Inst - Lect Temp

Industrial Instrumentation
Ch.E-401
Temperature Measurement
Asma Ashraf. Assistant Professor

1
Department of Chemical Engineering, SCET
Temperature Scales
Temperature scales are based upon fixed reference points i.e. the
freezing point and the boiling point of water
Four basic scales are used for the measurement of temperature
1. Fahrenheit Scale
2. Celsius or Centigrade Scale
3. Kelvin Scale
4. Rankine Scale
The basic equations describing the relationship between these
scales are
C = (F-32) / 1.8
R = F + 459.69
K = C + 273.16

2
Temperature Measurement Methods/Classification
Changes in Density, length or volume:

Liquid in glass/metal thermometers
Bimetallic elements
Filled system thermometers
Voltage generated at the ends of two dissimilar metals:
Thermocouples
Changes in electrical resistance:
Resistance thermometers (RTDs),
Thermistors
Sense radiation and relate it to temperature:
Pyrometers
Advanced Temperature Measurement
Fiber Optic T Measurement
Ultrasonic T Measurement

3
Glass Thermometer: Construction
Bulb:
The reservoir for containing most of the thermometric liquid
Capillary Tube:
The glass tube having a capillary bore along which the liquid
moves with changes in temperature
The glass tube is calibrated with marks based on a temperature
scale

4
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Working Principle
Expansion of liquids with the increase in temperature
When temperature rises, fluid expands and thus the level of fluid in
tube rises
Usually mercury or alcohol is used to fill the bulb and tube
Mercury freezes at -39OC so for measuring low temperatures alcohol
is used
For high temperatures, the space above the fluid can be filled with
nitrogen at high pressure which prevents the fluid in the tube from
boiling
Usually this type of thermometers are used for measuring
temperatures from -120 to 320 OC
It should not be used when rapidly fluctuating temperatures are to
be measured with high accuracy
Asma Ashraf. Assistant Professor 5
Glass Thermometer
Advantages:
Simple to use
Low cost
Portable
Low maintenance
They need no power source
Disadvantages:
Fragile
Remote indication is not
possible

6
Liquid-in-Metal Thermometers
The working Principle is same as that of liquid-in-glass
thermometer
Construction
The tube and bulb is made of metal instead of glass
As expansion of mercury is not visible, so a bourdon tube is used
to measure the change in volume
One end of the bourdon tube is fix and the other is attached to a
pointer which moves on a calibrated scale

Liquid-in-Metal Thermometers
Working
As the temperature rises, mercury expands
This expansion is transferred to the bourdon tube through
capillary tube
The free end of bourdon tube bends and moves on the scale

8
Bi-Metallic Thermometers
Working Principle
Based on Differential Expansion of two solids with change in
temperature
Construction
It consists of two metal strips welded together
Each metal has a different co-efficient of thermal expansion

Working
When temperature changes, each metal expands/contracts according
to its specific co-efficient of thermal expansion
As the metals are welded together so with increase in temperature,
the strip bends towards the side of low thermal expansion
This movement of strip is utilized to deflect the pointer over a
calibrated scale
The deflection increases with the square of strip length
A longer strip can be contained in a relatively small space if the strip
is wound in a spiral or helix form

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They are available for the temperature range from -75 to 540OC
Advantages Disadvantages
Low cost Limited to local mounting
Rugged and tough Only indicating type is
Easily installed and available
maintained Possibility of calibration
Good accuracy relative to change due to rough
cost handling
Wide temperature range Less accurate than glass
stem thermometer

11
Gas Thermometers
Construction and working is same as that of liquid-in-metal

thermometer
Working is based on the Ideal Gas Law which state that the
pressure of gas is directly proportional to the temperature of gas
N2 is suitable gas for filling because it is inert and inexpensive
If N2 does not behaves like an ideal gas at very low
temperatures, He is used
Gas thermometers are more sensitive to T changes because
gases have low heat capacity

Department of Chemical Engineering, 12
SCET
Filled Systems Thermometers
Working Principle
Change in density or volume of fluid with change in
temperature
Construction
Consists of a Bourdon tube,
a capillary tube and a
thermometer bulb
The entire system is sealed
after filling with a suitable
liquid at a specific T and P
Commonly used liquids are
mercury, ethyl alcohol,
xylene and toluene
13
Working
The thermometer bulb is installed inside the substance to
be measured
This causes the liquid to heat or cool according to the T of
the substance
This change causes the liquid to expand or contract due to
which Bourdon tube moves
The movement of Bourdon tube is used to move the
pointer on a calibrated scale which gives the numerical
value of T

14
Sources of Error in Filled Systems Thermometers
Ambient T Effect
Change in ambient T can cause the liquid in tube to contract
or expand, which causes error in measurement
Head or Elevation Effect
If thermometer bulb is placed at a different height with
respect to the Bourdon tube, elevation errors are produced
It can be avoided by filling the liquid at a slightly higher
pressure
Barometric Effect
Effect due to change in atmosphere pressure
Can be avoided by keeping the filled system pressure higher
than atmosphere pressure

15
Sources of Error in Filled Systems Thermometers
Immersion Effect
If the bulb is not completely immersed, the bulb would
not absorb sufficient heat, so thermometer will indicate
low T
Radiation Effect
Occurs due to T difference between the bulb and other
solid bodies around
A radiation shield is used to avoid it

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Rugged construction Need a large bulb for high
Low maintenance accuracy
No need for electric power Entire system has to be
supply replaced in case of failure
Point of display can be at a Accuracy, range and
distance from the bulb sensitivity is lower than
Satisfactory sensitivity and electrical measuring
accuracy instruments
Low cost Cannot be used at very high
temperatures

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Electrical Temperature Instruments
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs)
Thermistors

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Thermocouples: Working Principle
Based on Seebeck Effect which states that:
When two dissimilar metals are joined to form a closed circuit, an emf
will be produced if there is a temperature difference between the two
junctions
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Thermocouple: Construction
Constructed of two dissimilar
metal wires joined at one end
Most important factor to be
considered when selecting a
pair of materials is the
"thermoelectric difference
between the two materials
A significant difference
between the two materials
will result in better
thermocouple performance

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The leads of the thermocouple are

encased in a rigid metal sheath
Magnesium oxide surrounds the
thermocouple wires to
prevent vibration that could damage
the fine wires
enhance heat transfer between the
measuring junction and the medium
21

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Thermocouples: Working
The thermocouple has two junctions at the two ends of metals
connection
Reference Junction
The one that is kept at constant temperature is called cold or
reference junction
Measuring Junction
The end that is in contact with the process is called the hot or
measurement junction
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Thermocouples: Working
Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the

attached circuit when subjected to changes in temperature
The amount of current that will be produced is dependent
on the
temperature difference between the measurement and
reference junction
the characteristics of the two metals used
The difference between the voltages is measured and
voltmeter reading is converted to its corresponding
temperature
The conversion table is supplied by manufacturer

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Thermocouples: Conversion Tables

25
Thermocouples: Measuring Junction Configurations
Commercial Thermocouples take the form of probes

with the measuring junction housed in the tip
There are three main types of measuring junction
Grounded
Ungrounded
Exposed
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Thermocouple wires are connected to an electrically conductive
sheath
Wires are in direct electrical contact with the substance whose
temperature is being measured
Fast Response but prone to electrical interference

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Thermocouple wires are electrically isolated from the
conductive sheath
Slower response time than grounded junctions but more
reliable

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Thermocouple wires protrude from the sheath and make direct
physical contact with the substance whose temperature is to be
measured
Very fast response but prone to corrosion. That is why these are
used for gases only

29
Thermocouples Types
Type J
Iron / Constantan
Range: 196C to +760 C
Higher sensitivity of about 55 V/C
Good to use in Reducing Environments
Less popular than K Type
Type K
Chromel / Alumel
Range: -190 to +1370C
Widely Used
Type B
(Pt-30%Rh)/ (Pt-6%Rh)
Range: 0 to +1860 C
Used for Calibration ofAsma
Thermocuples
Ashraf. Assistant Professor
30
Thermocouples Types
Type E
Chromel (Ni-Cr Alloy ) / Constantan (Cu-Ni Alloy):
Range: -196 to + 999C
High output: ~68 V/C
Ideal for use at low temperatures
Type R
(Pt-13%Rh)/ Pt
Range: -18 to +1704 C
Good for High Temperatures
Type S
(Pt-10%Rh)/ Pt
Range: -18 to 1760 C
Good for High Temperatures

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Thermocouples: Types
Type T
Copper / Constantan
Range: -190 to + 399C
Good Corrosion Resistance from Moisture
Type Y
Iron / Constantan
Range: -129 to + 982C
Not of Industrial Standard
Type N
Nicrosil / Nisil
Range: -270 to 1260C
better for oxidation environments at high temperatures compared
to the type K

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Thermocouples :Types
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Thermocouples: Advantages
Rugged Construction
Inexpensive
Simple to use than RTDs
Fast Response than RTDs
No need of Bridge Circuit
Extremely wide T Range: -270 to 2800C
Electrical output is adaptable to variety of readouts
High response speed compared to filled system thermometers
Good accuracy
Calibration is easy
More Durable than RTDs
Possess long transmission distances
Good reproducibility

Department of Chemical Engineering, SCET 34
Thermocouples: Disadvantages
Limited use in T spans of less than 33C because of small change in
junction voltage with change in T
Extension leads should be separated from external environment so
that they may not pick stray voltage signals
Thermocouples are not used in areas where high radiation fields are
present
Reference junction has to be kept at constant T, otherwise
compensation is required
T-Voltage relationship is Non-linear
They are slower in response than RTDs
Amplifier is required for some applications

Department of Chemical Engineering, SCET 35
Thermopile
The thermopile is the name given to a
temperature-measuring device that consists of
several thermocouples connected together in
series
All the reference junctions are at the same cold
temperature and all the hot junctions are
exposed to the temperature being measured
The effect of connecting N thermocouples
together in series is to increase the
measurement sensitivity by a factor of N
A typical thermopile manufactured by
connecting together 25 chromelconstantan
thermocouples gives a measurement resolution
of 0.001C
36
Resistance Temperature devices (RTDs)
Working Principle
Change in resistance of metal
with the change in temperature
Construction
RTD elements are usually long,
spring-like wires
To avoid short circuiting
between wires and sheath,
insulator like porcelain is used
Inconel is used to enclose the
whole assembly because of its
inherent corrosion resistance
Inconel reaches to the T of
medium quickly so it does not
delay the response
37
Resistance Temperature devices (RTDs): Metals
The metals that are best suited for use as RTD sensors
are:
Pure
Of uniform quality
stable within a given range of temperature
able to give reproducible resistance-temperature
readings
Only a few metals have the properties necessary for
use in RTD elements
Pt, Cu and Ni are commonly used in RTDs
These metals have positive T co-efficient of resistance
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Resistance Temperature devices (RTDs)

39
Resistance Temperature devices (RTDs): Working
The RTD element is inserted in the medium and is connected

to a Wheatstone bridge by leads
The circuit has four
resistances
A,B and C are permanent
resistances whose ohmic
value does not change
with T
X is the RTD element
whose resistance changes
with change in T
LR1 and LR2 are the
resistances of the lead
wires 40
Resistance Temperature devices (RTDs): Working
The Principle of Whetstone bridge states that No current flows

in the balanced condition
When the T changes, the resistance of RTD changes, so the

circuit becomes imbalance and thus galvanometer shows
deflection
The deflection of galvanometer can be calibrated to give T
reading

41
RTDs: Advantages
High Accuracy
Fairly wide temperature range: -200 to 650C
Small in size
Fast response: in the order of fractions of a second
Good reproducibility
Change in resistance is linear
Stable and accurate performance over many years
Temperature compensation is not required
More sensitive than thermocouple
An RTD will not experience drift problems because it is not self
powered
Suitable for long distance measurements
42
Not effected by strayDepartment
radiations and signals
of Chemical Engineering, SCET
RTDs: Disadvantages
High cost (high metal cost)
Less rugged than thermocouples
Bridge circuit and power supply is required
Show inaccuracy due to passage of current: Self heating
phenomenon
Large bulb size than thermocouples
Not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range as a
thermocouple

Thermocouple Vs RTD
Temperature range
Noble Metal Thermocouples can reach 3,100 F, while
standard RTDs have a limit of 600 F and extended range
RTDs have a limit of 1,100 F
Cost
A plain stem thermocouple is 2 to 3 times less expensive
than a plain stem RTD. A thermocouple head assembly is
roughly 50% less expensive than an equivalent RTD head
assembly
Durability
In the sensors industry, RTDs are widely regarded as a less
durable sensor when compared to thermocouples

Thermocouple Vs RTD
Accuracy, Linearity, & Stability
As a general rule, RTDs are more accurate than thermocouples.
This is especially true at lower temperature ranges. RTDs are also
more stable and have better linearity than thermocouples.
If accuracy, linearity, and stability are your primary concerns and
your application is within an RTDs temperature limits, go with the
RTD.
Response Time
RTDs cannot be grounded. For this reason, they have a slower
response time than grounded thermocouples.
Also, thermocouples can be placed inside a smaller diameter
sheath than RTDs.
A smaller sheath diameter will decrease response time. For
example, a grounded thermocouple inside a 1/16 dia. sheath will
have a faster response time than a RTD inside a dia. sheath.

45
Thermistors
Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors.
It exhibits a change in electrical resistance with a
change in its temperature
Working Principle:
Change in resistance with change in temperature
high negative temperature coefficient of resistance, but
can also be positive
The negative temperature coefficient can be as large as
several percent per degree Celsius, allowing the
thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in
temperature which could not be observed with an RTD
or thermocouple circuit
46
Thermistors: Construction
Thermistors are semiconductors, constructed from a
specific mixture of oxides of metals sintered at
temperatures above 980C
They are available in variety of configurations like
bead, discs, rods and washers

47
Thermistors: Working
Thermistor is placed in the environment whose T is to be measured
As the T rises, the resistance of thermistor decreases
This decrease in resistance can be detected which will give the
measure of T
To measure resistance change, thermistor is placed as one leg of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit
When there is no change in T, the circuit is at balanced condition
and galvanometer shows no deflection
When T changes, the resistance
changes due to which circuit
becomes imbalanced so a current
flows through it
This flow of current causes the
galvanometer pointer to move on
a calibrated T scale 48
Thermistors
Thermistors have high sensitivity which can be up to 10
percent change per degree Celsius, making them the
most sensitive temperature elements available, but
with very nonlinear characteristics
The typical response times is 0.5 to 5 Sec with an
opera ng range from 50 to 300C
Devices are available with the temperature range
extended to 500C

49
Thermistors

50
Thermistor
Small sizes Non-linear temperature v/s
Fast response resistance curve
Low cost Unsuitable for wide
Suitable for narrow spans temperature spans
Very Sensitive
Less stable at high
Resistance is a function of
absolute T so cold junction temperature
temperature compensation is Decalibration if used beyond
not required the sensors temperature
Stability of instrument ratings
increases with age

51
Comparison of Temperature Measuring Instruments

52
Comparison of Temperature Measuring Instruments
Temperature measurement Comparison Chart

Instrument Thermocouple RTD Thermistor
Temp. Range -270C to 2300C -240C t0 650C -100C to 500C
Accuracy Good Best Good
Linearity Better Best Good
Sensitivity Good Better Best
Stability Good Best Better
Cost Best Good Better

53
Thermowell
The process environment where temperature monitoring is
required is often not only hot, but also pressurized and possibly
chemically corrosive
To facilitate removal of the temperature sensors for examination or
replacement and to provide mechanical protection, the sensors are
usually mounted inside thermowell
A thermo well is basically a hollow metal tube with one end sealed.
It is usually mounted permanently in the pipe work
The sensor is inserted into it and makes contact with the sealed end
The output of the sensor is taken from the head of the thermowell
Thermowell
54
Radiation Temperature Instruments

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Pyrometers
At very high temperatures, the instrument may melt due to
direct physical contact with the system
For these systems, radiation temperature measuring
instruments are used
Pyrometry
It is a technique for measuring temperature without physical
contact
Determines temperature by measuring the heat radiations
emitted by the body
Pyrometers are non-contact devices and measure the
temperature using electromagnetic radiations
Types of Pyrometers
Radiation pyrometers
Optical pyrometers
56
Radiation Pyrometers
Working Principle
Based on the measurement of radiant energy emitted by hot body
Construction
Consists of a lens to focus radiant energy from the body whose
temperature is to be measured
The lens focuses the radiant energy to a detector or receiving element
the receiving element may be a:
Thermocouple
RTD
Thermopile
A temperature indicator or recorder is attached with the receiving
element to indicate temperature

57
Radiation Pyrometers: Working
When the energy radiated by the hot body enters the pyrometer, it
is focused onto the detector
The detectors measuring junction is attached to a blackened disk
The disk absorbs the heat radiations and its temperature rises
The reference junction of the detector is kept at a fixed temperature
The difference between the temperatures of the measuring and
reference junctions generates a voltage which is related to the
temperature of the blackened disk
The temperature of the disk and the body is same

58
Radiation Pyrometers: Sources of Error
Sensitive to any obstruction in the line of sight

between the pyrometer and the hot body
Should not be used when infrared, absorbing water
vapors, dust or other particles are present in the air
Sensitive to Emittance Errors. To avoid this, the device
should be calibrated using an optical pyrometer which
is less sensitive to emittance errors

59
Radiation Pyrometers
Able to measure high Scale is non-linear
temperatures Errors due to presence of
No need for physical contact gases or vapors that absorb
with system radiant energy
Fast response speed Emissivity of target disk
Moderate cost affects the measurement

60
Radiation Pyrometers: Applications
Used for temperatures above practical operating range
of thermocouples
Can be used in environments which contaminate or
limit the life of thermocouples
Used for moving targets
Used for targets which are not easily accessible, such
as furnace interiors
Used for targets which would damage by contact with
instruments
Used for measuring average temperatures of large
surfaces
61
Optical Pyrometers
Provide an accurate method for measuring the
temperatures in the range of 600-3000OC
They are used for the calibration of radiation
pyrometers
Working Principle:
Based on the comparison of the intensity (brightness) of
the visual radiation emitted by hot body with the
radiation emitted by the source of known intensity
Construction
Consists of an incandescent lamp filament which is used
as the reference source of radiation
A telescope to visualize the intensity
A bridge circuit for the filament

62
Optical Pyrometers: Working
The filament is heated with a
battery which is attached to a
rheostat to adjust the
temperature of the filament
The filament is connected in one
arm of the wheatstone bridge
circuit
The electrical resistance of the
filament varies with the
temperature while the
resistances of other arms are
constant
As the temperature of the
filament increases, the circuit
becomes unbalanced and the
degree of unbalance is read from
the galvanometer deflection
which is calibrated in terms of
temperature 63
Optical Pyrometers: Working
In operation. The hot object is viewed through the telescope
when filament first appears as a dark line against the
glowing background
On rotating the rheostat, the temperature of the filament is
progressively increased until the visible radiation matches
that of the hot object
When this stage is reached, the temperature can be read out
from the galvanometer
An absorption screen is used between the filament and the
object to reduce the intensity of radiation from object to the
filament, so a temperature sufficiently higher than the
filament T can be measured
A monochromatic screen can also be used to eliminate color
differences between the filament and the object 64
Optical Pyrometers
Disappearing Filament
Optical Pyrometer

65
Optical Pyrometers
Flexible, portable and Not useful for measuring
convenient in use temperatures of clean
Non-contact burning objects
Light in weight Relatively expensive
Useful for monitoring Prone to human errors
temperatures of moving Subject to emissivity errors
objects and distant objects
Useful for high temperatures
Good accuracy

66
Fiber-Optic Temperature Measurement

67
Construction
Parts
Fiber Optic Assembly
Infrared Detector
Electronic Consol
Assembly consists of a single or several fibers bundled
together
For protection, fibers are enclosed in metal or ceramic
sheaths
Fibers maintain resolution exceeding one degree change
in T at high temperature
Fibers are sensitive to infrared portion of the spectrum
and filter out other radiations, thus they are not
activated by flames and fumes

68
Working
The hot object emits infrared radiations, the magnitude of which is
directly proportional to the temperature of object
This radiation is conducted through the optical fiber assembly to
the infrared detector
The detector receives radiations and produces a voltage which is
calibrated in terms of temperature of the body

69
Fiber-Optic Temperature Measurement
Non-contact temperature High capital cost
measurement system
High operating cost
Rugged
Small in size Cannot be used for systems
Does not require line-of-sight which have flames and fumes
observation of the object Sensitive only to infrared
Not affected by microwave, portion of radiation
electromagnetic fields or by
shock and vibration
Wide range
Fast response
Can measure temperatures of
remote and immersed objects
Ability to look around opaque
objects Asma Ashraf. Assistant Professor
70
Ultrasonic Temperature Measurement
Working Principle
Based on the effect of temperature on the velocity of sound
waves in the medium transmitting the sound waves
Temperature dependency is given by:
The velocity of sound increases in gases and decreases in

liquids with the increases in temperature
71
Ultrasonic Temperature Measurement
Measures temperature from High cost
cryogenic range to plasma Requires accurate
levels (20000 OC) determination of ratio of
High accuracy specific heats
Inability to make point
measurements

72
Calibration of Thermometers

73
Calibration of Bimetallic Thermometers
Calibration is done by comparing the response to that

of a standard thermometer in a constant temperature
bath
The length of the strip is adjusted so that the
thermometer records proper temperature

SCET
Calibration of Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
The usual method is to determine ice points
The ice point is determined by inserting the thermometer
in an ice bath
To calibrate thermometer over total range , variable-
temperature bath is used
The type and construction of this bath depends on the
temperature range:
For 160 to -75 OC, liquid N2 is used as the coolant and a low
boiling hydrocarbon as bath fluid
For -80 to 5 OC, dry ice is used as coolant and alcohol as bath
fluid
For 5 to 200 OC, a heated and stirred bath is used. Water is used
at low temperatures and oil at high temperatures
75
For T>200 OC, a metallic bath is used
Calibration of Thermocouples
Calibration is done by comparing its response with a
standard thermocouple at the same temperature
The standard thermometer is usually a platinum
thermocouple or a platinum RTD
An optical pyrometer is used for temperatures higher
than 800OC

SCET

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Industrial Instrumentation

Asma Ashraf. Assistant Professor

Asma Ashraf. Assistant Professor

Changes in Density, length or volume:

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Construction and working is same as that of liquid-in-metal

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The leads of the thermocouple are

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Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the

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Commercial Thermocouples take the form of probes

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The RTD element is inserted in the medium and is connected

The Principle of Whetstone bridge states that No current flows

When the T changes, the resistance of RTD changes, so the

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Temperature measurement Comparison Chart

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Sensitive to any obstruction in the line of sight

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The velocity of sound increases in gases and decreases in

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