Cellular Telephony and

Technologies
Reading 2
 First Generation (1G) Systems
Analog with reasonably reliable networks but
limited service offerings and did not permit
roaming between networks.
The 1G period began in the late 1970s and lasted
through the 1980s.
These systems featured the first true mobile
phone systems, known at first as "cellular mobile
radio telephone."
These networks used analog voice signaling, and
were little more sophisticated than the repeater
networks used by amateur radio operators.
 Second Generation (2G) Systems
Digital, brought significant advantages in
terms of sophistication, capacity and quality.
The following technologies are under 2G
systems:
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
GPRS General Packet Radio Service (2.5)
EDGE Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution
(2.75)
2G technologies have steadily improved, with
increased bandwidth, packet routing, and the
introduction of multimedia.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
3G refers to the third generation of
developments in wireless technology,
especially mobile communications.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
Capabilities and Features
Enhanced multimedia (voice, data, video, and remote
control).
Usability on all popular modes (cellular telephone, e-
mail, paging, fax, videoconferencing, and Web
browsing).
Broad bandwidth and high speed (upwards of 2
Mbps).
Roaming capability throughout Europe, Japan, and
North America.
Interoperability and roaming
Capability to determine geographic position of
mobiles and report it to both the network and the
mobile terminal
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
Capability to support circuit and packet data
at high bit rates:
144 kilobits/second or higher in high mobility
(vehicular) traffic
384 kilobits/second for pedestrian traffic
2 Megabits/second or higher for indoor traffic
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
Common billing/user profiles:
Sharing of usage/rate information between
service providers
Standardized call detail recording
Standardized user profiles
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
Support of multimedia services/capabilities:
Fixed and variable rate bit traffic
Bandwidth on demand
Asymmetric data rates in the forward and reverse
links
Multimedia mail store and forward
Broadband access up to 2 Megabits/second
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications
Service) is a third-generation (3G) broadband,
packet-based transmission of text, digitized
voice, video, and multimedia at data rates up
to 2 megabits per second (Mbps).
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
UMTS is based on the Global System for Mobile (GSM)
communication standard.
UMTS also makes it possible to provide new services
like alternative billing methods or calling plans. For
instance, users can choose to pay-per-bit, pay-per-
session, flat rate, or asymmetric bandwidth options.
The higher bandwidth of UMTS also enables other new
services like video conferencing or IPTV.
UMTS may allow the Virtual Home Environment (VHE)
to fully develop, where a roaming user can have the
same services to either at home, in the office or in the
field through a combination of transparent terrestrial
and satellite connections.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
The electromagnetic radiation spectrum for
UMTS has been identified as frequency bands
1885-2025 MHz for future IMT-2000 systems,
and 1980-2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for
the satellite portion of UMTS systems.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows
numerous signals to occupy a single
transmission channel, optimizing the use of
available bandwidth.
The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency
(UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-
MHz and 1.9-GHz bands.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
The original CDMA standard, also known as
CDMA One and still common in cellular
telephones in the U.S., offers a transmission
speed of only up to 14.4 Kbps in its single
channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-
channel form. CDMA2000 and wideband
CDMA deliver data many times faster.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
CDMA2000, also known as IMT-CDMA Multi-
Carrier or 1xRTT, is a code-division multiple
access (CDMA) version of the IMT-2000 standard
developed by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).
The CDMA2000 standard is third-generation (3-G)
mobile wireless technology. The world's first 3G
commercial system was launched by SK Telecom
(South Korea) in October 2000, using CDMA2000
1X.
 Third Generation (3G) Systems
CDMA2000 can support mobile data
communications at speeds ranging from 144
Kbps to 2 Mbps.
Versions have been developed by Ericsson and
Qualcomm.
As of March 2006, the CDMA Development
Group reports more than 250,300,000
subscribers worldwide.
 Fourth Generation (4G) Systems
4G (also known as beyond 3G), an acronym for
Fourth-Generation Communications System, is a
term used to describe the next step in wireless
communications.
A 4G system will be able to provide a
comprehensive IP solution where voice, data and
streamed multimedia can be given to users on an
"Anytime, Anywhere" basis, and at higher data
rates than previous generations.
 Fourth Generation (4G) Systems
A spectrally efficient system (in bits/s/Hz and
bits/s/Hz/site)
High network capacity: more simultaneous
users per cell
A nominal data rate of 100 Mbit/s while the
client physically moves at high speeds
relative to the station, and 1 Gbit/s while
client and station are in relatively fixed
positions as defined by the ITU-R
 Fourth Generation (4G) Systems
A data rate of at least 100 Mbit/s between any
two points in the world
Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks
Seamless connectivity and global roaming across
multiple networks,
High quality of service for next generation
multimedia support (real time audio, high speed
data, HDTV video content, mobile TV, etc)
 Fourth Generation (4G) Systems
The technologies which are being considered
as pre-4G are the following: WiMax, WiBro
(wireless broadband), iBurst, 3GPP Long Term
Evolution and 3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband.
 Summary
1G 2G 3G 4G

Analog Cellular Digital Cellular Digital Cellular Digital Cellular

Voice Voice/data Voice/high- Voice/high-

speed data speed data

AMPS CDMA W_CDMA Mobile Wi-Max

1XRtt
TACS GSM HSPA LTE
GPRS
80 1992 1999 2001 Present
2003
 Acronym

AMPS Advanced Mobile Telephone System

TACS Total Access Communication System
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
LTE Long Term Evolution
GSM Network

AuC Authentication Center

BTS Base Transceiver Station
HLR Home Location Register
MSC Mobile services
Switching Center
BSC Base Station Controller
EIR Equipmenr Identity
Registry
MS Mbile Station
VLR Visitor Location Register
 GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS
Switching System (SS)
responsible for performing call processing and
subscriber related functions
Base Station System (BSS)
performs all the radio-related functions
SWITCHING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Mobile services Switching Center (MSC)
performs the telephony switching functions for the mobile
network.
It controls calls to and from other telephony and data
systems.
Gateway Functionality
- Gateway functionality enables an MSC to interrogate a
networks HLR in order to route a call to a Mobile Station
(MS).
SWITCHING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Home Location Register (HLR)
- a centralized network database that stores
and manages all mobile subscriptions
belonging to a specific operator.
The information stored includes:
Subscriber identity
Subscriber supplementary services
Subscriber location information
Subscriber authentication information
SWITCHING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
- temporarily stores subscription information
so that the MSC can service all the subscribers
currently visiting that MSC service area.

There is one VLR for each MSC in a network.

SWITCHING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Authentication Center (AuC)
- it authenticates the subscribers attempting to use
a network.
- it is used to protect network operators against
fraud.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

- a database containing mobile equipment identity
information which helps to block calls from
stolen, unauthorized, or defective MSs.
 BASE STATION COMPONENTS
Base Station Controller (BSC)
- it manages all the radio-related functions of
a GSM network.

- it is a high capacity switch that provides

functions such as MS handover, radio channel
assignment and the collection of a cell
configuration data.
 BASE STATION COMPONENTS
Base Transceiver Station
- controls the radio interface to the MS.

- comprises the radio equipment such as

transceivers and antennas which are needed
to serve each cell in the network.
NETWORK MONITORING CENTERS
Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
- a computerized monitoring center which is
connected to other network components.

- the status of the network and can monitor

and control a variety of system parameters.
NETWORK MONITORING CENTERS
Network Management Center (NMC)
- centralized control of the network is done
here

- only one NMC is required for a network and

this controls the subordinate OMCs.
 MOBILE STATION (MS)
An MS is used by a mobile subscriber to
communicate with the mobile network.

GSM MSs consists of:

A mobile terminal

A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

 GSM GEOGRAPHICAL NETWORK
STRUCTURE
CELL
A cell is the basic unit of a cellular system and
is defined as the area of radio coverage given
by one BS antenna system.

Each cell is assigned a unique number called

Cell Global Identity (CGI).
 CELL
The physical size of a cell varies depending on a user
density and calling patterns.

Macrocells (large cells) typically have a radius between 1

mile and 15 miles with base station transmit powers
between 1w and 6w.

Microcells (smallest cells) typically have a radius of 1500

feet or less with base station transmit powers between
0.1W and 1W.

Picocell is used indoors, where cellular radio signals are

week to provide reliable communications.
 MSC SERVICE AREA
An MSC service area is made up of a number
of local areas (LA) and represents the
geographic part of the network controlled by
one MSC.
The subscribers MSC service area is stored in
the HLR.
 PLMN SERVICE AREA
A Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) service
area is the entire set of cells served by one
network operator and is defined as the area in
which an operator offers a radio coverage and
access to its network.
 GSM SERVICE AREA
The GSM service area is the entire
geographical area in which a subscriber can
gain access the to a GSM network to.
The GSM service area increases as more
operators sign contracts agreeing to work
together.
 WIRELESS CONCEPTS
Channel
A channel is a frequency or set of frequencies
which can be allocated for the transmission, and
possibly the receipt, of information.
It is an important factor in determining the
capacity of a mobile system.
TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Simplex One way only FM radio television

Half-duplex Two way, only one at a Police radio

time
Full-duplex Two way, both at the Mobile systems
same time
 Carrier Separation
Every mobile system includes a carrier separation.

This is the distance on the frequency band between

channels being transmitted in the same direction.

This is required to avoid overlapping of information in

one channel into an adjacent channel.

In GSM the carrier separation is fixed at 200 kHz.

 Capacity and Frequency Re-use
Cells capacity is determined by the number of
frequencies in a cell.
A cell may have one or more frequencies
allocated to it. It is important when allocating
frequencies that interference is avoided.
A common factor is the use of similar
frequencies close to each other.
 Transmission Rate
The amount of information transmitted over a
radio channel over a period of time is known
is the transmission rate.

Transmission rate is expressed in bits per

second or bit/s.

In GSM the net bit rate over the air interface is

270kbit/s.
 Modulation Method
The modulation technique used in GSM is
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) and
is a form of phase modulation, or phase shift
keying as it is called.

GMSK enables the transmission of 270 kbit/s

within a 200 kHz channel. This gives a bit rate
of 1.3 bit/s per Hz.
 Access Method: TIME DIVISION
MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA)
Most digital cellular systems use the technique of Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to transmit and
receive speech signals.

With TDMA, one carrier is used to carry a number of

calls, each call using the carrier at designated periods
in time. These periods of time are referred to as time
slots.

Each MS on a call is assigned one time slot on the

uplink frequency and one on the downlink frequency.
Information sent during one time slot is called a burst.
 Roaming and Handsoffs
The transfer of a mobile unit from one base stations
control to another base stations control is called a
handoff (or handover).

A hard handoff is a break-before-make process; the

mobile unit breaks its connection with one base station
before establishing a voice communication with a new
base station.

A soft handoff is a flawless handoff that normally takes

approximately 200 ms, which is imperceptible to voice
telephone users.
 Transmission Problems
PATH LOSS
Path loss occurs when the received signal
becomes weaker and weaker due to increasing
distance between MS and BTS, even if there are
no obstacles between the transmitting (Tx) and
receiving (Rx) antenna.
SHADOWING
Shadowing occurs when there are physical
obstacles including hills and buildings between
BTS and the MTS.
Solutions to Transmission Problems
Bit Error Rate
BER defines the percentage of the total number of received bits
which are incorrectly detected.

CHANNEL CODING
Channel coding is used to detect and correct
errors in a received bit stream. It adds bits to a
message. These bits enable a channel decoder to
determine whether the message has faulty bits.
Solutions to Transmission Problems
Antenna Diversity
Antenna Diversity increases the received signal
strength by taking advantage of the natural properties
of radio waves.
Space Diversity
An increased received signal strength at the BTS may
be achieved by mounting two receiver antennae
instead of one. If the two Rx antennae are physically
separated the probabilty that both of them are
affectec by deep fading at the same time is low.
Solutions to Transmission Problems
Polarization Diversity
With polarization diversity the two space diversity
antennae are replaced by one dual polarized
antenna. The most common types of ploarized
antenna rays are vertical/horizantal and are in 45
degree slant orientation.
Solutions to Transmission Problems
Solutions to Transmission Problems
FREQUENCY HOPPING
It is possible for the BTS and MS to hop from
frequency to frequency during a call. The
frequency hopping for the BTS and MS is
synchronized.
In GSM there are 64 patterns of frequency
hopping; one of them is a simple cyclic or
sequential pattern. The remaining 63 are pseudo-
random patterns, which an operator can choose
from.
Solutions to Transmission Problems
Two types of hopping are supported by the
BSC:
BASEBAND hopping involves hopping between
frequencies on different tranceivers in a cell
SYNTHESIZER hopping involves hopping from
frequency on the same tranceiver in a cell.
CDMA: Code-Division Multiple Access
Also known as IS-95 (Interim Standard 95),
proposed by Qualcomm as a cellular
telephone system and standard based on
spread spectrum technology with the primary
goal of increasing capacity.

CDMA allows users to differentiate from one

another by a unique code rather than a
frequency or time assignment.
CDMA: Code-Divison Multiple Access
 CDMA: Code-Divison Multiple Access
On the forward channel, the base station
simultaneously transmit user data from all current
mobile units in that cell by using different spreading
sequences for each users transmission.
On the reverse link, all mobile units respond in an
asynchronous manner with a constant signal level
controlled by the base station.
CDMA: Code-Division Multiple Access
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Each users narrowband signal hops among discrete frequencies,
and the receiver follows in sequence
Is NOT currently used in wireless systems, although used in the
military

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Narrowband input from a user is coded (spread) by a user-
unique broadband code, then transmitted
Broadband signal is received; receiver knows, applies users
code, recovers users data
Is the method used in CDMA commercial systems
 CELL PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
Cell planning can be described as all activities
involved in:
Selecting the sites for the radio equipment
Selecting the radio equipment
Configuring the equipment

Every cellular network requires cell planning in

order to provide adequate coverage and call
quality.
 CELLS
A cell may be defined as an area of radio
coverage from one BTS antenna system.

It is the smallest building block in a mobile

network and is the reason why mobile nteworks
are often referred to as cellular networks.

Typically, cells are represented graphically by

hexagons.
 Two Main Types of Cell
OMNI DIRECTIONAL CELL
An omnidirection cell (or omnicell) is served by a
BTS with an antenna which transmits equally in all
directions (360 degrees).
Typically used to gain coverage
 Two Main Types of Cell
SECTOR CELL
A sector cell is the area of coverage from an
antenna, which transmits, in a given direction
only. This may be equal to 120 degrees or 180
degrees of an equivalent omni-directional cell.
Two-sectored sites and three-sectored sites
Typically used to gain capacity
 NOMINAL CELL PLAN
Cluster

A cluster is a group of cells available frequencies

have been once and only once.

The re-use pattern recommended for GSM are the

4/12 and the 3/9 pattern. 4/12 means that there
are four three-sector sites supporting twelve cells
using twelve frequency groups.