells.
ii) the chromosomes in ONE of the cells
3. resulting from mitosis.
A nucleotide contains:
A. sugar, phosphate and 1 of 4 possible bases. iii) how these 2 chromosomes would line up for
B. a base, phosphate, & 1 of 4 possible sugars. meiosis.
C. amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
D. base pairs A-T and C-G. iv) the chromosomes in ONE of the cells
resulting from meiosis.
4.
In human sperm cells you would expect to find:
A. 46 chromosomes including an Xy pair. 8. (5 marks)
B. 46 chromosomes including either an X or a y. In Drosophila fruit flies, the normal eye colour is
C. 23 chromosomes, including an X. red. A recessive, sex-linked gene causes white
D. 23 chromosomes, including either an X or a y. eyes.
Using symbols XR, Xr and y, predict the
5. phenotypes (separately for each sex) of the
If a recessive gene is sex-linked you would cross between a white-eye male and a
expect: heterozygous red-eye female. Show your
A. males and females to show the working.
phenotype equally.
B. a heterozygous female will show
the recessive phenotype.
C. males may inherit the trait only from
their mother. 9. (5 marks)
D. males will pass the recessive gene on A certain species of African rodent was
to their sons. described in Multiple Choice Question 6.
Using appropriate (declared) symbols, predict
6. the outcome of a mating between a grey and
In a species of small African rodents it was black animal of this species.
noticed that 2 grey coloured animals produced a
litter of babies that were about 25% white, 25%
black and about 50% grey. It seems likely that:
A. grey is dominant to both black and white. 10. (3 marks)

B. co-dominant alleles are controlling a) Explain, with the help of simple diagrams if
coat colour. you wish, the process of crossing over with
C. a mutation occurred to produce new chromosomes.
colours in the babies.
D. grey is a recessive gene, black and white
are co-dominant.
b) Explain how this process contributes to the
genetic diversity of a species.
c) State one other process which increases

genetic diversity in a species.

4. MOLECULAR GENETICS & MUTATION

How DNA Structure Was Discovered DNA Replication
By the middle of the 20th century it was So how does the structure of the DNA molecule
suspected that DNA was probably the genetic lend itself to replication?
chemical and it was known that it contained
sugar, phosphate and the 4 bases A,C,G and T. The key is the way the complementary bases
What no-one could understand was, if DNA was bond together in the double stranded structure.
the genes, how could it:
This means that if you have ONE STRAND of a
Replicate (duplicate) itself for cell division? DNA molecule it is a mirror-image template for
Control the phenotype of an organism? the other. If you split a DNA molecule into 2
separate strands, each strand can be used to
It seemed likely that the key to this problem was build a new, complementary strand.
to find out the structure of the DNA molecule.
The story of what happened is a classic example Thats exactly what happens to all the DNA in each
of how Science and scientists make progress chromosome, before a cell division occurs.
using collaboration and communication.
sugar-p
phosphate side rail
In 1953, English scientist Francis Crick had A G T C C A
become an expert at interpreting the shapes of Bases
molecules using the new technique of X-ray T C A G G T
Diffraction.
The only combinations that will bond are
Meanwhile, at another laboratory, Maurice
A-T
T and C-G
G
Wilkins (New Zealand) managed to prepare a
pure crystal of DNA, and Rosalind Franklin
(England) was able to get an X-Ray Diffraction DNA
image of it, but neither understood how to make REPLICATION GC Original, double-
any sense of the pattern it produced. stranded DNA
TA
Molecule is untwisted
Then a young American, James Watson, who and unzipped by CG
was interested in understanding the DNA enzymes Spare nucleotides
CG
mystery, visited the Wilkins-Franklin laboratory.
With their collaboration, he took their data to AT
Crick for his expert interpretation. Between C G G
them, Watson and Crick made one of the most A G T
T
notable scientific breakthroughs in the history C C G C
A
of Biology... they figured out the base-pairing, T G T A G
T
double-helix structure of DNA and realised C
A A T C
immediately how this structure could lend itself A
to replication... an essential feature of a gene. A T T AT
G A
G C GC
Double-s
stranded Helix Nucleotides T
C G match up with CG
complementary
G C base on original GC
strand.
A T AT
Enzymes When
T A connect them in T A completed,
place, forming each new DNA
C G a new strand. CG molecule is
twisted back
G C GC into a double-
Pairs of Bases helix shape.
Sugar & phosphate chains
old strand
No one of these scientists could have made New strand TWO IDENTICAL DNA
progress alone. Each had certain data, or skills MOLECULES
or expertise, but only by bringing it all together
was the great discovery possible. Success This is how the DNA molecules,
came from different people communicating and which are the genes on the chromosomes,
unselfishly sharing their knowledge and talents. are replicated in preparation for cell division.

How Can DNA DNA and Protein Synthesis

The sequence of bases in the DNA molecule is a
Control a Phenotype? code. Each 3 bases are a code word (called a
To answer this question, you need to be Codon) which specifies an amino acid to go
reminded about the structure, and the role, of into the polypeptide chain.
proteins.
DNA Strand
Protein Structure Bases T A C T G G C A T C A A
has been covered briefly in previous topics. Codon
Heres a quick revision:
PROTEINS are polymers of Amino Acids.
Amino Acid
molecules a Polypeptide chain may contain
1000s of amino acids
Amino Acids forming a Polypeptide
If a polypeptide containing 1,000 amino acids is

A Polypeptide is NOT a protein until it folds and
ENZYME
D shape.
twists into a final, 3-D
needed, then a DNA molecule made up of 3,000
Sometimes, several polypeptides join together nucleotide bases, will be the gene for this polypeptide.
to form the final protein molecule
Protein Only one strand of the double-helix of DNA is the gene.
with precise The other mirror-image strand is present only to
3-D
D shape allow the gene to be replicated for cell divisions.
How the DNA base sequence makes a functioning

protein which then produces a phenotype is explained
The exact shape of the final protein depends on by a simple model on the next page.
the sequence of the amino acids in the
polypeptide chain. There are about 20 different Changing Definitions of a Gene
amino acids, and some of them are attracted to When studying Genetics at the organism level:
(or repelled from) each other, so how the chain gene = the hereditary unit which determines
twists and folds upon itself depends on exactly one trait in the organisms phenotype.
which ones are located where.
Then, in the 1940s, two American scientists,
Protein Functions George Beadle and Edward Tatum discovered
Proteins have many functions within an the connection of genes to proteins. Studying a
organism: genetic defect in a common fungus, they found
that there were 3 different genes that could
Enzymes are all protein molecules produce the same defective phenotype.
Structural Molecules, such as in muscle fibres,
skin, hair and bone matrix are proteins. Normal Chemical Pathway in Fungi Cells
Many Special Molecules are proteins, such Enzyme 3
as haemoglobin, (the oxygen carrier in blood) P
Enzyme 1
Q
Enzyme 2
R S
chlorophyll (absorbs light for photosynthesis)
antibodies (which help fight disease) P,Q,R and S are cell chemicals. If any reaction is
... and many more. blocked, then S cannot be made, and the
organism has a chemical defect
In every case, it is the shape of the protein Beadle and Tatum realised that each enzyme 1,2
molecule which is essential to its correct & 3 must have a separate gene. The phenotype
functioning. S-defect could be produced by a defect to the
gene for enzyme 1, or the gene for enzyme 2, or
Enzymes can only connect to their substrate if the gene for enzyme 3. So, the new definition for
their shape is right. Haemoglobin can only pick a gene became:
up oxygen if the shape is correct... and so on.
gene = a unit of heredity that specifies a protein
Proteins carry out many vital functions.
But now that we know about DNA, and that
Correct functioning depends on the sequence of some proteins require more than one
amino acids in the polypeptide chain. polypeptide chain...
IT IS THE DNA WHICH CONTROLS THE A Gene is a DNA molecule

AMINO ACID SEQUENCE. which specifies one polypeptide

How DNA Causes a Phenotype Part 1. From DNA to Polypeptide

The next step is called
The initial step is called
TRANSLATION Amino Acids are carried
TRANSCRIPTION into position by t-R
RNA
Each gr (Transfer RNA)
ow
This occurs in the 3-b
base codon in molecules
nucleus g P
in m-RRNA by oly t-R
RNAs
specifies ad pep Amino
DNA m-R
RNA di ti
one amino acid tio de Acids
in the n ch
of a
polypeptide chain Am in
in
o
Ac
id
m- s
fro RNA
m m
RNA is a polymer of the ove Ribosome enzymes
ou nu s connect the amino
nucleotides, similar to t to cle
ar us acids to form a
DNA, but ibo
single strand only som polypeptide chain
e
different sugar
one different
nucleotide m-R
RNA
Ribosome
One strand of the DNA (the gene) moves along
acts as a template for the m-RRNA
You should recall
production of a single-sstranded that the Ribosomes are
messenger RNA (m-R RNA) organelles responsible for
protein synthesis in cells
Maybe it becomes a
then, Perhaps its a
molecule of
Part 2. From Polypeptide to Phenotype structural protein,
used to build Haemoglobin, used
muscle or skin to carry oxygen in
the blood
The polypeptide chain

twists and folds to Possibly it is combined
form a protein with other polypeptides
or special chemical a functional
groups to form...
PROTEIN
molecule
It could be a Hormone,
which controls some
It could be an aspect of Homeostasis
ENZYME, able to
Example: Eye Colour catalyse a chemical
reaction
The colour of your eyes is a Substrates
genetically determined phenotype.
The coloured pigment is made by
enzymes, which are proteins,
coded in your DNA Enzyme
STARTING Product;
CHEMICALS a Coloured
(Substrates) Enzyme catalyses reaction(s)
Pigment
to produce coloured pigment
in cells of the iris of the eye
The gene(s) for eye colour are present in every cell of your body, but are only expressed in your iris cells.
Similarly, the genes for liver functions are only expressed in your liver cells, and genes to make taste buds are
only expressed in your tongue. What controls which genes are expressed is still unknown in most cases.

Mutation DNA Change Makes a New Gene
In all organisms, cells divide all the time. You will see at the bottom of this page that
Theres mitosis to make new cells for growth, mutations can have many possible effects,
and meiosis to make gametes for sexual ranging from absolutely nothing, to a new
reproduction. Whenever a cell is about to divide, inheritable characteristic. How could a new
the chromosomes are replicated and all the DNA characteristic happen?
they contain makes an exact copy of itself.
Imagine an accidental change to just 1 base in a
But sometimes mistakes happen... DNA strand.
Errors can occur in duplicating the DNA. Change will occur
Original DNA Strand here
Chromosomes get broken, then incorrectly
repaired. Entire chromosome can be lost. Bases T A C T G G C A T C A A
Codon
Any accidental change to the genetic material is
a Mutation.
Causes of Mutation
Amino Acids forming a Polypeptide
Some mutations do not have any clear cause...
Changed base
they are just accidents that happen. However, it Altered DNA Strand
is known that certain factors can increase the
Bases T A C T G G A A T C A A
likelihood of mutations. These factors are called Codon
mutagens, and include:
Higher Temperatures. Mutation rates are

higher in hotter climates.
Certain Chemicals, for example, some pesticides.
Radiation, including X-rays, nuclear radiation
and ultra-violet radiation from the Sun. 1 Amino Acid will be different
in the polypeptide
Evidence for Mutagenic Nature of Radiation Just one amino acid being different may alter the
Controlled experiments have demonstrated that way the polypeptide folds into its 3-D shape. This
genetic changes can be induced in living things (eg could alter the shape of an enzyme molecule, so
plant seeds, fungi, fruit flies etc) by exposing them to that instead of producing (say) Blue-Eye
doses of X-rays, or nuclear radiations. Phenotype, it produces a new colour pigment.
Blue
Medical records from Japan following the Original
Pigment
Atom Bomb attack on Hiroshima (1945) indicate original Phenotype
Enzyme in iris (Blue eyes)
a huge increase in genetic mutations among the
people in the years following. Substrate
Chemical
Countries like Australia, with a sunny climate and New
outdoor lifestyle, have high rates of skin cancer. Mutated Colour Mutant
These cancers are believed to be due (at least in Enzyme Pigment Phenotype
(new colour)
part) to the mutagenic properties of UV light.
Effects of Mutation
It depends on what sort of cell Gamete NOT
Mutation during Meiosis involved in
the mutation occurs in. Affects a Gamete reproduction.
No effect.
Mutation during Mitosis
Affects a Body Cell Gamete involved in fertilisation
Mutation might
Cell might
cause malfunction
not be able Offspring might get new inheritable gene.
in cell, which
Mutation to function New trait might be:
becomes cancerous.
might properly. detrimental; less chance to survive.
have no Cell dies. an improvement; helps survival.
Organism seriously
effect on No effect on neither good nor bad, just different.
affected, but future
cell. multicellular The mutation becomes a new variation to be
generations are not.
organism. inherited by future generations

Mutation and Evolution

Mutations occur at random in the DNA
molecules and chromosomes. Most are
detrimental to the cell in which they occur, but Finally, Darwin & Wallaces Theory of Evolution
occasionally a mutation produces a new, is complete...
inheritable trait in an offspring.
1. All organisms produce
Usually, new mutant genes are recessive alleles. more offspring than can survive.
Being recessive, they can be inherited through
many generations without ever being visible in 2. In every species there is variation.
the population. Only when 2 heterozygous New traits originate from genetic mutation.
individuals mate and bring together a pair of Traits are mixed in new combinations by
recessive genes does the new phenotype meiosis and sexual reproduction, producing
actually appear. greater variation.
The new phenotype might be quite a trivial 3. Natural Selection chooses the survivors.
difference...
slightly bigger ears 4. The Fittest individuals reproduce and
slightly shorter toes pass on their characteristics as genes (DNA)
a new colour pigment in the fur inherited by the processes of Genetics.
a slightly longer intestine ... and so on.
5. Over generations, a species evolves.
However, it is such small differences that give
the variation to a population for Natural
Selection to work on.
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis keep mixing the genes in new

combinations, but the original source of variation is MUTATION.
The Rate of Evolution Evidence for

Punctuated Equilibrium
Darwin always imagined that evolution was a Some fossil sequences show the same species
very slow process, taking at least 100,000 existing, apparently unchanged, for millions of
generations over perhaps millions of years, for a years, then suddenly disappearing and being
species to change significantly. replaced by a different (but similar) species.
EVOLUTION by Perhaps it rapidly
EVOLUTION by
The fact that the fossils PUNCTUATED evolved into the
GRADUALISM
showed significant change from EQUILIBRIUM new species?
one rock layer to the next was
Studies on living
simply, in Darwins opinion,
SLOW, STEADY CHANGES OVER A VERY LONG TIME
populations (eg snails in

STABLE AGAIN
due to the patchiness of the fossil grasslands) show that if

record, giving us just a glimpse the environment
here and there of the slow and changes suddenly
steady changes going on. (e.g. because
of humans
An alternative explanation was clearing
proposed in the 1970s. This idea, the land)
called Punctuated Equilibrium
suggests that evolution does not the species can
occur in a slow and steady way, respond with
...THEN A RAPID BURST a very rapid
but in short, sharp bursts of rapid OF CHANGES
genetic shift
change, in between long periods within 20 years or so.
NO CHANGE...
of little or no change at all. This does not prove that a

new species can evolve
It is suggested that a species quickly, but lends support
might change significantly to the idea of rapid change.
within just a few thousand years
rather than millions. The debate continues...

Worksheet 11 Molecular Genetics & Mutation Name....................................

Fill in the blank spaces Next, the m-RNA moves out of the
ai)..................... to one of the aj)............................
The discovery of the structure of DNA shows These organelles are the sites of protein
how good a)........................ and b).......................... ak)........................ Here the second stage, called
contribute to scientific progress. Maurice al)...................................., occurs. According to
c).............................. was able to prepare a crystal the code of bases on the m-RNA, amino acids
of pure DNA, and Rosalind d)............................... are placed one-by-one in sequence to build the
was able to get an X-ray Diffraction image of the am)................................. chain. Another form of
crystal, but neither of them could interpret it. RNA, called an)............... carries each amino
James e)......................... collaborated with them, acid into place. The enzymes of the
and took their data to Francis f).......................... ao)....................... then catalyse the reaction to
who had become an expert in this new join the amino acids to each other.
technology. Between them, Watson & Crick
figured out the double-helix shape and the To cause a phenotype to occur, the polypeptide
g)..................-pairing structure of DNA. chain must then twist and fold to form a
functioning ap)........................... As an example,
The h).....................-stranded structure, and the it could become an enzyme, which
complementary base-pairing allows DNA aq)........................... a chemical reaction in the
molecules to be i)........................... in preparation iris of the eye. The reaction might result in the
for a cell j)......................... First, the DNA strands production of a coloured ar)..................................
k)............................ Then each strand can act as a which produces the phenotype of eye colour.
l)................................... for the making of a new
complementary strand.. Each base specifies Any accidental as)................ to a gene or
what must go on the new strand, because only chromosome is a at)......................... Some do not
bases m)...... & ......... and bases n)........ & ........... have any discernible cause, but there are certain
can go together. Once a new strand is built onto factors, called au)........................ which increase
each old strand, the result is 2 the likelihood of a mutation. Higher
o).............................. DNA molecules. av)......................... is one, and certain
aw)........................... are known to be mutagens.
Proteins are polymers of p).................................... Various forms of radiation are mutagenic,
A chain of p)........................... is called a including ax)......................... and ay)....................
q)..................................... chain. To become a and az) ................................................
functioning protein, it must twist and fold into a
precise r)........................... Exactly how the chain Altering just one base on a ba)...................
twists and folds depends on the exact molecule can create a new gene. One different
s)................... of the amino acids. There are base could cause one bb).....................-acid to be
about t)........... (number) different amino acids different in the bc)...............................................
and they may attract or u)................... each other, chain. This in turn could alter the
causing the chain to twist and fold upon itself. bd)................................ of a protein. If this protein
is an be)........................, then the way it catalyses
Some different types of proteins include a reaction could change, resulting in a different
v)................. which catalyse metabolic reactions, chemical product. For example, this could result
and w)................... proteins in muscles, skin and in a different bf)......................... in the iris cells of
hair cells. In each case, it is the x)........................ the eye, and so a new phenotype for eye colour.
of the protein which is vital to its correct
functioning. This shape is due to the sequence Mutations are significant for the Theory of
of y)....................... acids, and these are specified bg)........................... because they explain where
by the base sequence of the z)........................ bh)...................... in a population comes from
originally.
In DNA each aa).............. (number) bases form a
code word (called a ab).......................) to specify It has usually been accepted that evolution
one amino acid. The first step in the process is occurs with a slow and steady accumulation of
called ac).............................. and involves the changes. In the 1970s a new idea, called
production of a molecule of ad)................ To do bi).................................... ......................... was put
this, the gene strand of the DNA is used as a forward. This suggests that species
ae)............................ to build the RNA from bj)................................... for long periods of time,
nucleotides. Compared to DNA, the RNA is only and then undergo bk)....................... .....................
af).................-stranded, and has a different of evolution.
ag)................. in the backbone of the molecule,
and one different ah).............................. Practice Questions are at the end of
the next section.

5. REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES & GENETIC DIVERSITY

Reproductive Technologies Cloning
Humans have developed a number of A clone is a group of organisms which are all
techniques for controlling or enhancing the genetically identical. The simplest form of cloning
reproduction of crop plants, domesticated is asexual reproduction, which has been done
animals, and even ourselves. artificially with plants for thousands of years.
Artificial Pollination Every time a plant is grown from a cutting, or by
This is the oldest and simplest reproductive grafting, a clone is being created. Farmers and
technique. Gregor Mendel used this to control gardeners have been doing this for thousands
the reproduction of his pea plants, and it had of years.
probably been used for centuries before that.
More recently, the process of Tissue Culture
Very simply, it involves taking pollen from one has allowed plant cloning on a massive scale.
(selected) plant and dusting it onto the flower of This involves taking thousands of small pieces
the other (selected) parent. This gives complete of tissue (each perhaps just a few cells) from a
control over which plants become the parents of parent plant and culturing them in a nutrient
the next generation. liquid in a test tube in the laboratory. Eventually
they grow large enough to be planted out into
In modern agriculture, almost all of our cereals, soil to grow to be adult plants. This allows a
fruits and vegetables are now the result of clone of many thousands to be grown from just
artificial pollination. New types are created one parent plant.
by artificial pollination using different varieties
or even different species. Such cross-breeds Cloning of animals is much more difficult and
are called Hybrids. For example, the the first mammal clone was not achieved until
nectarine is a hybrid of peach and a plum. the 1990s with the famous Dolly the sheep.
Once commercially important varieties are
created, huge numbers of seeds are produced, HOW TO CLONE A MAMMAL
again by artificial pollination of selected parent PARENT of CLONE EGG DONOR
plants. This results in millions of almost
identical plants being grown in crop
monocultures.
Commercially it has many advantages, such as

great consistency in growth rates and food
quality. Later, we will discuss possible Unfertilised
Egg
disadvantages. Body Cell
Artificial Insemination (A.I.) Nucleus

Semen can be collected from a champion bull, removed
divided up into many small samples and frozen. Diploid Nucleus
Extracted
Distributed anywhere in the world, it can be
used to fertilise a cow.
Thus a top-quality bull can become the father of Diploid Nucleus from
many thousands of calves, thereby improving body cell placed into Egg
Cell
the quality of cattle herds all over the world.
This works too, for racehorses, dogs, sheep and Surrogate Fertilized egg
Mother placed in uterus
so on. There are huge advantages, such as
entire herds of high-quality beef cattle, but there
may be disadvantages too. (Discussed later)
Humans use A.I. for their own reproduction too.

If a man is sterile, but he and his wife wish to Normal pregnancy
and birth
have children, she can be inseminated with
semen from an anonymous donor. There are
sperm banks of frozen semen for this use. The baby lamb is genetically identical to
No-one has seriously suggested using this to the single parent at top left.
improve the human race... this would be an It is an identical twin, except younger
ethical & moral issue.

Reproductive Technologies
Too much of the same?
& Genetic Diversity
Artificial Pollination, A.I. and cloning all have the
potential to diminish the Genetic Diversity of the
species involved. All these processes, if used on
a large scale, result in many offspring being
produced from just a few, or even just one,
parent. This means that all these offspring are
closely related to each other and have less
genetic diversity.
Our food crops and animals have been bred
selectively for high productivity. This has also
Already, many of our food crops, such as wheat
resulted in low genetic variation.
and rice, are monocultures of millions of Is this a disaster waiting to happen?
individual plants who are siblings from
relatively few parents. In a banana plantation,
the entire population may be a clone of
genetically identical plants grown from cuttings
and suckers (asexual runners) from a single
parent.
Among farm animals such as beef cattle, the

widespread use of A.I. to improve herds has also
lessened the genetic diversity of those herds.
There are many benefits to this, but there may

be serious consequences too. Remember that
genetic diversity (variation) is essential for the Transgenic Species
long-term survival and evolution of a species. If
a species has little variation, then any change in As well as reproductive technologies, humans
the environment (eg a new disease, climate are altering the gene pools of species in
change) might adversely affect ALL the another way...
population, and leave no survivors.
Genetic Engineering technology is able to
The Irish Potato Famine transfer one or more genes from one species to
In Ireland in the 19th century, thousands of poor another to form Transgenic Species.
families lived by subsistence farming on rented Some examples:
fields barely large enough to grow food for a family.
Gene Transfer Purpose / Benefits
They relied totally on potatoes, the only crop Human gene for Bacteria produce insulin (to
which grew well in the climate and produced Insulin hormone treat diabetic patients)
enough food to live on. inserted into bacteria in great quantity.
Almost every field was planted with the same Human genes for blood- Sheep can be milked and blood
variety of high-yield potato. The plants were grown clotting factors inserted factors extracted to treat
from seed-potatoes saved from the best plants into sheep, which produce patients suffering Haemophilia.
of the previous years crop. This was asexual blood factors in their
reproduction, so there was little genetic variety, milk.
and everyone was growing the same crop!
Strawberry plants have Allows strawberries to be
In 1847, a fungal disease struck. Its spores received a gene from a grown in colder areas not
spread on the breeze and it destroyed a crop fish, which allows them previously possible.
field within days of infection. This Potato to resist freezing better.
Blight totally destroyed the crops for 3
successive years until different, resistant Crop plants have received Crops do not need to be
varieties were slowly introduced. a gene from the sprayed with insecticides to
Pyrethrum plant which control insect pests...
By then, an estimated 1 million people had causes the crops to any insect which eats the crop
starved to death. Millions more fled Ireland, produce a natural will die.
settling in USA, Canada and Australia. insecticide chemical.

How Genes are Transferred Human Insulin

The exact mechanism of transfer of genes for Type I Diabetes is a killer disease in which a
Genetic Engineering depends on the species. persons pancreas stops making the hormone
insulin. Without insulin their cells cannot absorb
Firstly, the gene to be transferred from the glucose and they lapse into a coma and die.
source species needs to be isolated. This is Early treatments relied on extracting insulin from
often achieved by collecting DNA from cells of animals at an abbatoir, but there were many
this species and chopping it into fragments side-effects and supplies were uncertain.
using restriction enzymes from bacteria.
These enzymes have the ability to cut DNA into Recombinant DNA Technology
sections. It often takes a lot of trial-and-error to now supplies pure human insulin.
then locate a fragment of the chopped-up DNA Circular bacterial DNA
containing the desired gene. Human DNA, extracted from a
extracted from a bacterial cell
human cell
The desired fragment can then be incorporated
into the DNA of the target species by several
possible methods.
chemically
In some cases the DNA fragment can be injected chopped-uup
chemically
into an egg of the target species. The DNA into fragments
cut open
becomes incorporated into a chromosome and is
an inherited gene from that point on.
Some viruses quite naturally transfer pieces of Mixed

together
DNA from one cell to another. These can be
enlisted as vectors to carry DNA to the target
cells. The DNA fragment is inserted into a
Some human DNA
harmless virus. Then when the virus is allowed fragments recombine with
to infect a target cell, the DNA fragment the bacterial DNA.
becomes incorporated into its chromosomes.

DNA re-iinserted into
In the case of transferring human genes into bacterial cells.
bacteria, the same restriction enzyme is used
If the recombinant DNA
to chop-up both the human DNA, and the contains the gene for
bacterial Plasmid... a bacterial chromosome. insulin, the growing
bacteria will make
Since both were cut by the same enzyme, the human insulin .
fragments match-up, and can readily join
These cells can be
together when mixed in the presence of suitable isolated and grown in
enzymes. This technique has been in use for huge numbers.
about 40 years, notably to produce pure human They produce human
insulin for treating diabetics. insulin which can be
collected for the
treatment of diabetes.
Ethical Issues Concerning Genetic Engineering

Reproductive technologies, such as Genetic transferring genes, especially human genes,
Engineering and Transgenic Species cause into other species is unnatural, and wrong
some scientific concerns about loss of genetic religiously and morally.
diversity. However, the main concerns tend to
foods from transgenic species may have
be ethical issues raised by society. unforseen consequences for human health,
such as inceases in cancer. No-one has the right
You need to be aware of the issues and prepared to expose us all to unknown risks.
to form your own, informed opinion... there is no
single correct answer. under current law, the companies who develop
transgenic species own patents on them, and
Weigh up the benefits (some were listed on are making huge profits by forcing farmers to
previous page) against the concerns some use their products or sell-out.
people raise...
This is seen as unethical, putting profit before
people.

Worksheet 12 Test Questions section 4 & 5 Name....................................

Answer on reverse, if insufficient space.
1.
Which of the following is NOT a source of 6. (6 marks)
increased genetic diversity in a species? Use a simple flow chart diagram to outline the
process by which DNA controls the production
A. Mutation in a gamete before fertilisation. of a polypeptide.
B. Crossing-over process during mitosis.
C. Independent segregation of homologous
pairs in meiosis.
D. Combining gametes from different parents
at fertilisation.
2. 7. (5 marks)
DNA replication is possible because: a) What is a mutagen?
A. DNA acts as a template to make m-RNA.
B. Each DNA strand makes an identical copy
of itself.
C. Each DNA strand makes a complementary b) Describe 2 pieces of evidence that radiation is
strand. mutagenic.
D. The polypeptide chains in DNA are
mirror images.
3.
The factor least likely to be mutagenic is:
A. nuclear radiation. c) Describe using a simple flow chart, how a
B. herbicide chemicals like agent orange. change in a DNA sequence could result in a
C. ultra-violet light. change in cell activity.
D. low temperatures.
4.
The base sequence on a part of a DNA chain is
...ATTCGAGGCTAC...
Which of the following statements is correct? 8. (4 marks)
Compare and contrast the idea of Gradualism
A. This section could code for 4 amino acids. in Evolution, with the theory of Punctuated
B. The complementary strand would read Equilibrium.
TAACGACCGTAC.
C. This section contains 6 codons.
D. The corresponding m-RNA section would be
ATTCGAGGCTAC.
5. 9. (5 marks)
When genes are transferred from one species to a) Outline the process that can be used to make
another: a clone of a mammal.
A. this reduces the genetic diversity of
the species. b) Explain the effect that cloning could have on
B. this is a mutation. the genetic diversity of the cloned species.
C. this produces a transgenic species.
D. the result would be a clone of the original. 10. (5 marks)
a) Give an example of the use of a transgenic
species, stating:
i) precisely which species are involved,
and
ii) the benefit or purpose achieved.
b) State an ethical concern that some people

might have with the use of this transgenic
species.

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC
Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
THE
BLUEPRINT
OF LIFE

Answer Section 9.
a) An example is the Pentadactyl Limb
Worksheet 1 structure in vertebrate animals. The bone
a) Palaeontology b) fossils structures in the fore-limb of a whale, bat, dog,
c) less d) more human, lizard, etc. are all essentially the same,
e) less f) more even though each looks very different on the
g) present-day organisms outside, and each is used for very different
h) millions (billions) purposes... swimming, flying, walking, etc.
i) relative j) correlating b) This is evidence of descent from a common
k) Radiometric l) transitional ancestor which had that bone structure.
m) Archaeopteryx n) dinosaur
o) bird 10.
p) how living things are distributed Sequencing the DNA of different species allows
q) very similar r) very different their degree of relatedness to be determined
s) common ancestor t) bone structure very precisely, since closely related species
u) for different purposes v) Pentadactyl limb have very similar DNA.
w) DNA x) enzymes This has revealed some surprises that have
y) common ancestry z) species can be changed changed the thinking on evolutionary
relationships. For example, it has previously
been thought that lizards and crocodiles (both
Worksheet 2 classified as reptiles) are more closely related to
a) Charles Darwin & Alfred Wallace each other than to birds. DNA analysis reveals
b) more offspring than can possibly survive that birds are more closely related to crocodiles
c) variation (genetic diversity) than either is to the lizards.
d) Natural Selection
e) best suited f) reproduce / breed 11.
g) Survival of the Fittest h) evolves / changes (Best in 5 numbered points)
i) predators, food, supply 1. All species produce more offspring than can
j) who are best suited survive.
k) reproduce l) survive 2. There is variation within each species... not all
m) reproduce n) Pepper the same.
o) industrial p) black to light moths 3. Natural Selection: the factors of the
q) DDT r) selection environment choose which individuals survive.
s) resistant t) extinct 4. Survival of the Fittest: those best suited to
u) Partitioning v) using slightly different the environment survive and reproduce.
resources 5. The survival characteristics get passed on
w) evolves into several / more than one to offspring so each generation is slightly
x) isolated y) selection different than before. Over many generations
z) Convergent aa) resemble the species changes... it evolves.
ab) similar / same
ac) characteristics / adaptations 12.
ad) dolphin ae) features / adaptations Divergent evolution is when one ancestral species
af) closely related evolves into 2 or more different species. An
example is the finches of the Galapagos islands,
Worksheet 3 where a different species of finch has evolved on
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. D 6. C 7.D each separate island, all from a single ancestral
8. species.
Relative Dating is done by correlating fossils Convergent evolution is when different species
from one place with those elsewhere. It allows evolve to resemble each other, even though they
scientists to put things in order, from oldest to are not closely related. An example is the shark &
youngest, but the actual ages cannot be dolphin which are both streamlined, fast-
determined. swimming look-alikes, but are not related in an
Absolute Dating involves measuring the evolutionary sense.
radiation from naturally occurring radio-
isotopes. These decay at known rates, so the
amount of radiation remaining in a rock or fossil
allows the actual age in years to be determined.
HSC Biology Topic 2 Blueprint of Life Usage & copying is permitted according to the
copyright 2005-22009 keep it simple science 37
Site Licence Conditions only

Worksheet 4 Worksheet 6
a) Mendel b) pea a) Recessive. Couple 7 & 8 have straight fingers,
c) inherited d) pure but had a child (11) with curved little fingers. This
e) pure-breeding f) dwarf can only happen if both parents are carrying a
g) F1 h) tall hidden gene... therefore it must be recessive.
i) self j) 2nd generation
k) 3:1 l) genes b) S = Straight, s = curved.
m) alleles n) allelic
o) 2 p) the same c) 1=ss, 2=SS, 3=ss, 4=SS, 5=Ss, 6=Ss, 7=Ss,
q) heterozygous r) gametes 8=Ss, 9=Ss, 10=SS or Ss(uncertain), 11=ss
s) fertilization t) parent
u) recessive v) dominant d) No chance of curved-finger children, because
w) homozygous x) phenotype all children must receive a S gene from
y) actual genes present. z) simple, easily identified mother who is SS.
aa) pure-breeding ab) large
ac) statistically ad) a recognised scientist e) Ss x ss would give 50% curved, 50% straight.
ae) German
f) It is quite possible. Prediction is not wrong.
Worksheet 5 In small samples, random chance can result in
1. a) i) green ii) yellow iii) green offspring ratios that are not in agreement with
b) i) GG ii) Gg iii) gg the prediction. (In a large sample of offspring
c) there should be approximately 50-50)
Gg x Gg
i)
Worksheet 7
G&g gametes G&g 1. B 2. A 3. C
4.
G g a) Dominant gene will always be expressed.
Recessive gene can only be expressed when no
G GG Gg other allele is present (i.e. if homozygous for the
recessive gene)
g Gg gg
b) Homozygous means having 2 copies of the
same allele for a particular trait. eg, AA, or bb.
Green : Yellow Heterozygous means to have 2 different alleles
3:1 for the trait. eg, Aa
75% : 25%
c) Genotype is the description (usually in
Answers only for the rest of these. symbols) of the actual genes present for a trait.
ii) Gg x GG: 100% green eg Aa.
iii) gg x GG 100% green Phenotype is the outward appearance caused
iv) Gg x gg 50% green : 50% yellow by the genes for that trait. eg Purple flowers or
Dwarf stem.
2. a) i) BB x bb: all offspring will have genotype Bb
ii) Phenotype: all will be black 5.
b) i) a) Mendels experiments were successful
Bb x bb
because:
he chose to study simple traits that occurred in
B&b gametes b&b
just 2 alternative forms, such as Tall v. Dwarf.
he began with pure-breeding parent plants.
b b he bred large numbers of offspring so the
results could be interpreted statistically.
B Bb Bb
b) His work was ignored because:
b bb bb
he was not a recognised scientist, but a monk
in an obscure monastery.
Black : Albino his findings were published in a little-known
50% : 50% journal, in German, so were not read by many
ii)Not surprising. people (and those that did, didnt realize the
In such small samples, random chance can give significance).
results not exactly in the expected ratio.

Worksheet 7 (cont) Worksheet 8 (cont)

z) DNA aa) polymer
6. ab) nucleotides
a) Each of the offspring will receive a gene from ac) sugar, phosphate & base
each parent and so all will have genotype Gg. ad) A,C,G & T ae) helix
Since G is dominant, it will be expressed so all af) 2 ag) A-T and C-G
offspring will have green pods. ah) genes from 2 different parents
b) ai) Independent Segregation
Gg x gg
aj) Crossing-over
G&g gametes g&g Worksheet 9
1. a) Males cannot be heterozygous because
g g they only have one X chromosome. The y
chromosome doesnt carry an allele.
G Gg Gg
b) From his mother, who gives him his X
g gg gg chromosome. Father gives y, which doesnt
carry an allele.
Green pod : Yellow pod
c) i) XRXr ii) Red-eyed
1:1 iii) She carries the recessive gene and passes it
50% : 50% to her children, but does not show the
phenotype of it herself.
7. a)Shaded shapes are red-heads
d) i) Xry x XRXr
Fred Mary
Generations
I Xr & y gametes XR & Xr
XR Xr
II
3 4 5 6 7 Xr XRXr XrXr
y XRy Xry
III
8 9
FEMALES MALES
Red:White Red : White
b) Red-headedness must be recessive, because 50% : 50% 50% : 50%
Fred & Mary are not red-heads, but had red-
headed children. They must both carry a ii) Females 100% Red-eyed.
recessive gene. Males 100% white eyed.
c) Must both be red-heads, since their parents
are. Since its recessive, both 6 & 7 must be 2. a) XNXN b) XNy c) Xny
homozygous for red-hair and must pass on d) XnXn e) XNXn
genes to children 8 & 9, who also must be
homozygous.
Worksheet 8 f) XNy x XnXn

a) nucleus b) cell division
c) homologous d) allelic XN & y gametes Xn & Xn
e) replicated / duplicated
f) chromatids
g) identical h) in single file Xn Xn
i) chromatids j) identical
k) parent l) in pairs XN XNXn XNXn
m) homologous n) 4
o) half p) diploid y Xny Xny
q) haploid r) 46
s) 23 t) Sutton & Boveri Phenotypes of Offspring
u) chromosomes v) meiosis FEMALES MALES
100% normal 100% colour blind
w) the genes must be located on the vision
chromosomes
x) DNA and protein y) gene

Worksheet 9 (cont) Worksheet 10

3. RW x RR 1. D 2. A 3. A 4. D 5. C 6. B
a) Homologous pair of
7. a) Double chromosomes
R&W gametes R&R
Q Q q q
R R
R RR RR
W RW RW
b)
i) in a single line ii)
Red : Roan
1:1
50% : 50%
b) WW x RW. Phenotypes of offspring

50%White, 50% Roan.
4. BW x BW
iii) in pairs
iv)
a)
B&W gametes B&W
B W
B BB BW
W BW WW Xry x XRXr
8.
Phenotypes of Offspring Xr & y gametes XR & Xr

Black : Speckled : White
1 : 2 : 1
25% : 50% : 25%
XR Xr
b) BB x WW gives 100% Speckled offspring. Xr XRXr XrXr
c) BB x BW gives 50% Black and 50% Speckled. y XRy Xry
5. a) If the 2 alleles are Codominant, then there

can be 3 phenotypes. FEMALES MALES
Red : White Red : White
b) Best to use 2 different CAPITALS, R & W. 50% : 50% 50% : 50%
c) i) RR ii) RW iii) WW 9.
d) Gene symbols: B= Black, W=White
Parents: RR x WW
Gametes: R only W only GREY BLACK
BW x BB
F1: 100% RW (Pink)
B&W gametes B&B
F2 RW x RW
R&W gametes R&W B B
R W B BB BB
R RR RW W BW BW
W RW WW Phenotypes of Offspring
Black : Grey
Phenotypes of Offspring 1 : 1
Red : Pink : White 50% : 50%
1 : 2 : 1
25% : 50% : 25%

Worksheet 10 (cont) Worksheet 12
10. 1. B 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. C
a) Crossing-over is when 6. TRANSCRIPTION
homologous chromosomes DNA m-R
RNA
exchange corresponding
parts of a chromatid with Moves to a
Ribosome
each other.
b) This mixes up the combinations of genes on TRANSLATION m-RRNA controls

each chromatid, and results in more variety of sequence of
Polypeptide amino acids
gene combinations in gametes, and in
joined together
offspring.
c) Mutation / Independent Segregation of

homologous chromosomes in meiosis / 7. a) Mutagen = something that CAUSES a
Receiving genes from 2 different parents mutation.
during sexual reproduction. b) 1. Controlled experiments have
demonstrated that mutations are caused in
Worksheet 11 plant seeds, insects, etc which are exposed to
a) communication b) collaboration nuclear radiation or x-rays.
c) Wilkins d) Franklin 2. There was a large increase in human
e) Watson f) Crick mutations and genetic abnormalities in
g) base h) double Hiroshima after the atomic bomb attack of
i) replicated j) division 1945, and the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine
k) unzip / untwist l) template 1986.
m) A & T n) C & G c)
o) identical p) amino acids Altered Altered Altered
q) polypeptide r) 3-D shape DNA m-RRNA Polypeptide
s) sequence t) 20
u) repel v) enzymes
w) structural x) shape
y) amino z) DNA Altered
Enzyme
aa) 3 ab) codon Change in causes different
ac) Transcription ad) m-RNA cells activity chemical
product to form
ae) template af) single
ag) sugar ah) base 8.
ai) nucleus aj) mitochondria Similarity: both are models describing
ak) synthesis al) Translation evolution of a species.
am) polypeptide an) t-RNA Difference:Gradualism = evolution occurring
ao) mitochondria ap) protein slowly and steadily over relatively long time
aq) catalyses ar) pigment periods. Punctuated Equilibrium = species
as) change at) mutation remains unchanged for long periods, then
au) mutagens av) temperature evolves in a rapid burst.
aw) chemicals ax) X-rays
ay) nuclear radiation az) Ultra-violet U.V. 9.
ba) DNA bb) amino a) Body cell taken from parent, and nucleus
bc) polypeptide bd) shape extracted. Egg cell obtained and nucleus
be) enzyme bf) pigment replaced with nucleus from parent cell.
bg) Evolution Egg cell implanted in uterus of surrogate
bh) variation / genetic diversity mother, where normal pregnancy and birth
bi) Punctuated Equilibrium occur. Baby is clone of parent individual.
bj) remain unchanged b) If used on a large scale, cloning would
bk) rapid bursts reduce genetic diversity because less parents
are involved and more offspring would be
identical.
10. a) i) Gene from a fish transferred into strawberry plants.

ii) Makes strawberries frost-resistant, allowing them to be grown in areas
not previously possible.
b) Some people may be worried about long term health effects of eating
transgenic foods. (In this particular case, vegetarians might also see it as
unethical that the strawberries contain an animal gene.)
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keep it simple science

HSC Biology Topic 2

but first, an introduction...

Genetics In the section on

THE Chromosomes Meiosis &

Ancient Life Modern Life

correlate to When this fossil was first discovered, its

Transitional fossils are important evidence that

(in different ferns evolving to become cone-bearing plants.

Now we can also place absolute times on many

Why should they be so similar when they grow

Another aspect of Biogeography was seen by 1 bone in

Island 1 Island 2 Each limb is used in very different ways by

Biochemistry Selective Breeding

WHY SHOULD ALL ORGANISMS HAVE THE SAME

New Technologies Change Our Ideas

BIRD is Based on DNA

Stand by for more revelations as

The Darwin-Wallace Natural Selection

3. Nature selects which

More on Natural Selection A Change in the

A Change in the Chemical Conditions of the Environment

Natural Selection and Competition

More on Survival of the Fittest

Divergent Evolution Convergent Evolution

A classic example is the shark (a fish),

On each island conditions were

Worksheet 1 Evidence for Evolution `Name....................................

An important type of fossil is a Biochemistry reveals that all organisms have

Worksheet 2 Theory of Evolution Name....................................

Worksheet 3 Test Questions Section 1 Name....................................

Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

Gregor Mendels Experiments

Then he cross-pollinated 2 contrasting types to

He bred large numbers of plants so

Mendels Explanation of Results Mendels Pure-B Breeding These are Phenotypes...

Although each plant carries 2 genes for each possible

The diagram (above, right) explains why Mendel observed a ratio

Reasons Why Mendels Work Was Ignored

The Punnett Square parent

T&t gametes T&t

Monohybrid Crosses Sample Problem 2

Parents are Bb x bb Then, for the F2:

Can we be sure that son 6 is Rr and NOT RR?

Uses of Pedigree Diagrams

Some human disorders are inherited. Examples are

Worksheet 4 Mendelian Genetics

Gregor a)........................ was a monk who

Worksheet 5 Mendelian Genetics Problems Name....................................

ii) phenotypes of the offspring?

c) Use a punnett square to predict the outcome

In humans, some people have little fingers that I

a) Is the curved little fingers trait dominant or III

Worksheet 7 Test Questions section 2 Name....................................

3. CHROMOSOMES & DNA STRUCTURE

Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the ORIGINAL BODY

Chromosomes occur in pairs. Chromosomes Mitosis Meiosis

Notice that homologous

each other, as a double A A a

Notice that the only

Finally, the entire molecule is corkscrewed into

What Determines Sex?

determines the sex of the baby.

In 1910, in an experiment involving flies with The Explanation: