BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

Bahir Dar Institute Of Technology (BiT)

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Semester Project Proposal
On
Automatic ON/OFF Lamp with Morning Alarm

Prepared by:

Name ID

A) Wasihun Gutema...0502743
B) Yewulzaf Mekonnen..0502867
C) Yezihalem Dagne...0502869
D) Yisak Degene.0502884

Advisor: Mr. Edemialem G.

December, 2016
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

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DECLARATION
The undersigned, declare that this project proposal is our original work, and this project work
has not been presented for a project in this or any other universities, and all sources of
materials that will be used for the project work will be fully acknowledged.
Name signature
Wasihun Gutema.
Yewulzaf Mekonnen.
Yezihalem Dagne................................................................................................
Yisak Degene..
This project proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university

advisor.
_________________________________ ____________

Project advisor Signature

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ABSTRACT
Automatic on off Lamp with Morning Alarm System is simple yet powerful concept, which
uses transistor as as witch. By using this system manual works are 100% removed. It
automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes below the visible region of our eyes.
This is done by a sensor called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses the light
actually like our eyes. It automatically switches OFF lights whenever the sunlight comes,
visible to our eyes and activates the morning alarm. By using this system energy consumption
is also reduced because nowadays the manually operated street lights are not switched off
even the sunlight comes and also switched-on earlier before sunset. In this project, no need of
manual operation like ON time and OFF time setting. LDR and transistor are the main
components of the project. The rsistance of light dependent resistor (LDR) varies according
to the light falling on it. This LDR is connected as biasing resistor of the transistor. According
to the light falls on the LDR, the transistor is operated in saturation and cut off region.

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Contents

ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................ii

ACRONYMS............................................................................................................................vi

List of Figures..........................................................................................................................vii

CHAPTER- 1.............................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1

1.1 Overview..........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Problem Statement............................................................................................................1

1.3 Objectives.........................................................................................................................2

1.3.1 General Objective......................................................................................................2

1.3.3 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................2

1.4 Methodology.....................................................................................................................2

1.6 Scope and Limitation........................................................................................................4

1.7 Organization of the Project...............................................................................................4

CHAPTER-2..............................................................................................................................5

BACKGROUND THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................5

2.1 Background.......................................................................................................................5

2.1.1 Automatic light dimmer.............................................................................................5

2.1.2 Automatic Lawn Light with LDR..............................................................................6

2.1.3 Automatic Night Lamp with Triac.............................................................................6

2.1.4 Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm Using Microprocessor........................7

CHAPTER-3..............................................................................................................................8

AUTOMATIC NIGHT LAMP WITH MORNINGALARM.....................................................8

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 3.1 Basic Concept of Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm......................................8

3.2 Advantages.......................................................................................................................8

3.3 Applications......................................................................................................................8

3.4 Circuit Diagram..............................................................................................................9

3.5 Circuit Operation..............................................................................................................9

3.6 Description of Components............................................................................................10

3.6.1 Light Dependent Resistor........................................................................................10

3.6.2 Power Supply...........................................................................................................12

3.6.3 Resistor....................................................................................................................13

3.6.4 Transistor.................................................................................................................14

3.6.5 Diode........................................................................................................................17

3.6.6 Comparator..............................................................................................................18

3.6.7 Relays.......................................................................................................................19

3.6.8 Auxiliary Contacts...................................................................................................21

3.6.9 Speaker.....................................................................................................................22

CHAPTER-4............................................................................................................................22

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION.............................................................................................22

4.1 Results............................................................................................................................22

4.2 Conclusion......................................................................................................................23

REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................24

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ACRONYMS

AC Alternative Current
DC Direct Current
DL Depletion Layer
IC Integrated Circuit
LDR Light Dependent Resistor
LED Light Emitting Diode
NC Normally Closed
NO Normally Open
X-OR Exclusive or gate
MOSFET Metal oxide of sulphide field effect transistor
mm Mili meter
SPST Single pole and single throw
Traic Triode alternative current

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List of Figures
Table No Description Page No
Figure 1.1: Block diagram of automatic light dimmer circuit diagram..............................11
Figure 2.1: Automatic light dimmer circuit diagram [4] ...................................................14
Figure 2.2: Automatic night lamp with Triac circuit diagram [3] .....................................15
Figure 3.1: Ccircuit diagram of Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm...................17
Figure 3.2: LDR [5]............................................................................................................19
Figure 3.3: Symbol of LDR [5]...........................................................................................19
Figure 3.4: Practical LDR [5] ...........................................................................................19
Figure 3.5: Practical Resistor [4].......................................................................................21
Figure 3.6: Symbol of resistor [4]....................................................................................21
Figure 3.7: Transistor BC548..........................................................................................24
Figure 3.8: Block diagram of transistor [4].....................................................................24
Figure 3.9: I-V characteristics curve of transistor [4]....................................................25
Figure 3.10: Symbol of diode [5]...................................................................................26
Figure 3.11: LM385 Comparator [5] ...........................................................................27
Figure 3.12: Circuit diagram of relay [4]........................................................................28
Figure 3.13: Protection diode for relay [4].....................................................................29
Figure 3.14: Electromagnetic relay [4]...........................................................................29
Figure 4.1: The hardware circuit of the system.........................................................

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1
1
CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION
This Project "Automatic on and off Lamp with Morning Alarm" needs no manual operation
to switch it OFF and ON the lamp. When darkness rises to a certain value then sensor circuit
gets activated and switches ON the lamp and when there is enough other source of light at the
surrounding i.e. day time, the lamp gets OFF. This circuit is developed using Microprocessor.
The sensors are made with help of LDR which are Light Dependent Resistors, whose
Resistance is inversely proportional to the Light falling on it. The LDR converts the light
energy into electrical energy and this variable electrical energy was converted into digital
signal (0 or 1) by using the timer IC555. The Timer IC output goes low when light falls on
the LDR and the timer IC output goes high when the LDR was placed in dark.

1
1.2 Problem Statement

. Nowadays the manually operated bedrooms, hotels, streetlights, garden, and other lamps are
not switched off automatically even when the sun rises and there is enough light at the
surrounding. And also these lamps will stay off even if the surrounding is dark and the light is
needed. This condition is highly exposed for the wastage of power and will also have an
impact on the betterment of our day to day life. In order to overcome this and any other
related problems introducing the automatic night lamp with morning alarm circuit using LDR
is valuable. This project doesnt need any manual operation like switching it manually or on
time and off time setting. This project is highly helpful in wide applications especially where
it is difficult to appoint a person to operate the lights.

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1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective
The main objective of this project is to build an automatic on and off lamp with alarm using
LDR

1.3.3 Specific Objectives

To build morning alarm circuit.

To detect street line, garden and bed room lamp.

To design automatic on and off lamp with morning alarm.

1.4 Methodology
The following methods are applied and to be applied to perform this project:
Conducting a detail survey of published literatures on Automatic on and off Lamp with
Morning Alarm System

Collecting information about devices

After collecting the required data do the analysis and modelling of system.

To design the system in hardware

To simulation of modelling.

Testing

Implementation

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3. Literature Review
In order to get enough understand and know the limitations of projects done before, published
literatures have been reviewed by Aaradhya. Each project consist its own circuits, working
areas, and limitations. The limitation for the most projects was the circuit does not apply a
battery backup. These means when the mains power supply fails the circuit will be OFF. But
in this project the battery backup is provided to power the circuit when the mains power
supply fails. Then to modify this project using some techniques
4 System Descriptions and Overall Operation
This circuit automatically turns on a night lamp when bedroom light is switched off. The
lamp remains on until the light sensor senses daylight in the morning. A super bright white
LED is used as the night lamp. It gives bright and cool light in the room. When the sensor
detects the daylight in the morning, a melodious morning alarm sounds. This alarm can be
turned off manually.
The circuit is powered from a standard 0-9 V transformer. Diodes D1 through D4 rectify the
AC voltage and the resulting DC voltage is smoothed by C1. Regulator IC 7806 gives
regulated 6 V DC to the circuit. A battery backup is provided to power the circuit when a
main fails. When mains supply is available, the 9V rechargeable battery charges via diode D5
and resistor R1 with a reasonably constant current. In the event of mains failure, the battery
automatically takes up the load without any delay. Diode D5 prevents the battery from
discharging backwards following the mains failure and diode D6 provides current path from
the battery.
The circuit utilizes light- dependent resistors (LDRs) for sensing darkness and light in the
room. The resistance of LDR is very high in darkness, which reduces to minimum when LDR
is fully

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Figure 1.1: Block diagram of automatic night lamp with morning alarm

1.6 Scope and Limitation

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The scope of this project is to design an automatic on &off alarm with morning alarm using
LDR. The first we have to do is to study the principles and the objectives of the project.

The limitation of this project is, could not design the system.
Completely due to the shortage of required materials.

1.7 Organization of the Project

This project contains total of five chapters. Which are organized as follows?
Chapter one is general introduction of a project, general composition of the project such as
statement of the problem, project objective, methodology, scope and limitation and project
organization itself are each outlined.
Chapter two this presents the literature review, chapter three focuses on basic concept of
Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarmand description of hardware components.
Chapter four presents results and conclusion of the project.

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CHAPTER-2

BACKGROUND THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background
In our day to day life, we got used to several automatic electrical appliance such as automatic
cooker, temperature based automatic speed adjustable fan, automatic iron box, automatic
washing machines, automatic coolers, and soon.
In general, during night time we got used to switch on night lamps or bed lamps and weak up
with an alarm in the morning at specific time. But, this conventional night lamps need manual
control for switching on night time and switch off at day time. Similarly keeping an alarm is
basic thing required for maintaining our day with the proper time schedule. Frequently, we
forget these basic things like switching off bed lamps and to set an alarm which may cause
power loss and improper time schedule.
Similarly, the manually operated hostels, streetlights, garden lamps are not switched off even
the sunlight come and also switched on earlier before sunlight. Crisis of electricity is a major
problem in the present era.
In order to overcome this problem different projects are proposed.
2.1.1 Automatic light dimmer
This is an automatic light dimmer circuit. You do not need to dim the lights by yourself. It is
so very convenient, because we use the LDR to detect external light. To control the Triac, and
the brightness of the lamp next. Suppose low light so there is voltage across the LDR many
making the triac a lot of work, the lamp so super bright. But some time the light is very high
so a few voltage at Triac, then the lamp do not work or low bright.

This circuit we used only an incandescent light bulbs size AC220V 50Hz at 5 watt because
low power triac and basic circuit. You should not be touching the circuit. You may be to get
electrocuted

The equation of LDR is depending on the intensity of the light as follows.

R1
VO= ( R 1+ LDR 1 ) VS. When R1>>>LDR1 then light becomes darkness.

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 LDR 1
VO= ( LDR 1+ R 1 ) VS. When LDR1>>>R1 the light becomes brightness.

During these time the output voltage is equal to voltage drop from LDR.

Figure2.1: Automatic light dimmer circuit diagram

2.1.2 Automatic Lawn Light with LDR

Circuit of a compact and true solid-state automatic lawn light is described here.
The circuit can be used to switch on incandescent garden light bulbs at desk and switch off
them at dawn. A 10 mm encapsulated light dependent resistor (LDR) here works as the
twilight detector. The whole circuit can be housed in a very small plastic cabinet.
For powering the circuit AC 230V household supply is needed. With a little skill and
patience, you can easily modify this circuit to drive a number of white LED strings, instead of
the incandescent bulb load at the output.

When ambient light is normal, transistor T1 is reverse biased by the low resistance of LDR.
Multi-turn plastic trim pot P1 sets the detection sensitivity. If ambient light dims, transistor
T1 turns on to drive the triac T2. Now the lamp load at the output of T2 energies.
When the ambient light level restores, circuit returns to its idle state and light(s) switched off
by the circuit.

2.1.3 Automatic Night Lamp with Triac

This is a project of an automatic night lamp using a triac. The circuit is simple and low cost
and can be used to automatically switch on any 60 to 100 watt AC lamp or bulb after the

8
sunset. As you see in the schematic that the circuit is not using any transformer and it is
directly connected with the AC mains supply through a capacitor power supply.

The circuit is divided in two parts, first is a capacitor power supply and second part is an
automatic night lamp circuit. The power supply circuit is using a 330nF capacitor, which
drops the mains voltage, which is rectified by the four 1N4007 diodes and filtered by a 330uF
capacitor. The 6.2V Zener diode steps down this voltage to operate the second part of the
circuit.

The second part of the project is a dark sensor circuit. The circuit is using an LDR as a dark
sensor, when the circuit will be in dark then resistance of the LDR increases due to which the
transistor will conduct and turn on the BT136 triac. When the triac will turn on the AC
current start passing through it and the bulb will become activated.

dcv
Vin-RIa-C dt =0 ; the voltage droup from the capacitance

dcv
Vin-RIa = C dt divinde both by capacitance

VinRia dcv
=
c dt

VinRia
c dt =dcv using intgertion both sides

VinRia
c dt =cv

The voltage drop from Light Indepent Resitors using teventh therom

R 1LDR 1
Rth= R 1+ LDR 1

LDR 1Vcc
Eth = R 1+ LDR 1

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Apply the KCL from transitor.

Eth -IbRth VBE-IeRe =0 where Ie=(B+1)Ib.

EthVbe
Ib = Rth+ ( B+1 ) Ie .

VLDR=Vce-Ic(Rc+Re), the voltage droup from LDR

The intesity of LDR to gives the light depend on lumnous flux.

1
intesity lumnous LDR (I) = A where A is area of sphere.

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Figure2.2: automatic night lamp with Triac circuit diagram

2.1.4 Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm Using Microprocessor

This Project Automatic on and off Lamp with Morning Alarm is developed using
Microprocessor. The sensors are made with help of LDR which are Light Dependent
Resistors, whose resistance is inversely proportional to the Light falling on it. The LDR
converts the light energy into electrical energy and this variable electrical
Energy is converted into digital signal (0 or 1) by using the timer IC555.The Timer IC output
goes low when light falls on the LDR and the timer IC output goes high when the LDR was
placed in dark

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CHAPTER-3

AUTOMATIC NIGHT LAMP WITH MORNINGALARM

3.1 Basic Concept of Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm
Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm System is a simple yet powerful concept, which
uses transistor as a switch. By using this system manual works are 100% removed. It
automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes below the visible region of our eyes.
This is done by a sensor called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses the light
actually like our eyes. It automatically switches OFF lights whenever the sunlight comes,
visible to our eyes and activates the morning alarm. By using this system energy consumption
is also reduced because nowadays the manually operated street lights are not switched off
even the sunlight comes and also switched on earlier before sunset. In this project, no need of
manual operation like ON time and OFF time setting. LDR and transistor are the main
components of the project.
The resistance of light dependent resistor (LDR) varies according to the light falling on it.
This LDR is connected as biasing resistor of the transistor. According to the light falls on the
LDR, the transistor is operated in saturation and cut off region. This transistor switches the
relay to switch on / off the light. This project uses regulated power supply three terminal
voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation.

3.2 Advantages
Highly sensitive
Works according to the light intensity
Fit and Forget system
Low cost and reliable circuit
Complete elimination of manpower
Can handle heavy loads up to 7A
System can be switched into manual mode whenever required
3.3 Applications
Bed Rooms

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Hostels and Hotels
Balcony / stair case / parking Lightings
Street lights
Garden Light
3.4 Circuit Diagram

Figure 3.1: circuit diagram of Automatic Night Lamp with Morning Alarm

3.5 Circuit Operation

The main part of this circuit is the light dependent resistor (LDR). It is a sensor which is a
particular kind of resistor whose resistance decreases when exposed to light. Likewise it
offers high resistance in dark. The resistance value changes from few 100 ohms to mega ohm
range. The LDR is placed in a potential divider network. So voltage across LDR changes with

13
intensity of light. Voltage across the LDR is given to the positive terminal of a comparator.
Now a reference voltage is required to compare with the voltage across LDR. That reference
voltage is made by using the pot or preset. So this preset can be used to adjust the sensitivity
of the circuit. Next is the comparator made using LM358 op-amp which compares the voltage
levels at its two inputs and gives output accordingly? If the voltage at positive terminal is
greater, the output will be high and if the voltage at negative terminal is greater, the output
will be low. That is if it is dark, resistance across LDR is high, so voltage drop across the
LDR is high and voltage at positive terminal will be greater than the reference voltage.
Therefore output of comparator will be high. The output of comparator is given to a transistor
wired as a switch. Since enough voltage appears across the base emitter junction, the
transistor conducts and current passes through the relay coils. So relay switches its contact
and the bulb glows. Bulb is connected to the NO (Normally Open) pin of relay as it should be
off when the relay coils are not energized. If the output of comparator is low, then transistor
will be in OFF stage. So no current flows through the relay and bulb remains in OFF stage.

3.6 Description of Components

In this project the list of hardware components used are given below:
LDR
LM385 Comparator
Resistor 22k, 10k and Preset 10k
BC547 transistor
1N4148 Diode
12V Relay
Auxiliary contactor
Power supply
Speaker
Manual switch
Lamp

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3.6.1 Light Dependent Resistor
LDRs or Light dependent resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits.
Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000000 ohms, but
when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. The best-known devices
of this type are the light dependent resistor (LDR), the photo diode and the phototransistors.
More light produce more electron and whole pair in the material, making the material a
better conduct in light. When conductivity is increase, resistance will be decrease. LED is a
sense which is a particular kind of resistor whose resistance decrease when exposed to light
while it offers high resistance in dark?
Light dependent resistors as the name suggests depend on light for the variation of resistance.
LDR are made by depositing a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium solenoid on a
substrate of ceramic containing no or very few free electrons when not illuminated.
The longer the strip the more the value of resistance.

When light falls on the strip, the resistance decreases. In the absence of light the
resistance can be in the order of 10K ohm to 15K ohm and is called the dark
resistance.
Depending on the exposure of light the resistance can fall down to value of 500 ohms. The
power ratings are usually smaller and are in the range 50mW to 0.5W. Though very sensitive
to light, the switching time is very high and hence cannot be used for high frequency
applications. They are used in chopper amplifiers. Light dependent resistors are available as
disc 0.5cm to 2.5cm. The resistance rises to several Mega ohms under dark conditions. The
below figure shows that when the torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR falls, allowing
current to pass through it is shown in figure.

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Figure 3.2: LDR. Figure 3.3: Symbol of LDR.

The basic construction and symbol for LDR are shown in above figures respectively. The
device consists of a pair of metal film contacts separated by a snakelike track of cadmium
sulphide film, designed to provide the maximum possible contact area with the two metal
films. The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external
light. Practical LDRs are available in variety of sizes and packages styles, the most popular
size having a face diameter of roughly 10mm. practical LDR is shown in below figure.

Figure 3.4: Practical LDR

3.6.2 Power Supply

A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electric load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and,
as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some
power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices
along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in consumer
electronics devices.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumers while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical

16
energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells
,electromechanical as systems such generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply.

All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a
power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and
output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connection, though some power
supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input
or output. Some power supplies have other type of inputs and output as well, for functions
such as external monitoring and control.

3.6.2 .1Power conversion method

Power supplies can be broadly divided into liner and switching types. Liner power convertors
process the input power directly, with all active power conversion components operating
regions .In switching power converters, the input power is converted to AC or to DC pulses
before processing, by components that operate predominantly in non-linear modes. Switching
convertors are usually more efficient than linear convertors because their components spend
less time in linear operating regions.

There are two types of power supply those are:

3.6.2 .2 DC power supply

A DC power supply is one that supplies a voltage of fixed polarity (either positive or
negative) to its load. Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a
DC source or from an AC source such as the power mains. Some DC power supplies use AC
mains electricity as an energy source.

3.6.2 .3AC power supply

An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers
it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.

In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided in to single phase and three phase
systems. The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC power is the
constancy of delivers.AC power supplies can also be used to change the frequency as well
as the voltage; they are often used by manufacturer to check the suitability of their products
for use in other countries.

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3.6.3 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance

as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower
voltage levels within circuits. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the
voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

I=V/R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms (symbol: ).

Figure 3.5: Practical Resistor Figure 3.6: Symbol of resistor.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its
specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in
some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum
power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a
particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with
higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage
circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the
resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account
for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run
through it.

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 In our project we use 22k 10k resistor and 10k pre-set potentiometer.

3.6.3.1 10k pre-set potentiometer

A potentiometer is an electrical device whose resistance is adjustable. The user can therefore
adjust the degree to which the potentiometer opposes electric current through it, simply by
turning a shaft that is attached to the centre of the potentiometer. As the resistance of the
potentiometers changes, so does the voltage, which thus causes the potentiometer to act as a
variable voltage divider.

We choose this 10k because of the following reason

It is available in market
It is more volatile
It is used to protect the lamp from damage(for lamp keeping the
voltage under 12v)
Certain extent(it would get quite warm and maybe even burn out)

Range of 10k potentiometer

The mounting arcs allow for up 90 of adjustment to potentiometers position. Since the
potentiometer has limited angular travel, it is important to ensure that the shaft that is being
measured by the potentiometer dose not travel more than 260 (the potentiometer can only
move approximately 265 5 and can only electrically measure 25020). The value of of
10k is 3570k.

3.6.3.2 22k resistor

We choose this 22k because of the following reason

Used to adjust dc voltage up to 20v.

Earth bore positioned
Flexible conduit displacement cable
Used to track 2D or 3D displacement
Fast installation cost
High strength and mass stainless
Low maintenance
High reliability
Robust(strong)

Range of 22k resistor

Tolerance -5% to +5%

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 Operating temperature -40c to +150c
=3800k

3.6.4 Transistor
Transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate of
electronic signals. It is consists of 3-layer of a semiconductor material, each capable of caring
a current. A transistor regulates current or voltage flow.

A semiconductor is a material such as germanium and silicon that conduct electricity in a

semi enthusiastic way.

The semiconductor material is given special properties by a chemical process called doping.
The doping results in a material add extra electron to the materials which is called N-type. Or
creates hole in the materials crystal structure which is called P type.

Transistor are the basic elements in integrated circuit(IC), which consists of large number of
transistor interconnected with circuitry and baked into a single microchip.

A transistor is really simple and really complex. Let`s start with the simple part. Transistor is
a miniature electronic component that can do two different job`s; it can work either as a
amplifier or as a switch.

When it works as an amplifier, it takes in a tiny electric current at one end (an input current)
and produce a much bigger electric current (an output current) at the other. In other words,
it`s a kind of current booster. That comes in really useful in things like hearing aids, one of
the first things people used transistor for. A hearing aid has a tiny microphone in it that picks
up sound from the world around you and turns them into fluctuating electric currents.

These are fed into transistor that boosts them and power a tiny loud speaker, so you hear in
much louder version of the sounds around you.

When it works as switch, a tiny electric current flowing through one part of a transistor can
make a much bigger current flow through another part of it. In other word`s the small current
switchs on the larger one. This is essentially how all computer chips work. For example a
memory chip contain 100s of millions or billions of transistor, each of which can be switched

20
on or off individually. Since each transistor can be in two distinct states, it can store to
different numbers, zero a one. Electrons use to control electricity.

3.6.4.1Working principle of transistor

Transistor are made from silicon, a chemical element found in sand, which does not normally
conduct electricity or it doesn`t allow electrons to flow through it easily.

Silicon is a semiconductor which means it is neither really a conductor (metal) nor an

insulator (plastic).Silicon treats with impurities or process of doping.

Transistor works when the electron and holes start moving across the two junctions between
the N type and P type silicon.

Suppose we attach a small positive voltage to the base, make the emitter negatively charged,
and make the collector positively charged. Electrons are pulled from the emitter into the base
and then from base into the collector and transistor switches to its ON states.

Figure3.7: Transistor BC548

Emitter collector
. ..
. . .
_ +

+ Base _

Figure 3.8: Block diagram of transistor

21
The small current that we turn on at the base makes a big current flow between the emitter
and the collector. By turning a small input current into a large output current, the transistor
acts like an amplifier. But acts as a switch at the time, when there is no current to the base,
little or no current flows between the collector and emitter.

Turn on the base current and big current flows. So the base current switches the whole
transistor on and off. Technically this type of transistor is called Bipolar because two different
electrical charges involved in making the current flow.

The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-
off Region. This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage
divider circuitry required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it
back and forth between its fully-OFF (cut-off) and fully-ON (saturation) regions as
shown below.

Figure3.9: I-V characteristics curve of NPN transistor.

The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the Cut-off region while the
blue area to the left represents the Saturation region of the transistor. Here the operating
conditions of the transistor are zero input base current (IB), zero output collector current

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( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large depletion layer and no
current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is switched Fully-OFF. When
the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied, resulting
in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage drop which
results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current flowing
through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched Fully-ON. Then the transistor
operates as a

single-pole single-throw (SPST) solid state switch. With a zero signal applied to the Base
of the transistor it turns OFF acting like an open switch and zero collector current flows.
With a positive signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns ON acting like a closed
switch and maximum circuit current flows through the device.

3.6.5Diode
A diode is a simple electrical device that allows the flow of current only in one direction. So
it can be said to act somewhat like a switch. A specific arrangement of diodes can convert AC
to pulsating DC; hence it is sometimes also called as a rectifier. It is derived from "diode
which means a device having two electrodes. The symbol of a p-n junction diode is shown
below, the arrowhead points in the direction of conventional current flow. The p-n junction is
a basic building block in any semiconductor device. It is formed by joining a p type (intrinsic
semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity) and n type semiconductor (intrinsic
semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity) together with a special fabrication
technique such that a p-n junction is formed. Hence it is a device with two elements, the p-
type forms anode and the n-type forms the cathode. These terminals are brought out to make
the external connections. Diodes are made from two differently doped layer of semiconductor
material that from PN junction. The P type material has surplus of positive charge carries
(hole) and the N type surplus of electrons, between these layers, where the P type and N type
materials meet, hole and electrons combine, with excess electron combing with excess hole to
cancel each other out, so a thin layer is crated that has neither positive nor negative charge
carry present. This is called Depletion layer (DL).
There are no charge carries in this depletion layer and no current can flow across it. But when
a voltage is applied across the junction however, so that the P type anode is made positive and
the N type cathode negative, the positive holes are attracted across the depletion layer

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towards the negative cathode, also the negative electrons are attracted towards the positive
and current flows.

Figure3.10: symbol of diode

There are so many types of diodes. Some of are:

3.5.1 Light emitting diode (LED)

LED is probably the most well known and most easily identified. The LED emits visible light
when electrons jump across the PN junction the resulting light is refer to as
Electroluminescence.

3.5.2 Photo diode

Photo diode is conduct only when they are exposed to light. This can be useful in making
projects with a light activated switch, so that a circuit in only activate in the presence of light.

3.5.3 Zener diode

Zener diodes are design to conduct in the reverse direction, only when something called the
breakdown voltage is reached will the circuit conduct.

3.5.4 Signal diode and rectifier diode

Both diodes work the same way by allowing current to flow in one direction. The differences
have to do with power and frequency characteristics. They are made from a PN junction and
are two lead devices.

Small signal diode have much lower power and current ratings, around 150mA, 500mW
maximum compared to the rectifier diode, they can also function better in high frequency
application for in clipping and switching application with short duration pulse wave forms.

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Rectifier diodes are designed to handle much higher voltage and current and are typically
found in power supplies. Rectifier diode can handle more forward current than signal diodes,
and are more use in power supplies like bridge rectifier.

Signal diode is can also used in variety of clamping, protection and wave shaping circuits
with the most common form of clamping diode circuit being one which uses a diode
connected in parallel with a coil or inductive load to prevent to damage to delicate switching
circuit by suppressing the voltage spikes and/or transients that are generated when the load is
suddenly turn OFF. This type of diode is generally known as Freewheeling diode.

3.5.4.1 Freewheeling diode

The freewheeling diode is used to protect solid state switches such as power transistor and
MOSFETs from damage by reverse battery protection as well as protection from highly
inductive load such as relay coils or motors.

3.5.4.1.1 Use of freewheeling diode

Modern fast switching, power semiconductor device require fast switching diodes such as
freewheeling diodes to protect them from inductive loads such as motor coil or relay
windings. Every time the switching device above is turned ON, the freewheeling diode
changes from a conducting state to a blocking state as it becomes reverse biased.

However, when the device rapidly turns OFF, the diode becomes forward biased and the
collapse of the energy stored in the coil causes a current to flow through the freewheeling
diode. Without the protection of the freewheeling diode high di/dt currents would occur
causing a high voltage spike or transient to flow around the circuit possibly damaging the
switching device.

3.5.5 Range of freewheeling diode

Greater than 90% efficiency

Typically 5% tolerance
Operating temperature range -40c up to +125c
Wide input voltage range 4.5 up to 40v
Over temperature protection.

3.6.6 Comparator
A comparator is advice that compares two voltages or currents and output a digital signal
indicating which is large. The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that

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makes use of an operational amplifiers very high gain in its open loops state that is theres no
feedback resistor.
The op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage
level, or some pre-set reference voltage, Vref and produces an output signal based on this
voltage comparison.
Voltage comparator on the other hand, either use positive feedback or no feedback at all
(open loop mode) to switch its output between to saturated state. Comparator has to analogy
input v+ and v- and one binary digital output VO .The output is ideally
VO=1 , if v+>v-
=0 , if v+ <v-

A comparator consists of specialized high gain differential amplifiers. They are commonly
used in device that measure digitalized analogy signals, such as analogy to digital converters
(ADCs) as well as relaxation oscillators.
With the reference to the op-amp comparator circuit above, lets first assume that Vin is less
than the DC voltage level at Vref, (Vin<Vref). As the non-inverting (positive) input of the
comparator is less than the inverting (negative) input, the output will be low and at the
negative supply voltage, Vcc resulting in a negative saturation of the output.
If we now increase the input voltage Vin so that its value is greater than the reference voltage
Vref on the inverting input the output voltage rapidly switches HIGH towards he positive
supply voltage, +Vcc resulting in a positive saturation of the output.
Then we can see that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose output is dependent
on the value of the input voltage, Vin with respect to some DC voltage level as the output is
HIGH when the voltage on the non-inverting input is greater than the voltage on inverting
input, an LOW when the non-inverting input voltage.

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 Figure 3.11:LM385 Comparator

3.6.7 Relays
Relays are one of the oldest, simplest, a yet, easiest and more useful device. Before the
advent of the mass produced transistor, computers were made from either relay or vacuum
tube, or both.

A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical

current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of
another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are used in many
applications because of their relative simplicity, long life, and proven high
reliability.

Relays are used in a wide variety of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone
exchanges, digital computers and automation systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized
to protect electric power systems against trouble and power blackouts as well as to regulate
and control the generation and distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in
refrigerators, washing machines and dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls.
Although relays are generally associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types,
such as pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or
vice versa.

A relay, quite simply, is a small machine consisting of an electromagnet (coil), a switch, and a
spring. The spring holds the switch in one position, until a current is passed through the coil.
The coil generates a magnetic field which moves the switch. It`s that simple. You can use a
very small amount of current to activate a relay, and the switch can often handle a lot of
current.

Figure 3.12: Circuit diagram of relay

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3.6.7.1 Working principle of Relay
Relays are switches that open and close circuits electro mechanically or electronically. Relays
control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit. As a relay
diagram show, when a relay contact is normallyopen (NC), there is an open contact when
the relay is not energized. When a relay contact is normallyclosed (NC), there is a closed
contact when the relay is not energized. In either case, applying electrical current to the
contacts will changes their state.

Relays are generally used to switch smaller current in a control circuit and do not usually
control power consuming devices except for small motor that draw low amps.

Relays can control larger voltage and amperes by having an amplifying effect because a small
voltage applied to a relay coil can result in a large voltage being switched by the contacts.

Figure3.13: Protection diode for relay Figure 3.14: Electromagnetic relay.

Relays widely used to switch starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights and audible alarms.

Basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include:

1. Frame: Heavy-duty frame that contains and supports the parts of the relay.
2. Coil: Wire is wound around a metal core. The coil of wire causes n electromagnetic
field.
3. Armature: A relay moving part. The armature opens closes the contacts. An
attached spring returns the armature to its original position.
4. Contacts: The conducting part of the switch that makes (closes) or breaks (open) a
circuit.

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3.6.8 Auxiliary Contacts
Auxiliary contacts are secondary switching devices that work in conjunction with primary
switching equipment such as circuit breakers, relays, and contactors. These contacts are
physically linked to the main switching mechanism and activate at the same time it does.
They are commonly used as interlocks or retainers on the primary device's control circuit and
often used to give indication of its state of operation. Many contactors and circuit breakers
feature sets of auxiliary contacts as integral parts or they may be modular snap on units which
can be added or removed as required. They are available with either normally open or
normally closed contact points or a combination of both.

Main circuit switching devices, such as circuit breakers and contactors, often require
additional switching functions over and above those of their primary contacts. These include
remote indication of their status, trip function indication, electrical interlocks, and start circuit
retainers. These functions have no physical bearing on the main circuit and stand alone. In
addition, the voltage used for these auxiliary circuits will typically be far lower than that of
the main circuit. To achieve this simultaneous yet separate switching, auxiliary contact points
activate along with the primary device. These are generally a lot smaller and rated at lower
current values than those of the main device.

One of the main uses of auxiliary contacts is the electrical retainer circuit. This is a control
circuit function that allows the use of momentary, push type buttons to start motors and other
equipment. Another common function of these contacts is remote status and trip indication. A
separate, low voltage circuit is run through the auxiliary to a remote indication lamp that
illuminates when the device is activated or trips. Auxiliary contact points may also be used to
switch on ancillary equipment, such as starter panel cooling fans, when the contactor
activates.

There are two basic auxiliary contact types: those that are closed in the non-activated state or
those that are open. These are known as normally closed (N/C) and normally open (N/O)
contacts. The N/C contacts are, for example, used as electrical interlocks where two
contactors are used for forward/reverse operation. The control circuit for one contactor will
run through the N/C auxiliary on the other. This means that one cannot be inadvertently

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started while the other is operating. The N/O contacts are generally used to switch on status
indication lamps and act as retainer circuits.

Many circuit breakers and contactors have auxiliary contacts built in as an integral feature.
Additional sets of contacts may, however, be added should the need arise. These modules
typically slide on the top of smaller relays or snap onto the existing auxiliary set.

3.6.9 Speaker
Speakers produce sound you already know that, but do you know how they work? This article
will guide you through a conceptual overview of how speakers convert an electrical signal
into sound. No matter what you are told, no matter how pretty they look no matter how
fancy of words people use, speakers just make sound .Although the explanation of what they
do is simple, how speakers work, how to make them work well, can be extremely
complicated.

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 Figure4.1: the hard ware circuit of system

References

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[1]. The AARADHYA SCRIBD electronic circuits Williamjlee published by PUBLISHERS
2013 edition
[2]. Fairchild IETL Electronics labs Vanessa Jakeman published 2011 edition
[3.] Owl Amazon SCHOLAR 2 LED book on lamp published by 3013 edition
[4.] Calameo ANALYSIS of LEDs Michiel Kruger and PhD Philip Lumleds published 2009
edition

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