MEDANI ET AL.

Design aspects for wearing courses on orthotropic steel bridge

decks

Medani T.O., Scarpas A., Kolstein M.H. and Molenaar A. A. A.

Faculty of Civil Engineering and GeoSciences
Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands
P. O. Box 5048, NL-2600 GA Delft

ABSTRACT: Preliminary analyses have shown that linear elastic theory is not applicable for
the analysis of surfacings on orthotropic steel deck bridges. It is believed that an improved non-
linear material models need to be implemented. The ACRe material model developed at Delft
University of Technology can successfully describe the different aspects of the behavior of
asphaltic materials (e.g. elasticity, visco-plasticity, cracking). In this contribution the model
parameters for a mastic asphalt mix have been determined.
There are tools, which can be used to better understand the interaction between the different
components of the structure and the influence of specific structural material parameters on the
response. These tools comprise accurate non-linear material models and smart and powerful
finite element based programs. Furthermore, it is expected that such tools, after the necessary
simplifications, will lead to more useful procedures that can not only be used efficiently at the
design phase but also at the construction phase (quality control).

1. INTRODUCTION
The use of orthotropic steel bridges has started as early as the 1930s. However, the main
developments in this type of structures took place in Germany, especially after the end of World
War II, where various long-span bridges had to be built [Gurney, 1992]. Before the 1970s
minor problems with the surfacings of orthotropic steel bridges were observed. However, after
that date several problems with the surfacings have been reported, in many countries, including
rutting and cracking e.g. Ewijk Bridge in Holland [NPC, 1996] and the Popular-Street Bridge in
the USA [Gopalaratnam, 1989].
Modern steel bridge decks consist of a 10-14 mm thick plate stiffened by 6 mm closed
longitudinal stiffeners spanning in the direction of the traffic flow between the transverse
stiffeners. Usually, the deck plate is surfaced with a 50-70 mm thick surfacing material e.g.
mastic asphalt [Kolstein and Wardenier, 1997]. A typical cross-section is shown in Figure 1.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

Mastic asphalt
50

Membrane
10
Steel plate

Stiffener

Note: all dimensions are in mm

Figure 1. A typical cross section of an orthotropic steel bridge

To the best of the authors knowledge, there is no universally accepted model for the design of
surfacings on orthotropic steel bridges. The design is merely based on experience and some
norms obtained from some structural tests e.g. the fracture energy obtained from the Semi-
Circular Bending test (SCB) in the Netherlands [NPC, 1996]. However, some theories to
estimate the stresses/strains in the different layers are available, e.g. [Metcalf, 1967].
There are changes in traffic in terms of number of trucks, heavier wheel loads, introduction
of super tires etc. Because these changes are far beyond our experience, prevailing design
methods have a very limited success, especially since the interaction between the structural
components, the different materials involved and the vehicles is poorly understood.
Furthermore, the absence of an engineering tool/ procedure for the design of asphalt surfacings
on orthotropic steel bridges. All these factors necessitate this research program, which started
late 1999, in a search for a new approach which can successfully be used in the design and the
evaluation of surfacings on orthotropic steel deck bridges.
It is believed that the ACRe material model developed at Delft University of Technology can
successfully describe the different aspects of the behavior of asphaltic materials (e.g. elasticity,
visco-plasticity, cracking) [Scarpas at al., 1997]. Accurate material modeling will certainly result
in a better understanding of the structure distress phenomena and the parameters that influence
them. The ACRe model has been implemented in the finite element code CAPA 3D [Scarpas,
1992].

2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

As mentioned before, there are some theories to estimate the stresses/strains in the different
layers e.g. [Metcalf, 1967; Sedlacek, 1985; Kolstein, 1990; Cullimore et al. 1983; Nakanishi and
Kensetsu, 2000]. Almost all researchers adopted one or both of the following assumptions:
1. Linear strain distribution in the asphalt and the steel.
2. The slopes of the strain distribution through the depth of the asphalt and steel are equal.
However, there is no theoretical and/or experimental background for such an assumption.
Hameau et al. [1981] have executed an experimental program on a two-span beam model.
The model was tested using a sinusoidal loading with amplitude of 4000 N. The measured
strain over the height of the asphalt and the steel is shown in Figure 2.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

Figure 2. Strain distribution in the asphalt and the steel (after Hameau et al, 1981)

This figure shows clearly that the strain distribution in the asphalt is not linear. This non-
linearity may be attributed to the non-linear response of the asphalt and/ or the geometry of the
structure. However, this work indicates clearly that the assumptions upon which most composite
theories are based might not be true.
In the Euro Code [1997] the load dispersal through the pavement and the deck is taken at a
spread/ depth ratio of 1 to 1. De Jong [2000] has shown that the spread/depth ratio is 1:1, but
the dispersion starts at approximately the middle section of the asphalt. It seems that the Euro
Code assumption overestimates the dispersal. This is shown in Figure 3.

Euro Code
Asphalt

De Jong 45o
Steel plate

Figure 3. Load dispersion through the pavement

There are major differences between ordinary pavements on subgrade and pavements on
orthotropic steel bridge decks. The main differences are summarized in Table 1. These major
differences may render the use of structural tests normally performed in road engineering not
suitable for this type of structures. To illustrate this point two examples will be given:

Table 1. Main differences between pavements on subgrade and on orthotropic steel bridge
Variable Ordinary pavement Bridge surfacing
type of asphalt compacted asphalt poured asphalt
thickness of asphalt thick ( 300 mm) thin ( 50 mm)
bond between layers relevant very relevant
weight of asphalt relevant very relevant
dynamics relevant very relevant
construction sensitive very sensitive
braking forces relevant very relevant
life span longer shorter
strain levels 100 200 m/m > 1000 m/m

1. To assess the fatigue resistance of asphaltic mixes, fatigue tests are normally carried out.
Figure 4 shows fatigue test results, carried out at Delft University of Technology, for a
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 MEDANI ET AL.

typical Dutch pavement material (Dense Asphalt Concrete, DAC) and a mastic asphalt mix
which was used for resurfacing of the Moerdijk Bridge in 2000.

10000

Strain (micro m/m)

Expected strain in bridge surfacing
1000

M a s tic

DAC

Expected strain in asphaltic pavements

100
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E +07

N u m b e r o f L o a d r e p e t it io n s

Figure 4. Results of four point bending beam fatigue testing

It can be seen that, with the expected strain level in pavements (100-200 m/m) the lifespan
for the DAC is several millions. This conforms to what is observed in practice. However,
with the high strain level of 1000 m/m expected in surfacings of orthotropic bridges, the
lifespan is less than 2000. This would mean that the mastic asphalt material would fail after a
couple of days. Fortunately, as observed in practice, this is not the case, demonstrating thus
the inappropriateness of using such a test in design practice.
It should also be kept in mind that the elastic theory, upon which the calculation of the
stiffness etc. is based, might not applicable at very high strain levels [Medani, 2001].
Moreover, if tests are performed at high strain levels the heat generated in the specimen may
reduce the stiffness [Pronk et al. 1996].
From this, it seems that the use of fatigue testing for estimating the fatigue resistance for
ordinary pavement asphaltic mixes is acceptable. However, with the relatively high strain
levels generally encountered at the surfacing of orthotropic steel bridges, it appears that the
use of the traditional fatigue testing for evaluating the fatigue resistance for mixes that are
intended for use for deck surfacing is questionable.
2. To determine the relationship between the mix stiffness, loading time and temperature
(master curve) the Four-Point Fatigue Testing machine may be used. In this case, the initial
stiffness is normally determined after 50 or 100 cycles. The test is normally done at a strain
level of 80 m/m (which is a representative value for the expected strain level in ordinary
pavements). Bosch [2001] has shown that the stiffness of the mastic asphalt mix tested in
his program is strain dependent. The difference in mix stiffness at long loading times,
determined at strain level of 80 m/m and 1000 m/m, could be a factor 5. This would mean
that, even if the elastic theory is applicable, an error in estimating the mix stiffness could
lead to overestimation of the lifespan of the mix by a factor of 60.

Those two examples suggest that, extreme care should be taken in the interpretation of the
results obtained from structural tests, which are used in road engineering, before using them for
the design of surfacings on orthotropic bridges.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

3. NEED FOR A NON-LINEAR MATERIAL MODEL TO DESCRIBE THE

RESPONSE OF ASPHALTIC SURFACINGS ON ORTHOTROPIC STEEL
DECKS

The behaviour of bituminous mixtures on orthotropic steel bridges, under traffic and
environmental conditions is highly complex, especially when compared with materials such as
steel or concrete. It is believed that a non-linear material model, which can describe the rather
complicated response of the asphaltic surfacings on orthotropic steel decks, is needed. This
belief is supported by the following facts:
Although different countries use different materials and layers thicknesses, it has been
observed that the life spans of surfacings on steel bridges are much shorter when compared with
ordinary pavements. This suggests that the current design procedures, which are based on linear
analysis, are not up to challenge of predicting stresses/strains in the structure under extremely
heavy and complicated loading conditions.
Strain level in the asphalt is quite high. It is doubtful, under such circumstances, that the
material will still behave linearly.
The nature of loading in bridges is cyclic. This means that even if the stress level in the
asphalt is less than the apparent strength of the material, the repetition of loading can lead to
failure. As shown in Figure 5, during cyclic loading plastic strain accumulates, so the state of
stress gradually approaches the monotonic envelope. When it touches this envelope, the material
starts to degrade rapidly. Furthermore, the flexibility of the structure (vibration of the bridges)
can enhance the distress process.

Figure 5. The monotonic - envelope

The vibration of the bridge and the geometry of the structure can also lead to a non-linear
response of surfacing materials.
In linear models distinction between the response of the material in tension and compression
is not possible. This implies that linear models can not correctly differentiate the modes of
damage.
Resistance to solar oxidation requires mixes with low air volume content and high bitumen
content. This might increase the non-linear viscous behavior of the bitumen.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

4. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATERIAL MODEL

The material model response used is defined in stress invariant space as:
J2
fD = Fb .Fc = 0 (1)
p a2
in which:
I1 + R
n
I1 + R
2

Fb = . +
pa p a
(2)

Fc = (1 cos 3 )
1
2
(3)

3 J3
cos 3 = 3
2 J 32
2 (4)
where:
I1, J2 and J3 are stress invariants defined as:
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3 (5)

J2 =
1
6
[(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + (1 3 )2 ]
(6)

J 3 = ( XX p )( yy p )( zz p ) + 2 xy yz xz xx yz2 yy xz2 zz xy2 (7)

xx + yy + zz
p= (8)
3
1 , 2 , 3 :principal stresses
pa :atmospheric pressure.
, , , n, and R :model parameters depending on material characteristics.

Equation 1 represents a closed surface in the I1 - I2 plane alleviating thus the need of additional
cap surfaces along the I1 axis, or the need of implementation of complex multi-surface type
reduction algorithms [Scarpas et al 1997].
Fa defines the shape and the size of the surface in the I1 - I2 plane. The size of the surface is
controlled by the hardening parameter (Fig.6) as decreases the size of the surface
increases. For =0 the ultimate response surface of the material is attained.

Figure 6. Parameter determines the size of the response surface

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 MEDANI ET AL.

The slope of the ultimate surface in the I1 - I2 plane is controlled by the parameter . As
increases, the slope of the ultimate response surface increases as well.
The trace of the surface on the octahedral plane is controlled by parameter . For =0 the
trace is circular. As increases, the trace progressively becomes triangular.
Parameter n determines the apex of the surface in the I1 - I2 plane. It defines the state of
stresses beyond which the material begins to dilate [Scarpas et al. 1997].

5. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

To simulate fully the model capabilities, results from true triaxial tests at different stress paths,
rates and temperatures are required. Nevertheless, in the absence of such results, the
methodology developed by Scarpas et al. [1997] has been utilized. The procedure enables
determination of 4 of the model parameters on the basis of simple uniaxial tests. Two types of
tests are necessary: monotonic compression and tension tests.

5.1. Mix Composition

The mastic asphalt mix, which was investigated in this program, is the mix that was used for
resurfacing of the Moerdijk Bridge in the Netherlands, in June 2000. The mix consists of stone
2/8 and 2/6 in the ratio 1:1, river sand and fine sand in the ration 2:3, weak limestone filler and
SBS modified bitumen with a pen of 90. The mix composition is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Composition of the mastic asphalt mix

Component Volume percentage [%]
Aggregate 63.0
Filler 17.2
Asphalt 18.5
Air 1.3
5.2. Monotonic Uniaxial Compression Tests
Uniaxial displacement controlled compression tests were performed on cylindrical specimens
100 mm high and 50 mm diameter. The imposed displacement was increased monotonically
until complete annihilation of the strength of the specimen. Tests were performed under different
strain rates ranging from 0.0110 mm/s and different temperatures ranging from 0 and 40o C.
Because of the limited available number of specimens it was decided to optimize the testing
program using the experimental design techniques. The central rotatable design theory
[Robinson, 2000] was used, which resulted in the following testing conditions shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Testing conditions for the compression test

Specimen # Loading rate (mm/s) Temperature (oC)
1 1.473 5.9
2 8.537 5.9
3 1.473 34.1
4 8.537 34.1
5 0.010 20
6 10.0 20
7 5.005 0
8 5.005 40
9 5.005 20
10 5.005 20
11 5.005 20
12 5.005 20
13 5.005 20
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 MEDANI ET AL.

As expected, increasing strain rates and/ or lower temperatures result into higher apparent
material strength Figure 7.

-35

-30

T=0, V =5.9
-25

T=5.9, V =8.8
[MPa]

-20

-15
T=5.9, V =1.5

-10
T=20, V =5.1
-5 T=34.1, V =8.8

T=20, V =0.01
0
0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.25 -0.3 -0.35

[m m /m m ]

Figure 7. Compressive strength vs. temperature and loading speed

Note: T: temperature (oC) and V: loading time (mm/s).

On the basis of these tests, a relationship between the apparent compressive strength, the strain
rate and the temperature had been developed.



1 (9)
f c = a c e
b
2

1 + exp + d
Tk

where:
fc : compressive strength [MPa]
: strain rate [X 100]
Tk : temperature [K]
a : -50.669
b : 1812.64
c : 1.022
d : -45.023
e : 0.355

5.3 Monotonic Uniaxial Tension Tests

Also uniaxial displacement controlled tension tests were performed on cylindrical specimens
100-mm high and 50 mm diameter. Tests were performed under different strain rates ranging
from 0.015 mm/s and different temperatures ranging from 0 and 44o C. Again, use is made
from the central rotatable design theory to optimize the testing program. The testing conditions
are shown in Table 4.
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 MEDANI ET AL.

Table 4. Testing conditions for the tension test

Specimen # Loading rate mm/s Temperature(o C)
1 0.741 6.4
2 4.269 6.4
3 0.741 37.2
4 4.269 37.2
5 0.01 21.8
6 5 21.8
7 2.505 0
8 2.505 43.6
9 2.505 21.8
10 2.505 21.8
11 2.505 21.8
12 2.505 21.8
13 2.505 21.8

As expected, increasing strain rates and/ or lower temperatures result into higher apparent
material strength. Figure 8 shows some of the test results.
7

6
T=6.4 & V=0.74

4
s [MPa]

T=21.8 & V=2.5

2

1 T=37.2 & V=4.27

T=43.6 & V=2.5

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
[mm/mm]

Note: T: temperature (oC) and V: loading time (mm/s).

Figure 8. Tensile strength vs. temperature and loading speed

On the basis of these tests, a relationship between the apparent tension strength, the strain rate
and the temperature had been developed.

1 (10)
f t = a c e
b
2

1 + exp + d

Tk

where:
fc : tensile strength [MPa]
: strain rate [X 100]
Tk : temperature [K]
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 MEDANI ET AL.

a : 12.231
b : 1655.38
c : 1.039
d : -34.888
e : 0.758

6. DETERMINATION OF MODEL PARAMETERS

Determination of the required material model parameters was based on the results of the above
mentioned laboratory investigation.
For uniaxial states of stress, the expression for the flow surface simplifies considerably, and
by assuming =0 (till the results from a multiaxial tests become available) equation (1) can be
reduced to:
2 I1 + R I1 + R
n 2

= . + (11)
3 p a2 p a p a

6.1. Determination of R
The three-dimensional tensile strength R can be determined from the results of the uniaxial
tension and compression tests. The relationship between R, the strain rate and the temperature is
shown in Figure 9.

45
0C
40
5C
35
10 C
30
15 C
25
R

20 C
20
25 C
15
30 C
10
35 C
5
40 C
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Strain rate (x100/s)

Figure 9. Relationship between R, strain rate and temperature

6.2. Determination of
The hardening parameter is zero at peak stress ( = apparent compressive strength (fc)). Then
equation 11 becomes:
1 2
fc
= 3 (12)
( f c R )2

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 MEDANI ET AL.

The relationship between , the strain rate and the temperature is shown in Figure 10.
0.14

0C
0.12
5C

0.1 10 C

15 C
0.08
Gamma

20 C
0.06
25 C

0.04 30 C

35 C
0.02

40 C
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Strain rate (x100/s)

Figure 10. Relationship between , strain rate and temperature

6.3. Determination of n
The model parameter n is related to the onset of dilation in the specimen. At the beginning of a
compression test, the axial strain is larger than the radial strain, which leads to decrease in
volume. A relationship between the stress at the start of the dilation, the strain rate and the
temperature can be expressed as [Bosch, 2001]:



1 (13)
dilation = a1 d
b
2

1 + exp + c
Tk

where:
dilation : stress at the onset of dilation [MPa]
: strain rate [X 100]
Tk : temperature [K]
a : -42.612
b : 1841.54
c : -46.068
d : 0.581

The parameter n can then be calculated from:

2
n= (14)
dilation
2

1
3 ( R ) 2
dilation

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 MEDANI ET AL.

The relationship between n, the strain rate and the temperature is shown in Figure 11.

14
5 C
12
10 C

10
15 C

8 Increasing temperature 20 C
n

6 25 C

4 30 C

2 35 C

40 C
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
S tra in ra te (x 1 0 0 /s )

Figure11. Relationship between n, strain rate and temperature

6.4. Determination of
The hardening parameter has a constant (o), non-zero value during the linear elastic part of
the response, its value diminishes during the non-linear phase until it reaches zero at the peak
stress. After the peak stress, remains zero.
The parameter can be related to the equivalent plastic strain as [Bosch, 2001]:

1 + c
= 0 (15)
1 + b
where:
: hardening parameter
o : the initial value
:equivalent plastic strain = r2 + ax2

in which
r :radial strain
ax :axial strain

b = 38.713 + 7.139e n
c = 7.375 20.386 ln(n)
n :ACRe model parameter

7. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS USING CAPA 3D

In this part the results of some numerical simulations using CAPA 3D will be presented. It
should be noted that the following material parameters were assumed, =0.087, =0, n=2,
R=0.16 and o=0.0865. It is emphasised here that these analyses should be looked upon as a
preliminary investigation. The purpose was to investigate the importance of some parameters in
qualitative and not in quantitative terms and to provide additional evidence of the validity of the
ACRe material model.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

7.1. Selection Of The Configuration Of The Support Structure

It is known that the critical loading condition for producing maximum tensile stress in the
asphalt wearing course is when a double tired vehicle wheel straddles the trough edge.
Therefore, it was proposed to analyze the 2-span continuous beam model depicted in Figure 12.
A load of 5 T (contact pressure of 0.50 MPa) was selected in these analyses. According to
Nakanishi et al [2000], such a load applied to such a 2-span model, produces strains that are
comparable with strains which were measured in reality.

5 tons double tires

200 200

150

50
asphalt
10
steel

A 300 B 300 C

Note: all dimensions are in mm

Figure 12. The 2-span beam model used in the analyses

7.2. Results Of The Numerical Analyses

A number of scenarios were simulated assuming non-linear response of the asphaltic material
and linear response for the bonding layer and the steel plate. It should be noted that at this stage
of the project the response of the bonding layer (membrane) will be assumed linear, till the
results of further testing become available. The scenarios simulated included: the response of the
structure after one load pulse, the fatigue response of the structure and the effect of the shear
stiffness of the bonding layer.

7.2.1. Response Of The Structure After One Load Pulse

In this simulation the load pulse is divided into 100 time steps and full bond is assumed between
the different layers. The response of the structure to the pulse is shown in Figure 13 below. It
can be observed that the maximum strain response for the asphaltic material does not coincide
with the peak load. While the maximum strain response was at time step 70, the peak load was
at time step 50. This lag in response might be caused by the viscous properties of asphaltic
materials. It can also be observed that the response of the asphaltic material is not linear, even
after one pulse! This shows that the model chosen can simulate the viscous behaviour of the
asphalt.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

70
Pre-peak
20 100 40 90 80 70
60

50
d e p th
(m m )
40

30

20

10
10 20 70 100

0 s tr a in

Figure 13. The structure strain response after one pulse

Note:
Pre-peak response Post-peak response

7.2.2. Fatigue Response Of The Structure

In this simulation the structure is vibrated with repeating load pulses assuming full contact
between the different layers. The increase of the horizontal strain along the depth of the beam
with the number of load pulses is shown in Figure 14. The strain at the top of the asphalt layer
up to 10000 cycles is shown in Figure 15.

70

a sp h a lt 60 2 0 0 0 cycle s 10 0 0 0 cycle s

50
depth (mm)

40

30

20

10
ste e l

0
-1 .5 0 E -0 3 -5 .0 0 E -0 4 5 .0 0 E -0 4 1 .5 0 E -0 3 2 .5 0 E -0 3 3 .5 0 E -0 3 4 .5 0 E -0 3
te n s ile s tra in

Figure 14. The increase of the horizontal strain along the depth of the beam with the number of
pulses

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 MEDANI ET AL.

70
60
depth (mm)

50 2000 cycles 10000 cycles

40
30
20
10
0
2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050 3100

te n sile s tra in (m/m)

Figure 15. The tensile strain at the top of the asphalt layer up to 10000 cycles

From Figures 14 and 15, the following can be noted:

The strain distribution in the steel is, as expected, indeed linear.
The strain distribution in the asphalt is not linear.
High strain levels in the order of 2800 m/m accumulate at the top of the surfacing after only
2000 load cycles.
When the number of cycles increased from 2000 cycles to 10000 cycles the strain at the top
of the asphalt increased by about 10%.
The rate of increase of strain in the asphalt decreases with increasing load. This means that
part of the strain is released after the end of the cycle (elastic part) and part of it is not recovered
(plastic strain). The accumulation of this plastic strain is responsible for the distress of the
material.
As a result of increasing load, plastic strains continue to accumulate in the material, but at a
lower rate, so the structure can, perhaps, accumulate several hundred thousands or millions of
cycles before failure. This conforms to what is observed in practice.

7.2.3. Effect Of Bonding

To simulate the effect of the shear stiffness of the interface (the bonding layer) two cases were
considered: full bond and poor bond between the asphalt and the steel. The accumulated
permanent strain after 15000 load cycles is shown in Figure 16. The effect of the shear stiffness
of the bonding layer is obvious. The following can also be noted:
Larger permanent strain accumulates when the bond is weak. This conforms to what is
observed in practice. Experience in the United States (Dublin Bridge in California), and
Germany (the Koln-Mulheim) tend to show that once the bond between the steel deck and
surfacing is destroyed, the failure of the pavement is merely a matter of time.
The effect of the middle support is more evident in the case of full bond between the steel
deck and the surfacing. This is to be expected because when the bond is weak the top layer tends
to slide over the bottom one.

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 MEDANI ET AL.

4.0E-005

3.5E-005

3.0E-005

good bond 2.5E-005

2.0E-005

1.5E-005

1.0E-005

5.0E-006

poor bond

Figure 16. Accumulated plastic strain in the asphalt layer after 15000 load cycles

8. FUTURE WORK
Currently, there is an ongoing testing program in order to achieve the following objectives:
Characterization of two surfacing materials namely, mastic asphalt that was used in the
resurfacing of the Moerdijk Bridge in 2000 and a porous synthetic wearing course supplied by
Bolidt. The program includes monotonic tension and compression tests, cyclic tension and
compression test and shear test.
Characterization of two membrane materials namely, bitumen based membrane and
Bolidt membrane Z.OK. The program includes shear and tension test. Special apparatus for the
shear test is currently being developed.
Furthermore, it was decided to use the Accelerated testing facility (LINTRACK) to test a
prototype of the structure (Figure 17). Tests will be carried on a bare steel deck and also on a
surfaced deck.

Figure 17. A photo shows part of the LINTRCAK testing facility and the structure prototype

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 MEDANI ET AL.

9. CONCLUSIONS

The main findings of this research can be summarized at follows:

The structural tests, which are used for the design of pavements, might not be directly
applicable to the design of surfacings on orthotropic bridges.
The current design procedures, which are based on linear analysis, are not up to
challenge of predicting stresses/strains in the structure under extremely heavy and complicated
loading conditions.
Experimental work by Hameau et al [1981] has indicated that the assumptions upon
which the current design theories are based might not be true.
Additional evidence of the validity of the ACRe material model in describing
successfully the different aspects of asphaltic materials behaviour has been found.
Large strains (in the order of 2800 m/m) accumulate at the top of the surfacing after
only 2000 load cycles.
The influence of the shear stiffness of the interlayer is very significant (even after only
15000 cycles).
There is a need for a new design procedure for surfacings on orthotropic steel decks.
Such a procedure should be based on a proper understanding of the behaviour of the different
materials involved, as well as the influence of the geometry of the structure.
Accurate non-linear material models and tailor made powerful finite element based
programs will certainly result in a better understanding of the structure distress phenomena and
the parameters that influence them. Such tools will lead to more useful procedures that can not
only be used efficiently at the design but also at the construction phase (quality control).

10. REFRERENCES

Bosch, A., 2001, Material Characterisation of Mastic Asphalt Surfacings on Orthotropic Steel
Bridges, M.Sc. Thesis, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands.
Cullimore, M.S.G., Flett, I.D., Smith, J.W., 1983, Flexure of Steel Bridge Deck Plate with
Asphalt Surfacing, IABSE Periodical 1/1983, University of Bristol, pp. 58-83.
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11. KEYWORDS
Orthotropic bridge, Mastic asphalt, Finite element, Material model

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